Kodaikanal Observatory as a potential world astronomy heritage site Rajesh Kochhar
As things stand, I think the only candidate for astronomical world heritage list from India is the Solar Physics Observatory Kodaikanal ( est 1899 ), which now has solar picture data with the same instrument for the longest period in the world (since 1912), with some short interruptions due to maintenance/ upgradation.
Kodaikanal Observatory as a world astronomy heritage siteRajesh Kochhar
As things stand, I think the only candidate for astronomical world heritage list from India is the Solar Physics Observatory Kodaikanal ( est 1899 ), which now has solar picture data with the same instrument for the longest period in the world (since 1912), with some short interruptions due to maintenance/ upgradation.
SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR MANKINDVishal Pandey
The space age started with the launch of first Russian satellite Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957.Ever since,the rocket powered launch vehicles carried state of the art scientific equipment to explore moon , the sun , solar system and the cosmos. This resulted in designing and fabricating the instruments having more than 6000000 components with reliability greater than 99.9999%. In 1960s man landed on moon and in 1970s the planetary exploration continued the space march. The comet Halley, which orbits the sun in about 76 years was photographed from a distance of about 500 kms in the year 1986. The success of launch and recovery of Space Shuttle made the space just another location in 1980s. This opened a variety of new vistas of science and technology.
This report will help us to gain knowledge about space, advantages of space technology and also for students for seminar in colleges/schools(TOPIC : SPACE EXPLORATION)
Kodaikanal Observatory as a potential world astronomy heritage site Rajesh Kochhar
As things stand, I think the only candidate for astronomical world heritage list from India is the Solar Physics Observatory Kodaikanal ( est 1899 ), which now has solar picture data with the same instrument for the longest period in the world (since 1912), with some short interruptions due to maintenance/ upgradation.
Kodaikanal Observatory as a world astronomy heritage siteRajesh Kochhar
As things stand, I think the only candidate for astronomical world heritage list from India is the Solar Physics Observatory Kodaikanal ( est 1899 ), which now has solar picture data with the same instrument for the longest period in the world (since 1912), with some short interruptions due to maintenance/ upgradation.
SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR MANKINDVishal Pandey
The space age started with the launch of first Russian satellite Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957.Ever since,the rocket powered launch vehicles carried state of the art scientific equipment to explore moon , the sun , solar system and the cosmos. This resulted in designing and fabricating the instruments having more than 6000000 components with reliability greater than 99.9999%. In 1960s man landed on moon and in 1970s the planetary exploration continued the space march. The comet Halley, which orbits the sun in about 76 years was photographed from a distance of about 500 kms in the year 1986. The success of launch and recovery of Space Shuttle made the space just another location in 1980s. This opened a variety of new vistas of science and technology.
This report will help us to gain knowledge about space, advantages of space technology and also for students for seminar in colleges/schools(TOPIC : SPACE EXPLORATION)
If we ask you what’s so special about October, you will probably say “Halloween”. Although we too love spooky decorations, toffee apples and trick-or-treaters’ tireless knocking on the door after dusk, there is more this month to remember and celebrate.
Here is October in historic space dates, famous astronomers’ and astronauts’ birthdays and upcoming events.
Happy October!
Carl Sagan (1934-1996, American) could be called the astronomer o.docxannandleola
Carl Sagan (1934-1996, American) could be called 'the astronomer of the people'. He popularized the science of astronomy with the general public, and revolutionized science fiction by believing that we are not alone in the universe. He championed the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, which continues today with a number of missions to Mars to search for signs of life on that planet.
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995, Indian-born American) made important contributions to the theory of stellar evolution. He found that the limit, now called the Chandrasekhar limit, to the stability of white dwarf stars is 1.4 solar masses: any star larger than this cannot be stable as a white dwarf.
Karl Jansky (1905-1950, American) discovered that radio waves are emanating from space, which led to the science of radio astronomy.
Jan Oort (1900-1992, Dutch) first measured the distance between our solar system and the center of the Milky Way Galaxy and calculated the mass of the Milky Way. An enormous contribution of his was the proposal of a large number of icy comets left over from the formation of the solar system, now known as the Oort Cloud.
Edwin Hubble (1889-1953, American) made an incredible contribution to astronomy and cosmology when he discovered that faraway galaxies are moving away from us. Known as Hubble's Law, the theory states that galaxies recede from each other at a rate proportional to their distance from each other. This concept is a cornerstone of the Big Bang model of the universe.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955, German) was probably the greatest mind of the twentieth century. His Special Theory of Relativity, proposed in 1905, extended Newtonian Mechanics to very large speeds close to the speed of light. It describes the changes in measurements of physical phenomena when viewed by observers who are in motion relative to the phenomena. In 1915, Einstein extended this further in the General Theory of Relativity, which includes the effects of gravitation. According to this theory, mass and energy determine the geometry of spacetime, and curvatures of spacetime manifest themselves in gravitational forces.
Annie Jump Cannon (1863-1941, American) was a member of the famous group of Harvard astronomers called 'Pickering's Women'. The director of the Harvard College Observatory, Edward Pickering, hired a number of women to sort through and organize mounds of data on the stellar classification of stars. The stars were classified by their spectra, and Annie Cannon was the most prolific and careful of the workers. She single-handedly classified 400,000 stars into the scheme we use today (O B A F G K M), and discovered 300 variable stars. She paved the way for women entering the astronomical field.
Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787-1826, German) discovered dark lines in the spectrum coming from the Sun. He carefully measured the positions of over 300 of these lines, creating a wavelength standard that is still in use today.
Isaac Newton (1643-1727,.
this is a presentation about invention of telescope. i have placed many information about telescope invention. and ancient world about telescope also. i hope this will usefull to you.
Sky as a bridge: Astronomical interactions in Eurasia through the agesRajesh Kochhar
Sky has always been seen as the heritage of the whole humankind. People have been curious about their sky. They have also been curious about the curiosity of others. Accordingly, astronomy has advanced through pooling of intellectual resources and cross-fertilization of ideas. There is broad connectivity in the world history of astronomy. Astronomy is a multi-stage intellectual cumulus where each stage has built on the previous ones and carried the studies forward.
The growth of astronomy has not occurred in a steady manner, but in spurts, with different centres playing a pre-eminent role at different times. An interesting correlation needs to be noted. The level and quality of astronomical activity has been related to a nation’s GDP. Prosperous, self-assured, resurgent, assertive nations have tended to become patrons of astronomy. It is as if having established their superiority or supremacy over fellow human beings, they wanted to unravel the mysteries of the sky on behalf of the whole humankind.
Similar to Transits of Venus and modern astronomy in India (20)
Kumbh and all other festivals have two distinct aspects: (i) Calenderical basis for choosing the dates, and (ii) beliefs, faith, rituals, and other practices associated with the celebration. My concern here is strictly with the first, that is the astronomical, aspect.
To sum up, I think probably the Haridwar spring equinoctial festival and certainly the Allahabad winter solstice festival did not have any Jupiter connection to begin with. Nashik, it seems, responded to Jupiter in Aquarius at Hardwar by celebrating Jupiter’s arrival in Leo. Ujjain imitated Simhasth celebrations following Nashik. The biggest congregation of all, the Prayag Kumbh, is the most recent, and Kumbh only in the sense of 12-yearly celebration.,
Curiously, in none of the Kumbh melas, no ritual seems to be associated with Jupiter in the religious/ ritual ceremonies
Meghnad Saha in international and national contextsRajesh Kochhar
Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956), whose 125th birthday is being celebrated today, is universally recognized as one of the founders of quantitative astrophysics. His theoretical papers published in British journals during 1920-1921 showed that astronomical spectra of all kinds, notwithstanding their seeming complexity and diversity, can be rigorously explained in terms of known laws and chemical elements, by simply invoking different physical conditions. Saha’s work thus transformed the cosmos from an exotic out-field into a science lab.
He was nominated for the physics Nobel prize. Evaluation of theoretical work is far more difficult than that of experiments and observations. He may not have won the prize, but his work certainly belongs to Nobel-class. (This is true of SN Bose, of Bose-Einstein statistics 1924, also)
Ancient Indian history:What do we know and how?Rajesh Kochhar
When and where was the Rigveda composed?
How are the Vedic people related to the vast Harappan archaeological tradition?
These quintessential questions have no direct answers. At our current level of knowledge, archaeology and sacred texts constitute two distinct streams which do not intersect. We must therefore collate evidence from different sources and try to produce a synthesis.
Meghnad Saha (1893-1955) set out his theory in a number of papers published in British journals during 1920-1921. The work was immediately recognized as laying the foundation of quantitative astrophysics.History chooses the hour; and the hour produces the hero. The only surprise was that the hour was seized not by any established research centre in the West but by a far-off Calcutta which was nowhere on the world research map.
Ancient India: Discovery, invention and usesRajesh Kochhar
Physical conquest of India by the British was relatively a simple affair even though it took 60 long years, 1757-1818.
But the colonial empire needed legitimacy and support from among the natives.
This was accomplished by developing ancient India as a colonial tool.
The same tool was utilized by the Hindus to blunt the missionary attacks on their religion and develop mild courage to look the empire in the eye.
Indian higher education under globalizationRajesh Kochhar
Higher education is now classified as an internationally tradable service. However for historical, cultural and ideological reasons it is quite unlike others. Permitting foreign education providers to operate in India is not like permitting an insurance company or a department store. Similarly collaboration in education is not as simple as in telecom.
In India, all the social divides, disconnects, tensions and feelings of discomfort and mistrust that globalization has created or accentuated have become visible factors in discussions, debates, executive decisions as well as attempted or aborted legislative initiatives on education.
To sum up in advance, India’s own education is largely decoupled from quality and employability.
Government has abdicated its responsibility while privatization has brought about crass commercialization. Clamour for education from foreign providers has grown, but since this will help only a tiny fraction of population, the requisite political support is not forthcoming.
The beginnings of astronomy are related to the requirements of the ritual in early cultures. Ritual was a means of securing divine approval and support for terrestrial actions. To be effective, it had to be elaborate and well-timed, so that a careful distinction could be made between auspicious and inauspicious times.
(Note that mathematical problems such as obtaining the square root of two and approximate value of pi ( circumference of a circle divided by its diameter) were taken up in the context of preparation of fire altars and are discussed in the Shrautasutras.)
Since planetary motions provided a natural means of time keeping and were seen as couriers of divine signals. Skies were therefore regularly monitored. This was the beginning of astronomy as an intellectual discipline.
Modern science in Bengal: Cultivation and early accomplishmentsRajesh Kochhar
Bengal placed India on the world map of modern science. In the 1890s, J.C. Bose (1858–1937) and P.C. Ray (1861-1944) became India’s (and the Non-West’s) first internationally recognized modern scientists. In the 1920s, Nobel prize-level theoretical physics research were carried out by M.N. Saha (1893-1956) and by Satyen Bose (1894-1974). Finally, in 1930, C. V. Raman (1888-1970) received the physics Nobel prize which was the first one to go out of Europe and America.
Normally, an activity begins modestly, rises slowly and stabilizes at a high level. In contrast, India began at the top and had no place to go except down. The down-hill journey has been steady and without the benefit of a plateau even at intermediate heights.
Globalization and de-nationalized Indian middle classRajesh Kochhar
The most remarkable feature of the Indian middle class (IMC) today is that it has become extremely self-absorbed. There was a time, before and immediately after independence, when the English knowing people in the country saw themselves as a bridge between their less fortunate brethren on the one hand and scientifically and economically ‑ advanced countries on the other. Not any more. Globalization has provided the IMC with an opportunity and a pretext to decouple itself from the rest of the country. The decoupling however is not complete. The onus of propelling Upper India into a global orbit still rests on the emaciated shoulders of the Lower India. As the irrepressible American film-maker Sam Goldwyn would have put it, IMC has opted to include itself out.
Modern science in the Western and Non-Western contextsRajesh Kochhar
Advent, growth and deployment of (modern) science make a complex and multi-dimensional story. However, during the ‘golden age of colonialism’, once modern science came into a full- blown form, attempts were made to decouple it from its immediate antecedents and present it as a stand-alone, purely intellectual, exercise.
Indian geography under European auspices during 16-18th centuriesRajesh Kochhar
(i) Whatever geographical information was available in pre-existing scientific and political documents was taken out and utilized.
(ii) Local people were hired as messengers to bring in intelligence on routes, roads, rivers, bridges, hills, etc.
(iii) Jesuits and ex-Jesuits took modern measurements and obtained valuable primary data.
(iv) Whenever an opportunity presented itself, Company officials made surveys.
(v) Lastly, as soon as it became possible, an exhaustive systematic field survey was ordered.
The geographic and geodesic work done in India under European auspices during the 17th and 18th centuries got eclipsed by the spectacular 19th century developments (epitomized by the naming of the highest point on the earth after a surveyor-general), it was solid and extremely significant in its time.
Ancient Indian astronomical tradition: Characteristics and accomplishmentsRajesh Kochhar
We begin by commenting on the nature and limitations of the primary source material on ancient Indian astronomy.We then highlight the accomplishments of Indian astro-mathematical tradition and its place in world history.
When and where was Rigveda composed? How is it related to thee vast Harappan archaeological tradition. These are quintessential questions on ancient Indian history which do not have direct answers. I examine a large body of evidence to arrive at plausible answers.
Indian pharmaceutical industry: Policies, achievements and challengesRajesh Kochhar
Indian pharmaceutical industry is a success story from a national as well as third-world perspective. India accounts for 10% of world production and ranks third in the world in terms of volume. In value terms the share is only 1.4% and the rank 14th.
his statistic underlines the important fact that India produces world-class generic drugs at a very low cost. Indian domestic pharma market, currently evaluated at $12 bn, is largely self-sufficient with patented drugs playing a minimal role.
The making of scientific and arrogant EuropeRajesh Kochhar
In 1837 a Bengal cavalry officer, after an exploratory tour of Egypt and Arabia in connection with steam navigation, declared in his report: ‘It seems to be a law of nature that the civilized nations should conquer and possess the countries in a state of barbarianism and by such means, however unjustifiable it may appear at first, extend the blessings of knowledge, industry and commerce among people hitherto sunk in the most gloomy depths of superstitious ignorance.’
Till the early decades of the 19th century, Europe viewed Asia with respect. How the change occurred is discussed here
Rise and decline of modern science in IndiaRajesh Kochhar
Some 225 countries of the world publish more than 1.5mn research papers, with USA topping the list. Over the years however pursuit of science has become more widespread so that the US share (but not the quality) is now lower than before. From 1996 to 2012 India improved its rank from 7 to 13; and China from 9 to 2. The share of both in citations however is low.
India was the first country outside the Western world to take to modern science. I discuss why India has not been able to make any use of the early start.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
1. Transits of Venus and modern
astronomy in India
Rajesh Kochhar
President IAU Commission 41: History of Astronomy
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali
140306, Punjab
rkochhar2000@yahoo.com
2. There is an interesting historical
correlation between astronomical activity
on the one hand and the material status or
aspirations of its practitioners on the
other.
3. During the past three millennia, in the vast
traditionally interacting geographical area,
the centre of astronomical activity has
resided in the most prosperous,
4. dominant and ambitious region: Ancient
Iraq, (post-Alexandrian) Hellenistic world,
India, Muslim Culture Zone, Europe, and
USA. (Two major exceptions may be
noted. For some
5. reason Roman Empire showed no interest
in astronomy. Similarly astronomy failed
to enthuse the Mughal Empire in its peak
period.) It would seem that once a culture
has
6. established its ascendancy in its terrestrial
surroundings, it considers it its bounden
duty to unravel the mysteries of the
cosmos on behalf of the whole humankind.
The converse is also true.
7. To compensate for the inherent pettiness of
geo-political rivalries, a cosmic dimension
is added to it. There has been a practical
reason also. There is certain amount of
nobleness
8. associated with an astronomical pursuit.
This means that more nefarious goals can
be hidden behind it. Thus the 1735 French
expedition to South America was
ostensibly sent for the
9. measurement of an arc of the meridian at
Quito in Ecuador, but it had secret
instructions to gather intelligence on what
came to be designated the cinchona tree (
Lee 2002 p 191).
10. Similarly, thirty years later, James Cook’s
expedition to the South Seas for observing
the 1769 Transit of Venus provided Britain
with a pretext to reach New Zealand and
Australia.
11. It is no more than a coincidence that the
first English ship reached India the same
year (1608) the telescope was invented in
the Netherlands. This numerology
12. brings home the point that modern science
and technology have grown hand in hand
with colonial expansion, maritime trade,
and domination over
13. nature and fellow human beings.
Astronomy very soon developed into a
valuable navigational and geographical
aid. The first Astronomer Royal, John
Flamsteed (1646-1719),
14. supplemented his income by giving tuition
to East India Company cadets. It paid to
join the Company; and it paid to know
astronomy. The 1761 and 1769 transits of
Venus added a strong cultural
15. dimension to astronomy, made the
Governments aware and supportive of it
and gave a fillip to large-scale manufacture
of instruments.
16. The 18th century transits occurred at a
time when France and Britain were
engaged in bitter rivalry for the control of
waters and distant lands. The observation
of the transits
17. became part of this rivalry. For the 1761
event, the Royal Society sent two
astronomers to Bencoolen (now Indonesia)
and asked the British East India Company
to ‘accommodate
18. and maintain them’. Instructions for the
next event were more forthright. On 22
January 1768, the secretary of the Royal
Society wrote: ‘The honor of this Nation
seems
19. particularly concerned in not yielding the
palm to their Neighbours, and the Royal
Society intends to exert all its strength and
influence in order to have this observation
20. [1769 transit] made…’ As it turned out
both the French and the English palms
were left high and dry because of the
cloudy skies over both Madras and
Pondicherry. Astronomical
21. expeditions and instruments were seen as
symbols of a superior, science-driven
culture. Instruments were presented as
official gifts to native rulers as show-off
even when the latter had no use for them.
22. A telescope that had earlier been presented
to the Nawab of Arcot was borrowed back
for actual use in 1769.(The Nawab was the
leag owner of land on which Madras
stood.)
23. The story of the French astronomer
Guillaume Joseph Hyacinthe Jean-Baptiste
le Gentil (1725-1792) is well known. He
has the rather tragic distinction of holding
the record
24. for the longest scientific expedition in the
recorded world history, and that too an
unproductive one.. He set sail for South
India with a view to observing the 6 June
1761
25. transit of Venus; and stayed back for
1769. He reached back home after 11
years, and that too without accomplishing
his mission. Because of the Anglo-French
war, he could not arrive in India in time,
and
26. could observe the event only from a
moving ship, which observation obviously
had no scientific value. He decided to stay
27. put in the East for eight years to be able to
see the 3 June 1769 transit from
Pondicherry , but was clouded out (Hogg
1951, p. 129). His time however was not
entirely wasted.
28. Gentil arrived in Pondicherry in March
1768 and stayed here for two years, before
and after the transit. He took tuition from
Tamil astronomers and learnt the
traditional Indian method of calculating
eclipses (Hogg 1951, p. 129).
29. When Greenwich Observatory was
established, it had no instruments. British
India now had instruments, but no
Observatory. However, what led to the
institutionalization
30. of modern astronomy in India was not the
love of the stars but the fear of death. The
Bay of Bengal is visited by monsoons
twice a year. The east coast of India,
31. the Coromandel, is rocky and full of
shoals. On top of it, Madras, unlike
Bombay, is not a natural harbour. A survey
of the coast was thus literally a matter of
life and death.
32. It is to facilitate coastal survey that an
astronomical Observatory was established
in Madras, in 1787. It was a private
Observatory to begin with but was taken
over by the Government in 1790.
33. One of the instruments was a clock by
John Shelton, which had been made for the
Transit. It is identical with the clock used
by Captain James Cook, and in the
determination of Mason-Dixon line in
USA.
34. It is not clear when the East India
Company bought the clock and sent to
India. It is now at Kodaikanal and still
accurate enough to be used as an ordinary
timekeeper.
35. In 1844, after ten years of sustained work,
Thomas Glanville Taylor at Madras
Observatory brought out the famous
Madras Catalogue of more than 10,000
stars, which won high appreciation.
36. It was however the only worthwhile
contribution from Madras, which lost its
charm for the British after the
establishment of Observatories in South
Africa and Australia.
37. Madras Observatory had been established
as an aid to Trigonometrical Survey of
India. Once the Survey became self-sufficient,
the Government lost interest in
the Madras Observatory.
38. The attitude towards pure astronomy is
best brought out by a little -known
incident. In 1834, on orders from the
Government, instruments were issued to
John Cumin for
39. the observation of the opposition of Mars.
The Surveyor General, George Everest,
made a strong protest against the loan,
sayings: ‘The discoveries which the late
astronomer
40. of Bombay is likely to make in science
would hardly repay the inconvenience
occasioned by retarding the operations of
the Great Trigonometrical Survey...’
41. Curnin had been the first Director of the
Colaba Observatory and was dismissed
from service in 1828. His stock would not
have been very high in British India.
42. And yet, the incident does sum up the
lowly position which pure astronomy
occupied in relation to geodesy and
geography.
43. By the time the 1874 transit of Venus
came, positional astronomy had made way
for physical astronomy. Spectroscopic and
photographic techniques were used in the
44. Indian observations of the solar eclipses of
1868, 1871 and 1872, which attracted
observers from Europe also. The French
astrophysicist Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen
45. independent co-discoverer Joseph Norman
Lockyer (1836-1920). During his post-eclipse
stay at Simla, Janssen created the
first spectrohelioscope, which facilitated
daily examination of the sun.
46. independent co-discoverer Joseph Norman
Lockyer (1836- 1920). During his post-eclipse
stay at Simla, Janssen created the
first spectrohelioscope, which facilitated
daily examination of the sun.
47. The scientists’ agenda for the 1874 transit
ran deeper. What was advertised was the
momentary passage of Venus in front of
the solar disc; what was planned was a
long-term
48. study of the disc itself. British (and
European) solar physicists wanted
photograph of the sun for each day of the
year. Since this was impossible in Europe’s
weather conditions,
49. data was needed from the colonies. The
British Association for the Advancement
of Science even passed a resolution asking
the Government of India to make
arrangements
50. for observing the event and to provide
instruments which were afterwards to be
transferred to a solar observatory. Such
was the prestige enjoyed by science and
scientists
51. in Europe at the time that the British
Empire as the owner of most of the
world’s sunshine could not but respond
favourably even if partially.
52. The 1874 transit eventually led to regular
solar physics studies in India, even though
the exercise took 25 years. The stepwise
development was as follows.
53. Telescopes were purchased expressly
for the observation of the 1874 event
54. Facilities of a more permanent nature
were then created using these and
other telescopes. Solar photography
was taken up at Dehra Dun (1878-
1925) and solar spectroscopy Poona
(1888-1912). Data was sent to Britain.
55. A Solar Physics Observatory was
established at Kodaikanal in 1899
which now has solar picture data with
the same instrument for the longest
uninterrupted period.
56. The 1874 transit of Venus
As part of a bigger programme, and
under the guidance of the Astronomer
Royal, Sir George Airy, the transit
observations were planned at Roorkee
57. ( now Uttarakhand) and Lahore, under
the supervision of Col. James Francis
Tennant. Note that it was Tennant and
not Airy's bete noire, Norman Robert
Pogson, the Madras Astronomer, who
was asked to do this work.
58. More than 100 photos of the sun were
taken at Roorkee and sent to Airy.
Photos from all over were reduced by
Captain G. L. Tupman who wrote:
‘There is only one really sharp
59. image in the whole collection, including
the Indian and Australian contingents,
and that is one of Captain
Waterhouse’s wet plates taken at
Roorkee’.
60. Dehra Dun Observatory (1878-1925)
Next, Lockyer used his equation with Lord
Salisbury, the Secretary of State for
India, for making arrangement for
solar photography in India.
61. Salisbury wrote to the Viceroy on 28
September 1877: ‘Having considered
the suggestions made by Mr. Lockyer,
and viewing that a study of the
conditions of the
62. sun’s disc in relation to terrestrial
phenomenon has become an important
part of physical investigation, I have
thought it desirable to assent to the
employment for a
63. limited period of a person qualified to
obtain photographs of the sun’s disc by
the aid of the instrument now in India [
for the transit]’. Accordingly, starting
from early 1878 solar
64. photographs were regularly taken at Dehra
Dun under the auspices of Survey of
India, and sent to England every week.
Dehra Dun continued solar
photography till 1925, but
65. more out of a sense of duty than
enthusiasm. The larger of the two
photoheliographs fell into disuse, and
in 1898 Lockyer was stung by on-the-spot
discovery that ‘the dome has been
taken possession of by bees’.
66. St Xavier’s College Observatory, Calcutta
(1879)
sunny India caught the attention of
astronomers in the continent also. The
Italian transit-of-Venus team led by
Professor P. Tacchini
67. of Palermo Observatory stationed itself in
Bengal, its Chief instrument being the
spectroscope, `an instrument not
recognized in the equipment of any of
the English parties’.
68. A co-opted member of the Italian team was
the Belgian Jesuit Father Eugene Lafont
(1837-1908) professor of science at St.
Xavier’s College, who though no
69. researcher himself was an inspiring educator
and science communicator. Tacchini
suggested to Lafont ‘the advisability of
erecting a Solar Observatory in Calcutta,
in
70. order to supplement the Observations made
in Europe, by filling up the gaps caused
in the series of solar records by bad
weather’. St Xavier’s was an elitist
College providing
71. education to sons of Europeans, Anglo-
Indians, rajas, zamindars, and Indian
men of note. Lafont therefore `secured
great influence among these classes’
which he now put to good use in the
service of science.
72. Lafont soon collected a sum of Rs 21000
through donations, including Rs 7000
from the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal.
A 9” refractor by Steinhill of Munich
was
73. purchased and housed in a spacious dome
constructed for the purpose.
Unfortunately, no research or teaching
use was ever made of
74. this facility. This is unfortunate, because
observational astronomy has remained
outside the education system.
75. Takhtasinghji's Observatory Poona (1888-
1912)
Set up by the Bombay Government, it was
India’s first modern astrophysical
observatory. Unfortunately, it was a
76. personalized facility. The original plan was
to establish a spectroscopic laboratory at
Elphinstone College Bombay for use by
the students. The initiator of the proposal
was a
77. lecturer in the College, Kavasji Dadabhai
Naegamvala (1857-1938), who obtained
seed money of Rs 5000 from the
Maharaja of Bhavnagar and a matching
grant from the Bombay Government.
78. While in England in 1884 for buying the
equipment, he was persuaded by the
Astronomer Royal and Lockyer to build
a spectroscopic observatory instead.
79. Since Poona was a better astronomical site
than Bombay, in 1885 Naegamvala was
transferred there to College of Science
where the Observatory came up in 1888.
80. Since Poona was a better astronomical site
than Bombay, in 1885 Naegamvala was
transferred there to College of Science
where the Observatory came up in 1888.
81. Its chief instrument was a 16½ inch aperture
silver-on-parabolic glass Newtonian
made by Grubb. In addition, Lockyer
equipped Poona as a satellite facility.
82. A six-inch Cooke equatorial purchased by
the Government for the 1874 transit
observation from India had been loaned
to Lockyer’s Observatory in South
Kensington.
83. The India office also purchased two
spectroscopes from Hilger (one solar, the
other stellar) for his use. The equatorial
and the spectroscopes were given to
Naegamvala so that he could observe
with them and send raw data to Lockyer
84. From December 1903 to November 1904 in
Poona, observations were made on as
many as 327 days. Out of these, 31 days
were unfavourable for any observations,
and on six
85. days no spots were recorded. Spectroscopic
observations were made on 216 days,
and 422 sunspots examined. Dehra Dun
sent a total of 488 8-inch negatives
86. during 23 October 1903 to 6 November
1904. Similarly data was received from
Kodaikanal and Maurtius.
87. Expectedly, relationship between Poona and
South Kensington was uneven.
Whenever South Kensington found fault
with data collection at Poona, it did not
write directly,
88. but formally complained to Naegamvala’s
British superiors. Yet, when Kodaikanal
Observatory was being planned, Lockyer
suggested Naegamvala’s name for the
directorship.
89. but formally complained to Naegamvala’s
British superiors. Yet, when Kodaikanal
Observatory was being planned, Lockyer
suggested Naegamvala’s name for the
directorship.
90. The position was however offered to an
Englishman, Charles Michie Smith, a
non-descript physics professor at
Madras. Lockyer and Astronomer Royal
91. constituted two independent centres of power
in England, and Kodaikanal came under
the latter’s sphere of influence.
92. Naegamvala took observations till the very
last date of his employment, 11 January
1912, ‘when in accordance with the
official notification,
93. the existence of the Observatory was
terminated’, and all equipment was sent
to Kodaikanal.
94. Thus instead of creating a permanent
educational facility, a temporary research
facility was created for the primary
benefit of European solar physicists.
95. Kodaikanal Observatory (1899)
If the 1874 transit of Venus was important
for solar physicists, so was the severe
famine of 1876-77 in the Madras
Presidency. Monsoons fail at times, but
the severity of famines was
96. particularly high in the colnial period
because of large-scale export of food
grains from India to Britain in utter
disregard of local requirements. This of
course is a later
97. assessment. In 1879, Lockyer presented a
report to the Indian Famine Commission
claiming that famines were correlated
with sunspot minima.
98. There is no doubt that Lockyer and many
others genuinely believed in a correlation
with solar activity and terrestrial weather.
99. But is also a fact that the practical benefits to
be derived from a study of the sun were
exaggerated to gain Government support.
100. In 1881, Government of India’s chief
meteorologist Henry Francis Blanford
reported to the Famine commission that
no such simple correlation as suggested
by Lockyer existed.
101. In any case, the Government decided to go
ahead with the Solar Observatory. It was
decided to wait till the neurotic Madras
Astronomer Pogson was dead. This
happened in 1890.
102. Steps to set up Solar Physics Observatory
were initiated in 1893, culminating in the
Kodaikanal facult which formally came
into existence on 1 April 1899.
103. Kodaikanal started shakily, but rose to great
heights under George Evershed who
arrived in 1907 no doubt to be able to
work in solitary splendour.
104. His 1909 discovery of the Evershed Effect
of radial flow in sunspots remains the
most outstanding work ever done in the
Observatory.
105. Concluding remarks
In the 18th century, when Britain and France
were fighting for control of maritime
trade and distant lands, astronomy
106. became a symbol of one-up-manship
( cf. space race between USA and
USSR in the cold war era).
107. By the time of the 19th century transits of
Venus, Britain had become the
uncontested world power. Science had
sufficiently progressed in the West to
give the scientists a high social and
political profile.
108. Supporting pure science was a proof of the
good sense of a Government. ( In the
18th century, support for geodesy,
geography and natural history by
109. the Dutch and English East India Companies
pleased the scientific community and
diverted attention away from the
Company’s unsavoury activities.)
110. A large number of telescopes were made for
purchase by the British Government for
field expeditions. These later became the
nucleus for observatories.
111. It was fortunate that before and after the
1874/1882 transits a number of solar
eclipses took place in quick succession.
There was thus created a climate
supportive of pure astronomy.
113. The most outstanding contributions
from Madras and Kodaikanla
Observatories were the Madras
catalogue of southern stars (1844) and
Evershed Effect (1909). These were
also the only times when India had
state-of -art instruments.
114. •Up to the first half of the 20th century,
the technological base of pure science
was quite modest. India could maintain
the equipment it had and improvise
also. But with passage of time science
has become
115. more and more a child of high technology to
the extent that in industrially-challenged
countries, (imported)
equipment tends to overwhelm the user
rather than be a tool in their hand.