When and where was the Rigveda composed?
How are the Vedic people related to the vast Harappan archaeological tradition?
These quintessential questions have no direct answers. At our current level of knowledge, archaeology and sacred texts constitute two distinct streams which do not intersect. We must therefore collate evidence from different sources and try to produce a synthesis.
The Kuṣaṇas started their ruling under Kujula Kadphises in central asia and centre of power was Gandhara .
The Kuṣaṇas apparently introduced the very first anthropomorphic representations of Indian gods for their coins in Gandhara, even before an iconographical canon for these deities became standardised
Central Asia in relation with India - Historical PerspectiveManisha Chitale
Several countries beyond North Western frontier of India have been associated and influenced India in more than one way. This presentation provides a glimpse into various 'silk' threads of relationships that India has woven with Central Asia.
In 176 BC, the Yuezhi were driven from Tarim Besin to westward by the Xiongnu, a fierce people of Magnolia.
The Yuezhi under the leadership of the Kushanas came down from Central Asia and swept away all earlier dynasties of the Northwest in a great campaign of conquest. They established an empire which extended from Central Asia right down to the eastern Gangetic basin.
In Bactria, they conquered the Scythians and the local Indo-Greek kingdoms, the last remnants of Alexander the Great's invasion force that had failed to take India.
From this central location, the Kushan Empire became a wealthy trading hub between the peoples of Han China, Sassanid Persia and the Roman Empire.
Roman gold and Chinese silk changed hands in the Kushan Empire, at a very tidy profit for the middle-men.
The Kuṣaṇas started their ruling under Kujula Kadphises in central asia and centre of power was Gandhara .
The Kuṣaṇas apparently introduced the very first anthropomorphic representations of Indian gods for their coins in Gandhara, even before an iconographical canon for these deities became standardised
Central Asia in relation with India - Historical PerspectiveManisha Chitale
Several countries beyond North Western frontier of India have been associated and influenced India in more than one way. This presentation provides a glimpse into various 'silk' threads of relationships that India has woven with Central Asia.
In 176 BC, the Yuezhi were driven from Tarim Besin to westward by the Xiongnu, a fierce people of Magnolia.
The Yuezhi under the leadership of the Kushanas came down from Central Asia and swept away all earlier dynasties of the Northwest in a great campaign of conquest. They established an empire which extended from Central Asia right down to the eastern Gangetic basin.
In Bactria, they conquered the Scythians and the local Indo-Greek kingdoms, the last remnants of Alexander the Great's invasion force that had failed to take India.
From this central location, the Kushan Empire became a wealthy trading hub between the peoples of Han China, Sassanid Persia and the Roman Empire.
Roman gold and Chinese silk changed hands in the Kushan Empire, at a very tidy profit for the middle-men.
The file contains short notes from the 12th standard textbooks of History(NCERT). Contains 15 chapters of different eras. From ancient history to Framing of Indian Constitution. Suited for competitive examinations and students giving board examination. A quick way to recapitulate.
“The stupa was one of the most characteristic remains of the Buddhist world; they are not found in Hinduism at all.
In function we may view them as a specialized type of tumulus:
They were circular in shape, with a domed top.
They were built to cover the relics of the Buddha, his earlier followers, or some other essential symbol of the Buddhist religion.
It might be recalled that the Buddha was Śākyamuni (‘Sage of the Śakyas’, i.e. the Sakas)….
To the stupas were carried offerings, often letters, while the devoted performed their rituals, walking around the shrine keeping their right shoulders (pradaksina) toward the stupa.
The stupas spread with Buddhism to China and Japan and linguistically, Sanskrit stūpa gave Prākrit thūpo which the Chinese variously treated as *tabo or *sutab/po, now simplified to tā ‘pagoda.’”
1 tracing changes through a thousand yearsMahendra SST
NCERT CBSE SOCIAL SCIENCE CLASS 6,7,8,9,10 HISTORY POLITICAL SCIENCE GEOGRAPHY ECONOMICS
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL GET ACCESS ABOUT CLASS 67HISORY CHAPTER 1
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Fact, fiction and speculation have a habit of blending together when one looks at ancient India. In this article I have put forward my point of view – it is not accepted historical dogma and neither is it original. It is speculative and interesting as it has many facets. Enjoy the read!
When and where was Rigveda composed? How is it related to thee vast Harappan archaeological tradition. These are quintessential questions on ancient Indian history which do not have direct answers. I examine a large body of evidence to arrive at plausible answers.
The file contains short notes from the 12th standard textbooks of History(NCERT). Contains 15 chapters of different eras. From ancient history to Framing of Indian Constitution. Suited for competitive examinations and students giving board examination. A quick way to recapitulate.
“The stupa was one of the most characteristic remains of the Buddhist world; they are not found in Hinduism at all.
In function we may view them as a specialized type of tumulus:
They were circular in shape, with a domed top.
They were built to cover the relics of the Buddha, his earlier followers, or some other essential symbol of the Buddhist religion.
It might be recalled that the Buddha was Śākyamuni (‘Sage of the Śakyas’, i.e. the Sakas)….
To the stupas were carried offerings, often letters, while the devoted performed their rituals, walking around the shrine keeping their right shoulders (pradaksina) toward the stupa.
The stupas spread with Buddhism to China and Japan and linguistically, Sanskrit stūpa gave Prākrit thūpo which the Chinese variously treated as *tabo or *sutab/po, now simplified to tā ‘pagoda.’”
1 tracing changes through a thousand yearsMahendra SST
NCERT CBSE SOCIAL SCIENCE CLASS 6,7,8,9,10 HISTORY POLITICAL SCIENCE GEOGRAPHY ECONOMICS
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL GET ACCESS ABOUT CLASS 67HISORY CHAPTER 1
FellowBuddy.com is an innovative platform that brings students together to share notes, exam papers, study guides, project reports and presentation for upcoming exams.
We connect Students who have an understanding of course material with Students who need help.
Benefits:-
# Students can catch up on notes they missed because of an absence.
# Underachievers can find peer developed notes that break down lecture and study material in a way that they can understand
# Students can earn better grades, save time and study effectively
Our Vision & Mission – Simplifying Students Life
Our Belief – “The great breakthrough in your life comes when you realize it, that you can learn anything you need to learn; to accomplish any goal that you have set for yourself. This means there are no limits on what you can be, have or do.”
Like Us - https://www.facebook.com/FellowBuddycom
Fact, fiction and speculation have a habit of blending together when one looks at ancient India. In this article I have put forward my point of view – it is not accepted historical dogma and neither is it original. It is speculative and interesting as it has many facets. Enjoy the read!
When and where was Rigveda composed? How is it related to thee vast Harappan archaeological tradition. These are quintessential questions on ancient Indian history which do not have direct answers. I examine a large body of evidence to arrive at plausible answers.
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1600 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of the South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.
It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
Similar to Ancient Indian history:What do we know and how? (20)
Kumbh and all other festivals have two distinct aspects: (i) Calenderical basis for choosing the dates, and (ii) beliefs, faith, rituals, and other practices associated with the celebration. My concern here is strictly with the first, that is the astronomical, aspect.
To sum up, I think probably the Haridwar spring equinoctial festival and certainly the Allahabad winter solstice festival did not have any Jupiter connection to begin with. Nashik, it seems, responded to Jupiter in Aquarius at Hardwar by celebrating Jupiter’s arrival in Leo. Ujjain imitated Simhasth celebrations following Nashik. The biggest congregation of all, the Prayag Kumbh, is the most recent, and Kumbh only in the sense of 12-yearly celebration.,
Curiously, in none of the Kumbh melas, no ritual seems to be associated with Jupiter in the religious/ ritual ceremonies
Meghnad Saha in international and national contextsRajesh Kochhar
Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956), whose 125th birthday is being celebrated today, is universally recognized as one of the founders of quantitative astrophysics. His theoretical papers published in British journals during 1920-1921 showed that astronomical spectra of all kinds, notwithstanding their seeming complexity and diversity, can be rigorously explained in terms of known laws and chemical elements, by simply invoking different physical conditions. Saha’s work thus transformed the cosmos from an exotic out-field into a science lab.
He was nominated for the physics Nobel prize. Evaluation of theoretical work is far more difficult than that of experiments and observations. He may not have won the prize, but his work certainly belongs to Nobel-class. (This is true of SN Bose, of Bose-Einstein statistics 1924, also)
Meghnad Saha (1893-1955) set out his theory in a number of papers published in British journals during 1920-1921. The work was immediately recognized as laying the foundation of quantitative astrophysics.History chooses the hour; and the hour produces the hero. The only surprise was that the hour was seized not by any established research centre in the West but by a far-off Calcutta which was nowhere on the world research map.
Ancient India: Discovery, invention and usesRajesh Kochhar
Physical conquest of India by the British was relatively a simple affair even though it took 60 long years, 1757-1818.
But the colonial empire needed legitimacy and support from among the natives.
This was accomplished by developing ancient India as a colonial tool.
The same tool was utilized by the Hindus to blunt the missionary attacks on their religion and develop mild courage to look the empire in the eye.
Indian higher education under globalizationRajesh Kochhar
Higher education is now classified as an internationally tradable service. However for historical, cultural and ideological reasons it is quite unlike others. Permitting foreign education providers to operate in India is not like permitting an insurance company or a department store. Similarly collaboration in education is not as simple as in telecom.
In India, all the social divides, disconnects, tensions and feelings of discomfort and mistrust that globalization has created or accentuated have become visible factors in discussions, debates, executive decisions as well as attempted or aborted legislative initiatives on education.
To sum up in advance, India’s own education is largely decoupled from quality and employability.
Government has abdicated its responsibility while privatization has brought about crass commercialization. Clamour for education from foreign providers has grown, but since this will help only a tiny fraction of population, the requisite political support is not forthcoming.
Sky as a bridge: Astronomical interactions in Eurasia through the agesRajesh Kochhar
Sky has always been seen as the heritage of the whole humankind. People have been curious about their sky. They have also been curious about the curiosity of others. Accordingly, astronomy has advanced through pooling of intellectual resources and cross-fertilization of ideas. There is broad connectivity in the world history of astronomy. Astronomy is a multi-stage intellectual cumulus where each stage has built on the previous ones and carried the studies forward.
The growth of astronomy has not occurred in a steady manner, but in spurts, with different centres playing a pre-eminent role at different times. An interesting correlation needs to be noted. The level and quality of astronomical activity has been related to a nation’s GDP. Prosperous, self-assured, resurgent, assertive nations have tended to become patrons of astronomy. It is as if having established their superiority or supremacy over fellow human beings, they wanted to unravel the mysteries of the sky on behalf of the whole humankind.
The beginnings of astronomy are related to the requirements of the ritual in early cultures. Ritual was a means of securing divine approval and support for terrestrial actions. To be effective, it had to be elaborate and well-timed, so that a careful distinction could be made between auspicious and inauspicious times.
(Note that mathematical problems such as obtaining the square root of two and approximate value of pi ( circumference of a circle divided by its diameter) were taken up in the context of preparation of fire altars and are discussed in the Shrautasutras.)
Since planetary motions provided a natural means of time keeping and were seen as couriers of divine signals. Skies were therefore regularly monitored. This was the beginning of astronomy as an intellectual discipline.
Modern science in Bengal: Cultivation and early accomplishmentsRajesh Kochhar
Bengal placed India on the world map of modern science. In the 1890s, J.C. Bose (1858–1937) and P.C. Ray (1861-1944) became India’s (and the Non-West’s) first internationally recognized modern scientists. In the 1920s, Nobel prize-level theoretical physics research were carried out by M.N. Saha (1893-1956) and by Satyen Bose (1894-1974). Finally, in 1930, C. V. Raman (1888-1970) received the physics Nobel prize which was the first one to go out of Europe and America.
Normally, an activity begins modestly, rises slowly and stabilizes at a high level. In contrast, India began at the top and had no place to go except down. The down-hill journey has been steady and without the benefit of a plateau even at intermediate heights.
Globalization and de-nationalized Indian middle classRajesh Kochhar
The most remarkable feature of the Indian middle class (IMC) today is that it has become extremely self-absorbed. There was a time, before and immediately after independence, when the English knowing people in the country saw themselves as a bridge between their less fortunate brethren on the one hand and scientifically and economically ‑ advanced countries on the other. Not any more. Globalization has provided the IMC with an opportunity and a pretext to decouple itself from the rest of the country. The decoupling however is not complete. The onus of propelling Upper India into a global orbit still rests on the emaciated shoulders of the Lower India. As the irrepressible American film-maker Sam Goldwyn would have put it, IMC has opted to include itself out.
Modern science in the Western and Non-Western contextsRajesh Kochhar
Advent, growth and deployment of (modern) science make a complex and multi-dimensional story. However, during the ‘golden age of colonialism’, once modern science came into a full- blown form, attempts were made to decouple it from its immediate antecedents and present it as a stand-alone, purely intellectual, exercise.
Indian geography under European auspices during 16-18th centuriesRajesh Kochhar
(i) Whatever geographical information was available in pre-existing scientific and political documents was taken out and utilized.
(ii) Local people were hired as messengers to bring in intelligence on routes, roads, rivers, bridges, hills, etc.
(iii) Jesuits and ex-Jesuits took modern measurements and obtained valuable primary data.
(iv) Whenever an opportunity presented itself, Company officials made surveys.
(v) Lastly, as soon as it became possible, an exhaustive systematic field survey was ordered.
The geographic and geodesic work done in India under European auspices during the 17th and 18th centuries got eclipsed by the spectacular 19th century developments (epitomized by the naming of the highest point on the earth after a surveyor-general), it was solid and extremely significant in its time.
Ancient Indian astronomical tradition: Characteristics and accomplishmentsRajesh Kochhar
We begin by commenting on the nature and limitations of the primary source material on ancient Indian astronomy.We then highlight the accomplishments of Indian astro-mathematical tradition and its place in world history.
Kodaikanal Observatory as a potential world astronomy heritage site Rajesh Kochhar
As things stand, I think the only candidate for astronomical world heritage list from India is the Solar Physics Observatory Kodaikanal ( est 1899 ), which now has solar picture data with the same instrument for the longest period in the world (since 1912), with some short interruptions due to maintenance/ upgradation.
Indian pharmaceutical industry: Policies, achievements and challengesRajesh Kochhar
Indian pharmaceutical industry is a success story from a national as well as third-world perspective. India accounts for 10% of world production and ranks third in the world in terms of volume. In value terms the share is only 1.4% and the rank 14th.
his statistic underlines the important fact that India produces world-class generic drugs at a very low cost. Indian domestic pharma market, currently evaluated at $12 bn, is largely self-sufficient with patented drugs playing a minimal role.
The making of scientific and arrogant EuropeRajesh Kochhar
In 1837 a Bengal cavalry officer, after an exploratory tour of Egypt and Arabia in connection with steam navigation, declared in his report: ‘It seems to be a law of nature that the civilized nations should conquer and possess the countries in a state of barbarianism and by such means, however unjustifiable it may appear at first, extend the blessings of knowledge, industry and commerce among people hitherto sunk in the most gloomy depths of superstitious ignorance.’
Till the early decades of the 19th century, Europe viewed Asia with respect. How the change occurred is discussed here
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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1. Ancient Indian history:
What do we know and how?
Rajesh Kochhar
Mathematics Department, Panjab University
Chandigarh 160014
rkochhar2000@yahoo.com
Bengaluru 20 Sep 2018
2. We dance round in a ring and suppose
But the secret sits in the middle and knows
-Robert Frost
3. The source for this talk is
Kochhar, Rajesh: The Vedic People: Their
History and Geography ( Hyderabad: Orient
BlackSwan).
First published in 2000, the book has been
reprinted a number of times, and is now
available free online. Whatever new evidence
has come up since its publication is merely
incremental so that the book’s conclusions still
remain valid.
4. When and where was the Rigveda
composed?
How are the Vedic people related to the
vast Harappan archaeological tradition?
These quintessential questions have no direct
answers. At our current level of knowledge,
archaeology and sacred texts constitute two
distinct streams which do not intersect. We must
therefore collate evidence from different sources
and try to produce a synthesis.
5. I would particularly like to draw attention to
evidence from Central Asia, because it has not
received the attention it deserves.
What is well known in science must be
kept in mind in case of history also. A
theory to be valid must explain each
and every fact (known at present or
to be known in future) in a self-
consistent manner.
The plan of the talk is as follows.
6. Plan
Indian archaeology up to 2000 BC
Rigveda/Avesta
Proto- Indo-European speakers
Central Asian archaeology
Afghanistan and India after 2000 BC
Suggestions for obtaining direct
evidence
7. Indian ‘archaeological history’ begins in neolithic
times, in 7000 BCE , at Mehrgarh near Bolan
Pass in Balochistan with clearly-marked
transition to domesticated wheat and barley as
well as animal husbandry. Various mounds at
Mehrgarh itself show continuous occupancy
from 7000 BC till 2000 BC. The Balochistan
phase is the precursor of the multi-phase
Harappan civilization whose Urban or Mature
phase lasted from 2600 BC to 1900 BC.
Indian Archaeology
8. During this entire period, 7000-1900 BCE, there is no
manifest sign of entry of new people. Even if they did
arrive, they merged losing their own identity. The new
people who made an impact arrive only after the decline of
Harappan civilization ( due to ecology rather than
invasion), and are surmised to be the Indic speakers, who
came from the northwest.
Indo-Iranians and Indo-Europeans
Linguistic commonalities suggest the existence of
hypothetical Proto-Indo-European speakers (PIE) who are
believed to have been stationed in the European steppes,
bordering Caspian Sea and Black Sea, and to the south of
the forest lands inhabited by the Finno-Ugric people{loan
words}. Before the dispersals began, PIE had domesticated
horse, harnessed it in fast-moving spoke-wheeled vehicles,
and learnt the use of copper (ayas=eos).
9. The Indo-Iranians were the last to leave the steppes. The
languages in this group are closer together than any others.
They are the only ones among the entire PIE group who
would produce literature: Rigveda (Rv) and the related
Avesta. Rv is in fact closer to Avesta than later Vedic texts.
Indo-Iranians include speakers of Dardi, Kafiri, Pashto,
Balochi, and Kurdish languages.
It is now certain that starting about 2000 BC, very large parts
of the world (including Central and South Asia) were
affected by prolonged drought which caused collapse of
existing civilizations and widespread migrations.
10. Presumably it was the quest for water which
compelled Indo-Iranians to move southwards to
areas where, thanks to rivers fed by the snow-clad
Pamirs and Hindukush, water shortage would not
be so acute.
A positive fall-out of Russian occupation of Central
Asia was the thorough archaeological excavations
in the area including north Afghanistan.
Unfortunately, south Afghanistan and Iran which
are more relevant from an Indian point of view
remain largely unexplored archaeologically.
11.
12.
13. Archaeology of south Turkmenistan runs
parallel to India’s, with Namazga V
corresponding to urban centres of Harappa
and Mohenjodaro. In 2100 BC, Namazga V
was ruined. Atop its ruins came up a
small impoverished village ( Namazga
VI), which shows clear signs of
decline in material culture as well as
new burial practices and new symbols.
14. Remarkably, one pedestal from
Namazga VI is decorated with a
svastika, an absolutely new motif in
local symbolism. It was never found
again in the entire rich collection of
South Turkmenistan pottery.
From this and the following, we
conclude that Indo-Iranians were in
south Turkmenistan about 2100 BCE
on way to Afghanistan, Iran, and India.
15. About the same time as Namazga VI, a
new cultural complex came up spread
over the Murgab river delta ( Margiana)
and the plain around the middle reaches
of Amu Darya (Bactria). The calibrated
radio-carbon dates from Murgab-Amu
cultures cover a period 2100 BC-1700
BC.
Two sites from this area are noteworthy in
that they seem to provide evidence that
can be related to the Rigveda.
16. Togolok 21 in the Murghab Delta in south
Turkmenistan shows evidence of use of
Ephedra, which has been identified with the
Soma/ Haoma plant of the Rigvedic/Avestan
people.
Ephedra however appears in association with
poppy and cannabis, while Soma/Haoma was
a pure plant extract.
We may consider Togolok21 to belong to Rv-
related people, but we also have a structure
probably belonging to their enemies
18. • Dashli 3 in the Amu plain in North Afghanistan
shows a circular building (inside a square
enclosure) which fits the Rigvedic
description of a Dasa fort.
Unlike Togolok 21, there is no sign of Ephedra in
Dashli 3. This is consistent with the fact that
the Dasa people are described as anti-Soma. In
the early days, it was assumed that Dasa were
native Indians, and the forts that Indra broke
were the latter’s.
19. Since Iranian is also familiar with Dasa, they
cannot be the Harappan people. Indra’s
enemies, mentioned in Rv, seem to be the
non-Soma drinking people whom the
Rigvedic people encountered in north
Afghanistan and neighbourhood.
An intriguing question arises. If Rv people
were the Harappans, who were the people
whose forts Indra demolished?
21. . At Bishkent in this region graves have been
found which fit the description in Rv
(10.18) devoted to Mrtyu, the god of death.
-
Archaeological cultures, believed to be
associated with Indo-Iranians, share a
number of features:
Cult of fire
Either burial of burnt bones and ashes, or
of the body in a flexed position
22. Poor quality pottery, whether
handmade or wheel made
Extensive use of handmade pottery.
It is noteworthy that the two earthen
vessels, ukha and mahavira, used in
the Vedic ritual were explicitly required
to be handmade.
23. To sum up in advance, the Indo-Iranians
next climbed up the Hindukush. Most
of Rv is believed to have been authored
in south Afghanistan beginning with
about 1700 BCE, even though it
contains references or allusions to an
earlier era. There were other Indic-
speaking groups also which spoke
related dialects but were not connected
with Rv.
24. Conclusive evidence for the migration
of Aryans comes not from India or Iran,
but from further west. A treaty
(1400BCE) concluded on cuneiform
tablets between the .victor Hittites and
the defeated Mittanis (Aryans)
mentions the divinities Mitra, Varuna,
Indra, and the (two) Nasatyas (Ashvini
Kumars).
25. Soma/ Haoma cult was common to the
Rigvedic/ Avestan people. The Vedic
agnishtoma and the Zoroastrian Haoma
ceremony are strikingly similar. The
soma/Haoma plant was leafless with its twigs
resembling a finger. The twigs were crushed,
and the extracted juice also called Soma was
filtered and drunk. Note that there was no time
for fermentation. The natural history of the
Soma plant helps us localize the Indo-Iranian
habitat .
Soma/ Haoma
26. Rv makes it clear that Soma grew in mountains, a popular
location being Mount Mujavat. In Rv (8.80) a maiden,
Apala, plucks Soma twigs by the wayside and chews
them.
In Baudhayana Shrauta-sutra (6.14), the Adhvaryu asks
the seller if the Soma came from Mujavat, which
obviously was still a source of supply, but not
known first-hand.
• Katyayana's Shrauta-sutra (10.9.30) enjoins the
priests not to give the genuine Soma to a Kshatriya
or a Vaishya, even when it was available, but to give
them substitutes.
27. Shatapatha Brahmana (4.5.10.2-6) lists the
substitutes for use in the ritual, when Soma is
not available.
Subsequently, even in medical literature, Soma
becomes mythical. Such respected medical texts
as Sushruta-samhita (29.21-22) and Charaka-
samhita (1.4-6) claim that Soma had 15 leaves,
which appeared one per day during the waxing
moon (shukla-paksha), and dropped off one by
one during the waning moon (krshna- paksha).
28. • We thus see the Indo-Aryans progressively
moving away from the Soma habitat.
Each and every statement on Soma/ Haoma in
the Vedic corpus and Avestan literature can be
explained in a self-consistent manner by
identifying Soma plant with those species of
Ephedra which have high alkaloidal content and
which grow at high altitudes.
29. Rivers Sarasvati
Sarasvati is the only river that is described in some
detail in the old books of Rv. It is aptly called
naditama, the foremost of rivers. It rises in the
mountains, cuts its ridges, raises foam, and goes
to the samudra. (The word samudra literally
means water gatherer; its identification with
ocean is a later development.) It has many
tributaries whose mother it is called. In addition,
there are other sisterly rivers in the region.
Later Vedic texts (Panchavimsha Brahmana and
Jaiminiya Upanishad) as also the Mahabharata
mention a river Sarasvati which vanishes in the
desert at a place called Vinashana.
30. The Vinashana Sarasvati has been identified with
the present semi-defunct Ghaggar which lies
between the Indus system in the west and
Yamuna-Ganga in the east. The admittedly late
tenth mandala contains a river hymn where all
the superlatives earlier applied to Sarasvati are
transferred to Indus. Sarasvati is mentioned
here in passing. It must be the Vinashana
Sarasvati.
Present-day maps show a small tributary as
Sarsuti . It is not known when the name was
transferred to it and the main river given the
rather un-poetic name Ghaggar.
31. Perhaps, Sarasvati was where the rishis were.
Unmindful of the Vedic references, the
Puranas talk of Sarasvati as an invisible river
that joins Ganga and Yamuna at Prayag. Also,
Mahabharata, not discomfited by the apparent
contradiction, mentions Vinashana as well as
Invisible Sarasvati
The question of geographical identification of
naditama Sarasvati was taken up for the first
time by the Europeans. Puranic mythology
was beneath their notice; they would consider
only the Vedic corpus.
.
32. From the field work carried out 150 years ago, it is
known that at one time, both Yamuna and Satluj
flowed into Ghaggar, and the combined waters
reached the sea. (Recent satellite imagery
confirms this, but does not, cannot, provide any
chronology.)
Following Lassen (1858), Max Muller (1891) wrote
that the mighty Rv Sarasvati be identified with
Old Ghaggar. He however was careful to admit
that ‘it may not be possible to determine by
geological evidence the time of the changes which
modified the southern area of the Punjab and
caused the Sarasvati to disappear in the desert’.
33. A 100 years after him, there is no need to indulge in
idle conjecturing because we now have the scientific
and technological ability to answer the question
unambiguously.
Max Muller also suggested another hypothesis that the
Aryans came into India through invasion. For this,
he has been severely condemned. But his Sarasvati
hypothesis has been accepted as gospel truth for
reasons of convenience.
34. Even if Old Ghaggar were a flowing river in Rigvedic
times, it will not follow that it was the naditama
Sarasvati.
Even if it be established that Old Ghaggar indeed was
the Sarasvati, it would only mean that Rv was
composed within India; the question whether the
Aryans came from outside or not will still remain
open.
However, if it turns out that Rv Sarasvati was located
outside India, it would conclusively prove that the
Vedic people came into India from the outside.
Whether there was invasion or migration is an
emotional question. From an academic point of view,
in principle, it is a matter of minor detail.
35. Geology or no geology, Max Muller should
have known that the attributes of the Old
Ghaggar do not match those of the naditama
Sarasvati. The waters of snow-fed Satluj and
Yamuna would make the lower Ghaggar
(known today as Hakra) a wide river, but in its
upper reaches it would still be as pitiable as it is
now.
By no stretch of imagination, can the rain-fed
Ghaggar rising in low hills be called a mighty
river that cuts ridges of mountains, raises foam,
etc.
36. Latyayana Shrauta-sutra was not translated in Max
Muller’s time. It provides a very valuable piece of
information (10.19.8.9) : 'He should proceed on the
southern bank of Drishadvati [Sarasvati’s tributary].
When he has reached the arma whence from she
springs, he should offer his offering and descend into
Yamuna in the vicinity of the place [called] Triplaksa-
vaharana.'
Yamuna arises in the higher reaches of the Himalayas,
and is not connected with the Ghaggar sysyem in any
way. In contrast , Latyayana suggests that all these
rivers are within walking distance, in the same
mountain range.
37. I have suggested that the Rv Sarasvati be equated
with the south Afghanistan river Helmand which
has a tributary called Arghandab whose old name
is Haraivati. Admittedly, Helmand falls into an
inland lake, but there is no reason to suppose that
the Rv term samudra could not have been applied
to it.
Similarly , the Rv Sarayu must be identified with Hari-rud,
whose older name is Horayu ( cognate with Sarayu).
Rigvedic Sapta Sindhavah (Avestan Hapta Hindu), the
district of seven rivers, can be indentified with other rivers
in the Helmand region including Farah- rud.
38.
39. Rv also mentions Gomati. From the context it is clear that
Gomal in Balochistan is meant and not the Lucknow
Gomati. This illustrates the later re-use of old names.
By placing naditama Sarasvati in south Afghanistan, we can
develop a thesis that is capable of explaining each and
every Vedic and Puranic reference to Sarasvati. The rishis
on the banks of naditama Sarasvati move eastwards, and
cross the Indus system (already known to Rv). They come
to the present-day Ghaggar which they would have found
in the same state as it is now. They settle on its banks, and
give it the name Sarasvati which they brought with them.
40. Eventually, they moved further east and reached the
present-day Yamuna and Ganga. These two names
had no special significance in the old Vedic
literature, but now they came to denote the newly
discovered mighty rivers. By this time, the
composition of Rigvedic hymns had come to an
end; and the Ganga-Yamuna area was the new
centre of economy, culture, and theology. Sarasvati
was made an invisible partner of the new holy
rivers to keep its memory alive in popular
perception. Mythification of the once real river
Sarasvati thus marked the end of the first phase of
textual history of India.
41. There were a number of Indic groups speaking related dialects
{r-l divide}. While a group was composing Rv, others moved
into the subcontinent, from or through Afghanistan. In all,
there were a number of waves of migrations which included
the Rv-people also.
Swat III culture in the Swat (Rv Suvastu) valley supplants an
early Harappan phase and is assigned to Indic speakers. (A
calibrated radiocarbon date from here is 1744 BC.) Recall that
this area hosts Dardi/ Kafiri speakers. (See wiki on Cemetery
H)
In Balochistan, at the foot of the Bolan Pass, lies Pirak which
shows unbroken occupancy from 1900-1000BCE. Unlike
Swat, it was a new settlement. Pirak I (1900-1300 BCE) and
Pirak II (1300-1100 BCE) shows distinctive figurines of
horses and horse riders, as also horse bones.
_
42. • HORSE
• Rv people were not merely familiar with horse; they
were obsessed with it. Had the harappan civilization
been the handiwork of Indic speakers, horse would
have been the most common motif on the seals. It has
been pointed out rather defensively that some
Harappan sites ( like Surkotada) show horse bones.
Possibility exists that in some cases the animal in
question may not be true horse. Instead of nitpicking,
it would be instructive to raise a more fundamental
point.
43. • The key issue is not domesticated horse but
domestication of horse. A pre-requisite for
domestication of horse is the availability of wild
horse. It is a well-established fact that India is not the
habitat of wild horse. Presence of domestic horse in
India in the Harappan context shows some contact
with those who in turn were in contact with the horse
land. By the time horse appears in India, southward
movement of the Indo-Iranian speakers had lready
begun. For all we know, Aryan traders situated in
Afghanistan might have supplied horses to the
Harappans!
44. • Given the importance Soma enjoys in the Rv, one
would have expected that Harappan sites ( if the
people here were related to Rv) would all show signs
of some chemical to be identified with the legendary
Soma. This commonality would in turn have led us to
the botanical identity of the plant. But, there is no sign
of any common practice associated with a plant or its
extract.
• -
45. • In successive projects, B. B. Lal carried out
excavations at the sites associated with the two Epics.
He found :
Mahabharata - named sites are clustered towards the
west, while the Ramayana-named sites are situated in
the east.
More intriguingly, the Mahabharata - named sites are
older (PGW, Painted Grey Ware) than the Ramayana-
named sites (NBPW, Northern Black Polished Ware).
Even though Hastinapur is said to be an ancient
capital, and Indraprastha a new settlement,
archaeologically both are PGW sites.
46. These important findings have not been widely
noticed. On the face of it, their chronology runs
counter to the Puranic accounts which
consistently maintain that Rama came 30
generations before Krishna.
The hypothesis of migration of names offers a
simple resolution of the apparent paradox:
The Mahabharata-related people were the first
ones to move eastwards beyond Ghaggar. They
settled there, giving old names to their new
settlements.
47. The Ramayana-related people came in later. They had
to move further east where they also re-used old
names from their earlier settlements.
The much-maligned Puranas provide insightful
information. The MBh-people are the Kuru-Bharata
people, related to the kings under whose auspices Rv
hymns were composed. On the other hand Ramayana
involves the Ikshvakus who were not connected with
Rv.
Post-Rv, the Ikshvaku territories such as Mithila
emerged as centres of sacred learning.
As already noted, the mythification of Sarasvati river
thus marks the end of the Rigvedic era and the
beginning of a new one, characteized by the use of
iron.
48. Northern Black
Polished Ware Culture
Painted Grey Ware
Culture
Rv People
Late Harappan
Jhukar Phase
Late Harappan
Cemetery H Phase
Late Harappan
Rangpur Phase
Non- Rv Indic
Speakers
RV –RELATED Indic
Speakers
Non- Rv Indic
Speakers
Mature Harappan
Phase
Early Harappan Phase
Balochistan
Phase
100 BC
700 BC
600 BC
1200 BC
1900 BC
2600 BC
3500 BC
4500 BC
7000 BC
1300 BC
1900 BC
49. If rigorous study of ancient Indian history is to
advance, it must be provided with direct
evidence rather than circumstantial. It may not
be advisable to embark on archaeological
exploration of South Afghanistan at the present
state of affairs, but a rigorous, open-ended,
multi-nation investigation into the hydrological
history of the Ghaggar river system would be
very valuable indeed. This also may not be
possible at present.
50. Studies of ancient DNA are a new powerful
tools in the hands of historians and
archaeologists. Similarly, definitive insights can
be obtained by combining genetics and current
social anthropology.
There are a number of self-contained ethnic
groups related by linguistic commonalities,
such as Parsis, Pathans, Balochs, Kurds etc.
Comparative DNA testing of these groups will
be instructive. A comparison of DNA with that
of Kashmiri pandits will show whether they are
inter-related, or whether the latter are late-
comers into the Kashmir valley.
51. Caution
At our current level of knowledge and
in the absence of any direct proof,
one can only suggest hypotheses.
In all cases, and at all times,
uncertainty in the evidence must
manifest itself as tentativeness in the
conclusions./