This document contains an annotated bibliography on the topic of how law enforcement utilizes surveillance and tracking software to track human trafficking victims and suspects. It includes six sources from both computer science and organizational leadership perspectives. The sources discuss algorithms and software for human tracking, facial recognition challenges, and the use of these technologies by law enforcement as well as related privacy and policy concerns.

1. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
Annotated Bibliography
To answer the question: ‘How are leaders in law enforcement, border patrol and other
state agencies utilizing surveillance and tracking software to track whereabouts of possible
victims or suspects involved with human trafficking,’ I am going to look at the problem from the
perspectives of computer science, and organizational leadership. Computer science should give a
good idea of the software available for surveillance and facial recognition. Organizational
leadership will help discover how this software is, or can be used in law enforcement. I expect to
run into issues finding information from the computer science perspective as most of the research
available favors perspectives from public policy and sociology. By focusing on surveillance, I
was able to find more articles pertaining to my focus question. I’ve also found articles indicating
that surveillance software has been successfully used by law enforcement, however, there are
now the ethical concerns of invasion of privacy. Since the technology is still relatively new, and
hasn’t widely been adopted for human trafficking use, there is no policy for regulating its use to
ensure citizens’ rights of privacy are not infringed. Below are the sources I have found to
support my research.
Computer Science:
1. Unusual human behavior recognition using evolutionary technique
a. APA citation
Lin, L., Seo, Y., Gen, M., & Cheng, R. (2009). Unusual human behavior recognition using
evolutionary technique. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 56(3), 1137-1153.
b. Computer Engineering
c. The research team use a Gaussian function to find patterns in human behavior.

2. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
d. No theory used.
e. Experimental
The article opens by explaining the importance of human tracking and human behavior
recognition software. It also reports that due to the increasing availability of video sensors and
high performance video processing hardware more possibilities are opening to develop this
tracking software. There are two main algorithms for developing tracking software; full 3D
modeling of a human and regional 2D appearance model of a human. The most accurate, is full
3D modeling and that is what was used for this experiment.
For this paper the article uses multiple people tracking. To track multiple people we have to
distinguish the people in a complex environment and situation. The way to accomplish this is to
use distance, contour, and color features. The combination of this information delivers excellent
performance. A Gaussian function is used to recognize normal behavioral patterns. Specifically
for this paper, they use the findings of the Gaussian function to recognize unusual human
behavior (UHB). The functions and algorithms were put into practice by the research team and in
a controlled environment. The team found the software can predict usual patterns in human
behavior and detect when those patterns aren’t followed.
2. Maritime surveillance: Tracking ships inside a dynamic background using a fast level-set
a. APA citation
Szpak, Z., & Tapamo, J. (2011). Maritime surveillance: Tracking ships inside a dynamic
background using a fast level-set. Expert Systems With Applications, 38(6), 6669-6680.
b. Computer Science
c. Factoring out variables in the background of images.
d. No theory
e. Experimental/Quantitative
The article opens by discussing the safety concerns in costal countries and the waters
surrounding them. Then, the author recommends that ships implement computer surveillance
systems and discusses the potential problems faced in doing so. First, the video tracking systems
have to deal with the maritime environment. The seas are always changing and that will make it
harder to track ships in relation to a dynamic background. The issue with radar technology is it
cannot pick up smaller ships, which pirates and smugglers tend to use. Targets used in this
experiment include types of boats ranging from jet-skis to tankers and ferries. Mapping the
contour of the images, they were able to track these smaller vessels as well as the larger ones.

3. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
However, some of the larger sea animals were also detected, but future work intends on using
shape information to distinguish between animals and ships.
Using background subtraction further increased the accuracy in which the tracking
systems were able to detect vessels. However, if the contrast in the image is bad due to lighting,
the background subtraction will fail and so will locating the target. Though the system is not
perfect, optical tracking certainly has advantages over radar tracking. With continued work and
advancements in optical hardware and software, this could be a top notch tracking system.
3. Face recognition: challenges, achievements and future directions.
a. APA citation
Hassaballah, M., & Aly, S. (2015). Face recognition: challenges, achievements and future
directions. IET Computer Vision, 9(4), 614-626. doi:10.1049/iet-cvi.2014.0084
b. Mathematics and Electrical Engineering
c. 3D contour mapping for facial structure recognition.
d. No theory
e. Quantitative
Though video surveillance and facial recognition technology are used in numerous
applications, there are several obstacles keeping it from being truly reliable. A lot of the success
we see is in controlled experiments, but, in the real world, there are many factors that can cause
these systems to fail. Variations in lighting can greatly affect quality of an image and how
accurately the software can recognize facial features. Also, in the real world, it may not always
work out that a person is looking towards the direction of the camera and an accurate recognition
cannot be made.
The author determines the current methods used for facial recognition are not going to be
able to produce adequate results in the constrained conditions of most of the real world
applications. After discussing the challenges and key factors that can affect the performance of
the current facial recognition systems, the author suggests the future of these recognition systems
are going to require significant steps forward in terms of technology and algorithms used.
Organizational Leadership
4. Saving Face: Regulating law enforcement’s use of mobile facial recognition technology
and iris scans
a. APA citation

4. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
Lochner, S. A. (2013 Saving face: Regulating law enforcement’s use of mobile facial recognition
technology and iris scans. Arizona Law Review, 55(1), 201-233.
b. Law
c. Fourth Amendment
d. No theory
e. Qualitative/Law Study
The Pinal County Sherriff’s Office in Arizona and 50 other law enforcement agencies
across the United States is now using a Facial Recognition Technology (“FRT”) called Mobile
Offender Recognition and Information System (“MORIS”). This article is broken down into six
parts or pieces to explore the privacy and policy concerns raised by MORIS.
Part I explains the development of FRT and some of the past uses for this type of
software. One of the examples given is the use of FRT in the 2001 Super bowl. During this event
law enforcement ran spectators facial images through software. This event and others outlined in
the article caused many concerns about privacy and the breaching of the fourth amendment of
the U.S. Constitution.
Part II of the article explains the fourth amendment and that it is put into place to protect
personal privacy. The article outlines many court cases that have challenged the fourth
amendment such as United States v. Jones and Kyllo v. United States. Understanding of previous
court cases help law enforcement officers determine whether the use of FRT is breaching the
fourth amendment or if it is just another useful tool that will aid offices in identifying persons.
The article continues into Part III to take a deeper look into how the Supreme Court has
applied the fourth amendment to other technologies similar to FRT. Similar technologies include
fingerprints, voiceprints, and blood, urine and DNA samples.
Part IV explains how the fourth amendment would apply to FRT and MORIS
specifically. This part explains that depending on whether you look at FRT as a “search” or not
would determine if FRT is, in fact, breaching the fourth amendment. Some would argue that a
person’s face is exposed in public daily and, therefore, is not private. By this reasoning, FRT is
not a search, however, others would argue that due to the fact that FRT reveals more intimate
details not visible without sensory-enhancing technology, it is in fact a search.
Continuing to Part V, the article informs the reader of policy concerns such as a lack of
notice, the fear of discriminatory targeting, racial bias and context bias that the use of MORIS
and FRT and proposes regulatory solutions.
Lastly, Part VI calls to action legislative agencies to better outline the use of MOSIS and
FRT technology.

5. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
5. The readiness of local law enforcement to engage in US anti-trafficking efforts: an
assessment of human trafficking training and awareness of local, county, and state law
enforcement agencies in the State of Georgia.
a. APA Citation
Grubb, D., & Bennett, K. (2012). The readiness of local law enforcement to engage in US anti-
trafficking efforts: an assessment of human trafficking training and awareness of local,
county, and state law enforcement agencies in the State of Georgia. Police Practice &
Research, 13(6), 487-500. doi:10.1080/15614263.2012.662815
b. Social and Political Science
c. Leadership is not providing sufficient training in human trafficking
d. None
e. Quantitative
The research article opens with a brief background of human trafficking along with
explaining some of the anti-trafficking efforts made by national, state and local law enforcement
agencies. Some of the anti-trafficking efforts named include the Palermo Protocol and
Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA 2000). The article explains that there is a
large significance of the local, county, and state law enforcement in the anti-trafficking measures
due to the fact that they are the “first responders.” In Georgia specifically, the legislature have
acknowledged that human trafficking represents a criminal presence and have put policies in
place to identify, investigate, and prosecute human trafficking crimes.
The article explains an online survey the state conducted to ascertain law enforcement
perceptions of human trafficking issues, opportunities, and resources for training, and the extent
and range of investigative incidents regarding these issues. This survey was a quantitative study
using unidimensional Likert-scaled responses, closed-questioned responses, and two open-ended
comment sections designed to obtain candid remarks. The survey population was selected to
represent local, county and state law enforcement agencies within the state of Georgia equaling
589 people. The article discusses the survey findings and overall, despite limitations, the survey
suggested there was a lack of human trafficking training among law enforcement agencies. There
is, however, a strong interest to receive training.
6. The Relative Moral Risks of Untargeted and Targeted Surveillance
a. APA Citation

6. Sparks, Turner
INTS 3300: L4-A1: Annotated Bibliography
Date: 10/12/2015
Hadjimatheou, K. (2014). The relative moral risks of untargeted and targeted surveillance.
Ethical Theory & Moral Practice, 17(2), 187-207. doi:10.1007/s10677-013-9428-1
b. Social Science, Security Ethics Group, Politics and international Studies
c. Quantitative
The first section of the paper discussed the difficulties with the idea that untargeted
surveillance treats people like suspects and thereby stigmatizes them. Stigmatization marks a
person as having the undesirable characteristic of being a suspect.
The paper continues to section two, which concludes that even if the stigmatization was
concealed, you still have the problem of untargeted surveillance treating people like suspects.
Thirdly, the author argues that the intrusion of privacy could weaken the effectiveness of
democracy for society as a whole. The author claims to neither provide a defense for or against
untargeted surveillance, but simply make light of the moral issues and possible consequences.