Vermicomposting is a process where earthworms convert organic materials like food waste and crop residues into a nutrient-rich fertilizer called vermicompost or worm castings. It involves partial decomposition of organic matter followed by processing through an earthworm's digestive system. Vermicompost contains water-soluble nutrients and helps improve soil structure, texture, aeration and water retention. It is rich in microorganisms and plant-growth promoting substances. The document discusses the history and promotion of vermicomposting in India, internal anatomy and digestive system of earthworms, advantages of vermicompost over chemical fertilizers, and the process for producing vermicompost on a commercial scale.
Production and Application of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria as Biofertilize...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Soil microorganism plays an important role in regulating the levels of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur at the rhizosphere. Solubilization of macronutrient is an important aspect in plant growth and development research. Phosphorus is one of the vital nutrient required for optimum growth of plant. Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) plays an important role in increasing the phosphate uptake by the plants. Pikovskaya medium containing TCP or tricalcium phosphate helps in isolation of PSB from soil sample. Isolated strains were tested and screened by Halo zone formation and pH test. The selected strains showing marked decrease in pH and clear zone formation was selected for field trial. The objective of this study was to ascertain that PSBs isolated from the soil sample can be used as biofertilizer. Application of PSBs with a carrier mixed with maize seeds in the field of study and compared against a control field and against commercially available fertilizer showed that PSBs can improve the quality of soil and in turn improved the growth and development of the plants.
The document summarizes key concepts about green plants, including how they evolved adaptations to live on land. It discusses their morphological diversity and classification. It also describes how plants evolved traits like cuticles, stomata, and vascular tissue to transport water and withstand dry conditions. Molecular evidence from phylogenies supports green algae being ancestors of land plants.
Vermicomposting Technology for Solid Waste Managementx3G9
Vermicomposting is a process that uses earthworms to convert organic wastes into nutrient-rich vermicompost. The document discusses the vermicomposting process, suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, and provides their life cycles. It also discusses the basic requirements for vermicomposting like bedding, food sources, moisture, aeration, temperature and pH. Livestock manures, food waste and paper waste are mentioned as some common feedstocks used in vermicomposting.
Vermicomposting is a process that uses earthworms to convert organic wastes into nutrient-rich vermicompost. The document discusses the vermicomposting process, suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, and provides their life cycles. It also discusses the basic requirements for vermicomposting like bedding, food sources, moisture, aeration, temperature and pH. Livestock manures, food waste and paper waste are mentioned as common feedstocks used in vermicomposting.
“Antimicrobial activity of rhizospheric bacteria of Curcuma longa (Turmeric) ...IOSRJPBS
The present study was carried out to explore the production of antibiotics from soil microbes of medicinal Plant Curcuma longa (Turmeric). Soil samples of the Curcuma longa rhizosphere regions were collected from the different region in Akola City, Western Vidharbh region of Maharashtra. The bacterial culture from the soil samples were collected by the serial dilution and spread plate technique. The total 16 culture have been isolated from the soil samples and out of total 16 only 3 have been characterized which are potent isolates. These 3 isolates are active against the selected pathogens, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S.aureus. These samples were labelled as S1,S2 and S3. The characterized 3 cultures were identified as Bacillus megatherium, Pseudomonas fluroscenes and Globicitella sulfidifacein by using Bergey’s manual of systemic bacteriology. The Rhizospheric bacterial crude extract of Bacillus megatherium, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Globicatella sulfidifaciens were found to be more or less active against almost all tested pathogenic strains. Hence Curcuma longa can be employed as source of natural antimicrobials that can serve as an alternative to conventional medicines.It was concluded that the best activity have been shown by the Curcuma longa rhizospheric isolates (S2) which is of Pseudomonas fluorescens against all three human pathogenic organisms (E.coli , S.aureus , P.aeroginosa ). The activity of rhizospheric isolates was showing best results against S. aureus
Nutrients are chemicals in food that are necessary for organisms. Plants get nutrients through photosynthesis using carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and minerals to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Nutrition refers to how organisms take in and use food. Plants are autotrophic and make their own food through photosynthesis while fungi are saprotrophic and feed on dead and decaying matter. Some plants like pitcher plants are insectivorous and feed on insects to fulfill their nitrogen needs. Parasitic plants feed on other organisms called hosts. Symbiotic relationships benefit both organisms such as lichens where algae provides food and fungi provides shelter.
A Brief Overview of Nutrient Cycling in PasturesGardening
This document provides an overview of nutrient cycling in pastures through three key components: soil organisms, pasture plants, and grazing livestock. It describes how nutrients cycle naturally through the soil-plant-animal system when pastures are well-managed. Soil organisms like bacteria, fungi and earthworms break down organic matter and release nutrients in forms available to pasture plants. Plants take up nutrients from the soil and fix nitrogen in the case of legumes. Grazing livestock consume nutrients from forage but most are returned to the pasture through manure and urine, completing the nutrient cycle. Proper management, like rotational grazing and soil testing, can enhance this natural cycling of nutrients in pasture systems.
Production and Application of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria as Biofertilize...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Soil microorganism plays an important role in regulating the levels of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur at the rhizosphere. Solubilization of macronutrient is an important aspect in plant growth and development research. Phosphorus is one of the vital nutrient required for optimum growth of plant. Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) plays an important role in increasing the phosphate uptake by the plants. Pikovskaya medium containing TCP or tricalcium phosphate helps in isolation of PSB from soil sample. Isolated strains were tested and screened by Halo zone formation and pH test. The selected strains showing marked decrease in pH and clear zone formation was selected for field trial. The objective of this study was to ascertain that PSBs isolated from the soil sample can be used as biofertilizer. Application of PSBs with a carrier mixed with maize seeds in the field of study and compared against a control field and against commercially available fertilizer showed that PSBs can improve the quality of soil and in turn improved the growth and development of the plants.
The document summarizes key concepts about green plants, including how they evolved adaptations to live on land. It discusses their morphological diversity and classification. It also describes how plants evolved traits like cuticles, stomata, and vascular tissue to transport water and withstand dry conditions. Molecular evidence from phylogenies supports green algae being ancestors of land plants.
Vermicomposting Technology for Solid Waste Managementx3G9
Vermicomposting is a process that uses earthworms to convert organic wastes into nutrient-rich vermicompost. The document discusses the vermicomposting process, suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, and provides their life cycles. It also discusses the basic requirements for vermicomposting like bedding, food sources, moisture, aeration, temperature and pH. Livestock manures, food waste and paper waste are mentioned as some common feedstocks used in vermicomposting.
Vermicomposting is a process that uses earthworms to convert organic wastes into nutrient-rich vermicompost. The document discusses the vermicomposting process, suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, and provides their life cycles. It also discusses the basic requirements for vermicomposting like bedding, food sources, moisture, aeration, temperature and pH. Livestock manures, food waste and paper waste are mentioned as common feedstocks used in vermicomposting.
“Antimicrobial activity of rhizospheric bacteria of Curcuma longa (Turmeric) ...IOSRJPBS
The present study was carried out to explore the production of antibiotics from soil microbes of medicinal Plant Curcuma longa (Turmeric). Soil samples of the Curcuma longa rhizosphere regions were collected from the different region in Akola City, Western Vidharbh region of Maharashtra. The bacterial culture from the soil samples were collected by the serial dilution and spread plate technique. The total 16 culture have been isolated from the soil samples and out of total 16 only 3 have been characterized which are potent isolates. These 3 isolates are active against the selected pathogens, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S.aureus. These samples were labelled as S1,S2 and S3. The characterized 3 cultures were identified as Bacillus megatherium, Pseudomonas fluroscenes and Globicitella sulfidifacein by using Bergey’s manual of systemic bacteriology. The Rhizospheric bacterial crude extract of Bacillus megatherium, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Globicatella sulfidifaciens were found to be more or less active against almost all tested pathogenic strains. Hence Curcuma longa can be employed as source of natural antimicrobials that can serve as an alternative to conventional medicines.It was concluded that the best activity have been shown by the Curcuma longa rhizospheric isolates (S2) which is of Pseudomonas fluorescens against all three human pathogenic organisms (E.coli , S.aureus , P.aeroginosa ). The activity of rhizospheric isolates was showing best results against S. aureus
Nutrients are chemicals in food that are necessary for organisms. Plants get nutrients through photosynthesis using carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and minerals to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Nutrition refers to how organisms take in and use food. Plants are autotrophic and make their own food through photosynthesis while fungi are saprotrophic and feed on dead and decaying matter. Some plants like pitcher plants are insectivorous and feed on insects to fulfill their nitrogen needs. Parasitic plants feed on other organisms called hosts. Symbiotic relationships benefit both organisms such as lichens where algae provides food and fungi provides shelter.
A Brief Overview of Nutrient Cycling in PasturesGardening
This document provides an overview of nutrient cycling in pastures through three key components: soil organisms, pasture plants, and grazing livestock. It describes how nutrients cycle naturally through the soil-plant-animal system when pastures are well-managed. Soil organisms like bacteria, fungi and earthworms break down organic matter and release nutrients in forms available to pasture plants. Plants take up nutrients from the soil and fix nitrogen in the case of legumes. Grazing livestock consume nutrients from forage but most are returned to the pasture through manure and urine, completing the nutrient cycle. Proper management, like rotational grazing and soil testing, can enhance this natural cycling of nutrients in pasture systems.
The document discusses the soil food web and its importance for soil ecology. It defines the soil food web as the collection of organisms that interact in the soil environment, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. A healthy soil food web contains high populations and diversity of microorganisms that perform critical functions like decomposing organic matter, nutrient cycling, and supporting plant growth. Maintaining a balanced soil food web is important for soil fertility and plant health.
Soils give a mechanical support to plants from which they extract nutrients. soil provides shelters for many animal types, from invertebrates such as worms and insects up to mammals like rabbits, moles, foxes and badgers. It also provides habitats colonised by a staggering variety of microorganisms. This module is about the microbial life in soils.
Plant physiology is the study of how plants function at the cellular and biochemical levels and how they respond to environmental factors. It combines knowledge of plant structure, energy sources, water and nutrient uptake, responses to light, temperature, and stresses. It relies on plant biology, anatomy, ecology, cell biology, chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Understanding plant physiology has led to advances in agriculture, forestry, pharmacology, and more through improving photosynthesis, tissue culture techniques, irrigation, weed control, nutrition, and use of growth regulators.
Nutrient management is a system used by farmers to manage nutrients applied to crops. The goal is to supply optimal nutrients for plant growth while minimizing pollution and maintaining soil quality. Nutrient management plans are tailored to specific sites to maximize profits and crop yields sustainably. Plants require 16 essential nutrients supplied by air, water, and soil. Fertilizers are used to replenish nutrients in soil and ensure healthy plant growth, but excessive use can harm the environment and deplete soils over time. Organic fertilizers like manure and compost improve soil structure and support microbial activity.
This document discusses a study on the stimulatory influence of additives on vermicomposting by the earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae. The study found that a mixture of cattle dung and dried leaves in a 2:1 ratio produced the most compost. In experiments, E. eugeniae most preferred medium treated with the additive Spirulina, followed by Trichoderma, with the least preference for medium containing jaggery and buttermilk. The study concluded that Spirulina and Trichoderma can be used as probiotic and microbial inoculants to enhance vermicomposting by qualitatively and quantitatively improving the pre-decomposition period.
Soil Biota and Organic Residue Decomposition MethodsSOUVIKGANGULY11
The document discusses soil components and soil organisms. It defines soil as a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and organisms. The basic soil components are minerals, organic matter, water and air. Organic matter contains humus, roots, and organisms. Soil biota includes a wide variety of organisms that spend time in the soil profile or at the soil interface and contribute to nutrient cycling. These organisms include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, insects and other invertebrates. When organic residues are added to soils, they are decomposed by the soil biota through a series of biological and chemical processes.
Research Paper on Vermiculture and Vermicompostingx3G9
The document summarizes a research project on vermiculture and vermicomposting conducted by students. They constructed two vermi beds and introduced red wriggler worms. Over several weeks, they applied various organic substrates to the beds, fed and moistened the worms, and harvested over 200kg of high-quality vermicast fertilizer. The vermicast was then used to fertilize vegetable seedlings, demonstrating the potential of vermiculture for organic waste management and fertilizer production.
This document summarizes a research paper on vermiculture and vermicomposting conducted by students at Ramon Magsaysay Technological University. The students cleaned and prepared vermi beds, introduced red wriggler worms, fed them vegetable waste, and harvested 100kg of organic fertilizer (vermicast) from each bed after 2 weeks. They replenished the beds with new substrates and reintroduced the worms to continue the cycle. The harvested vermicast was used as organic fertilizer for pechay seedlings. The research demonstrated how to effectively culture worms and produce high-quality compost through vermicomposting.
Plant physiology is the study of how plants function at the cellular and biochemical levels and respond to their environment. It examines plant metabolism, growth, transport, water relations, and responses to stresses and environmental factors. Plant physiology relies on biology, chemistry, and physics and serves as the foundation for advances in agriculture, forestry, pharmacology, and other fields. Understanding plant physiology allows for improvements like increasing photosynthetic efficiency, producing disease-resistant crops through tissue culture, and optimizing plant nutrition and growth through techniques like pruning, irrigation, and growth regulators.
This document defines key terms in ecology including ecosystem, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, decomposer, food chain, food web, and trophic level. It also describes energy flow through ecosystems, noting that only about 10% of energy is transferred between trophic levels. This limits food chain length and population sizes of top carnivores. Ecological pyramids of numbers and biomass are explained, with pyramids becoming narrower at higher trophic levels as less energy is available. Nutrient cycles like the carbon, water, and nitrogen cycles are summarized, showing how nutrients like carbon and nitrogen are recycled through an ecosystem. Finally, factors influencing population growth like resources, predation, and
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
This document provides information on vermicomposting (worm composting) with an emphasis on its use for intensive organic food production. It discusses why worm composting may be preferable to hot composting in some situations. Key environmental factors that impact the worms and composting process are identified, including bedding, feedstock, moisture, oxygen, temperature, light, and pH levels. The taxonomy, anatomy, and life cycle of red worms (Eisenia fetida), which are commonly used for vermicomposting, are also described.
This document provides information on vermicomposting (worm composting) with an emphasis on its use for intensive organic food production. It discusses why worm composting may be preferable to hot composting in some situations. Key environmental factors that impact the worms and composting process are identified, including bedding, feedstock, moisture, oxygen, temperature, light, and pH levels. The taxonomy, anatomy, and life cycle of red worms (Eisenia fetida), which are commonly used for vermicomposting, are also described.
Biofertilizers contain living microorganisms that colonize plant roots and soil to promote plant growth. They do this through natural processes like nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and stimulating plant growth with substances. There are several types of biofertilizers including bacterial (Rhizobium, Azotobacter), fungal (VAM), and algal biofertilizers. They help increase soil fertility and nutrient supply to plants, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Mass production of biofertilizers involves growing the microorganisms in large quantities and mixing them with a carrier for storage and application to soil and plants.
The document provides information about the fundamentals of soil science. It discusses 5 units that cover topics like soil formation, physical properties, water and air movement in soil, reaction and pH, colloids, organic matter, soil organisms, and pollution. Unit 5 discusses how soil organisms can have both beneficial and harmful effects, and how pollution affects soil through pesticides and other contaminants. Prevention of pollution includes reducing deforestation and proper waste management.
Studies of biodegradation of ipomea carnea weed from kavinadu big tank in pud...Alexander Decker
1) The study examines the biodegradation of Ipomea carnea weed through composting. Samples were collected from water and sediment to isolate bacterial colonies including Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp.
2) As composting progressed over 30 days, thermophilic bacterial and fungal growth increased along with organic content and pH of the compost. The highest number of thermophilic bacteria was observed at 50°C on day 30.
3) Composting Ipomea carnea is a promising way to recycle plant wastes while improving soil fertility and structure through increased organic content and microbial activity in the compost.
1) Vermicompost, or worm compost, is a nutrient-rich fertilizer produced through the breakdown of organic matter by compost worms. It improves soil fertility and plant growth.
2) Compost worms, especially Eisenia fetida, are used to break down organic waste into vermicompost. They thrive in humid conditions between 20-25°C and can process half their body weight in waste per day.
3) Vermicomposting is a flexible method used worldwide to convert various organic materials like manure, plant waste, and food scraps into a valuable fertilizer within 2-5 months. When applied to soils, vermicompost improves soil structure and plant nutrition
Thesis Write Up Format - Thesis Format RequirementAshley Smith
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, and HelpWriting.net guarantees original, high-quality content or a full refund.
Narrative Writing Outline (DOC) Writing Outline, NaAshley Smith
The document discusses the Chinese civil service examination system from the Sui Dynasty in 605 AD to 1905. Candidates had to pass essay exams testing their knowledge of Confucian classics to enter state bureaucracy. The exams lasted over 1300 years and were a major way the central government recruited local elites and ensured cultural unity across China. Candidates were recruited proportionally from all provinces to integrate the centralized state.
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The document discusses the soil food web and its importance for soil ecology. It defines the soil food web as the collection of organisms that interact in the soil environment, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. A healthy soil food web contains high populations and diversity of microorganisms that perform critical functions like decomposing organic matter, nutrient cycling, and supporting plant growth. Maintaining a balanced soil food web is important for soil fertility and plant health.
Soils give a mechanical support to plants from which they extract nutrients. soil provides shelters for many animal types, from invertebrates such as worms and insects up to mammals like rabbits, moles, foxes and badgers. It also provides habitats colonised by a staggering variety of microorganisms. This module is about the microbial life in soils.
Plant physiology is the study of how plants function at the cellular and biochemical levels and how they respond to environmental factors. It combines knowledge of plant structure, energy sources, water and nutrient uptake, responses to light, temperature, and stresses. It relies on plant biology, anatomy, ecology, cell biology, chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Understanding plant physiology has led to advances in agriculture, forestry, pharmacology, and more through improving photosynthesis, tissue culture techniques, irrigation, weed control, nutrition, and use of growth regulators.
Nutrient management is a system used by farmers to manage nutrients applied to crops. The goal is to supply optimal nutrients for plant growth while minimizing pollution and maintaining soil quality. Nutrient management plans are tailored to specific sites to maximize profits and crop yields sustainably. Plants require 16 essential nutrients supplied by air, water, and soil. Fertilizers are used to replenish nutrients in soil and ensure healthy plant growth, but excessive use can harm the environment and deplete soils over time. Organic fertilizers like manure and compost improve soil structure and support microbial activity.
This document discusses a study on the stimulatory influence of additives on vermicomposting by the earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae. The study found that a mixture of cattle dung and dried leaves in a 2:1 ratio produced the most compost. In experiments, E. eugeniae most preferred medium treated with the additive Spirulina, followed by Trichoderma, with the least preference for medium containing jaggery and buttermilk. The study concluded that Spirulina and Trichoderma can be used as probiotic and microbial inoculants to enhance vermicomposting by qualitatively and quantitatively improving the pre-decomposition period.
Soil Biota and Organic Residue Decomposition MethodsSOUVIKGANGULY11
The document discusses soil components and soil organisms. It defines soil as a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and organisms. The basic soil components are minerals, organic matter, water and air. Organic matter contains humus, roots, and organisms. Soil biota includes a wide variety of organisms that spend time in the soil profile or at the soil interface and contribute to nutrient cycling. These organisms include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, insects and other invertebrates. When organic residues are added to soils, they are decomposed by the soil biota through a series of biological and chemical processes.
Research Paper on Vermiculture and Vermicompostingx3G9
The document summarizes a research project on vermiculture and vermicomposting conducted by students. They constructed two vermi beds and introduced red wriggler worms. Over several weeks, they applied various organic substrates to the beds, fed and moistened the worms, and harvested over 200kg of high-quality vermicast fertilizer. The vermicast was then used to fertilize vegetable seedlings, demonstrating the potential of vermiculture for organic waste management and fertilizer production.
This document summarizes a research paper on vermiculture and vermicomposting conducted by students at Ramon Magsaysay Technological University. The students cleaned and prepared vermi beds, introduced red wriggler worms, fed them vegetable waste, and harvested 100kg of organic fertilizer (vermicast) from each bed after 2 weeks. They replenished the beds with new substrates and reintroduced the worms to continue the cycle. The harvested vermicast was used as organic fertilizer for pechay seedlings. The research demonstrated how to effectively culture worms and produce high-quality compost through vermicomposting.
Plant physiology is the study of how plants function at the cellular and biochemical levels and respond to their environment. It examines plant metabolism, growth, transport, water relations, and responses to stresses and environmental factors. Plant physiology relies on biology, chemistry, and physics and serves as the foundation for advances in agriculture, forestry, pharmacology, and other fields. Understanding plant physiology allows for improvements like increasing photosynthetic efficiency, producing disease-resistant crops through tissue culture, and optimizing plant nutrition and growth through techniques like pruning, irrigation, and growth regulators.
This document defines key terms in ecology including ecosystem, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, decomposer, food chain, food web, and trophic level. It also describes energy flow through ecosystems, noting that only about 10% of energy is transferred between trophic levels. This limits food chain length and population sizes of top carnivores. Ecological pyramids of numbers and biomass are explained, with pyramids becoming narrower at higher trophic levels as less energy is available. Nutrient cycles like the carbon, water, and nitrogen cycles are summarized, showing how nutrients like carbon and nitrogen are recycled through an ecosystem. Finally, factors influencing population growth like resources, predation, and
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
1. Plants provide the foundation of life by producing oxygen, building soil, holding soil in place, moderating climate, holding water, and providing food, fuel, fiber and drugs for humans.
2. Important adaptations that enabled plants to live on land include developing mechanical strength for support, light-catching leaves, roots for anchoring and obtaining nutrients, stomata and cuticles to control water loss, and methods of reproduction and dispersal on dry land.
3. Major plant groups evolved over time in relationship to environmental changes. Early land plants included lycophytes and horsetails, which were later joined by seed plants including gymnosperms and later angiosperms, allowing colonization of new
This document provides information on vermicomposting (worm composting) with an emphasis on its use for intensive organic food production. It discusses why worm composting may be preferable to hot composting in some situations. Key environmental factors that impact the worms and composting process are identified, including bedding, feedstock, moisture, oxygen, temperature, light, and pH levels. The taxonomy, anatomy, and life cycle of red worms (Eisenia fetida), which are commonly used for vermicomposting, are also described.
This document provides information on vermicomposting (worm composting) with an emphasis on its use for intensive organic food production. It discusses why worm composting may be preferable to hot composting in some situations. Key environmental factors that impact the worms and composting process are identified, including bedding, feedstock, moisture, oxygen, temperature, light, and pH levels. The taxonomy, anatomy, and life cycle of red worms (Eisenia fetida), which are commonly used for vermicomposting, are also described.
Biofertilizers contain living microorganisms that colonize plant roots and soil to promote plant growth. They do this through natural processes like nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and stimulating plant growth with substances. There are several types of biofertilizers including bacterial (Rhizobium, Azotobacter), fungal (VAM), and algal biofertilizers. They help increase soil fertility and nutrient supply to plants, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Mass production of biofertilizers involves growing the microorganisms in large quantities and mixing them with a carrier for storage and application to soil and plants.
The document provides information about the fundamentals of soil science. It discusses 5 units that cover topics like soil formation, physical properties, water and air movement in soil, reaction and pH, colloids, organic matter, soil organisms, and pollution. Unit 5 discusses how soil organisms can have both beneficial and harmful effects, and how pollution affects soil through pesticides and other contaminants. Prevention of pollution includes reducing deforestation and proper waste management.
Studies of biodegradation of ipomea carnea weed from kavinadu big tank in pud...Alexander Decker
1) The study examines the biodegradation of Ipomea carnea weed through composting. Samples were collected from water and sediment to isolate bacterial colonies including Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp.
2) As composting progressed over 30 days, thermophilic bacterial and fungal growth increased along with organic content and pH of the compost. The highest number of thermophilic bacteria was observed at 50°C on day 30.
3) Composting Ipomea carnea is a promising way to recycle plant wastes while improving soil fertility and structure through increased organic content and microbial activity in the compost.
1) Vermicompost, or worm compost, is a nutrient-rich fertilizer produced through the breakdown of organic matter by compost worms. It improves soil fertility and plant growth.
2) Compost worms, especially Eisenia fetida, are used to break down organic waste into vermicompost. They thrive in humid conditions between 20-25°C and can process half their body weight in waste per day.
3) Vermicomposting is a flexible method used worldwide to convert various organic materials like manure, plant waste, and food scraps into a valuable fertilizer within 2-5 months. When applied to soils, vermicompost improves soil structure and plant nutrition
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How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
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বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UP
An Outlook of Vermicomposting and its Scope in Future.pdf
1. JCBPS; Section D; November 2016 – January 2017, Vol. 7, No. 1; 049-065. E- ISSN: 2249 –1929
Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences
An International Peer Review E-3 Journal of Sciences
Available online atwww.jcbsc.org
Section D: Environmental Sciences
CODEN (USA): JCBPAT Review Article
49 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
An Outlook of Vermicomposting and its Scope in
Future
1*
Abul Kalam and 2
Syed Rehan Ahmad
1
Department of Microbiology, Bidhannagar Govt College, Salt Lake City, Kolkata, India
2
Department of Microbiology, Shri Venkateshwara University, Gajraula, U.P, India.
Received: 27 October 2016; Revised: 01 December 2016; Accepted: 07 December 2016
Abstract: Vermicompost is the item or procedure of fertilizing the soil utilizing
different worms, typically red wigglers, white worms, and different night crawlers, to
make a heterogeneous blend of disintegrating vegetable or nourishment squander,
bedding materials, and vermicast, additionally called worm castings, worm humus or
worm fertilizer, is the finished result of the breakdown of natural matter by an
earthworm. These castings have been appeared to contain lessened levels of
contaminants and a higher immersion of supplements than do natural materials before
vermicomposting. Containing water-dissolvable supplements, vermicompost is an
amazing, supplement rich natural compost and soil conditioner. This procedure of
delivering vermicompost is called vermicomposting. The present article deal with An
Outlook of Vermicomposting and its scope in future.
Keywords: Vermicompost, Bioteks, Biotechnology
INTRODUCTION
Vermicompost is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by some species of earthworm.
Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich, organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. The process of producing
vermicompost is called vermicomposting. It is the excreta of earthworm, which is rich in humus.
Earthworms eat cow dung or farm yard manure along with other farm wastes and pass it through their
body and in the process convert it into vermicomposting,
So Vermicompost = worm castings + humus + microorganisms + partially decomposed bedding
and plant materials.]
2. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
50 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
Vermiculture has been the primary focus at Maharashtra Agricultural Bioteks in India, an
organization which has initiated both commercial and educational ventures to promote Vermiculture.
In 1985, Maharashtra Agricultural Bioteks was formed and established a small plant to manufacture
vermicompost from agricultural waste. In 1991-92, Maharashtra Bioteks and the India Department of
Science and Technology promoted the adoption of vermicompost technology in 13 states in India. The
group has also established a vermicompost unit with Chitrakoot Gramodaya University, Madhya
Pradesh which produces five tons of vermicompost per month.
Advantages of vermicompost:
1. Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.
2. Provides excellent effect on overall plant growth, encourages the growth of new
Shoots / leaves and improves the quality and shelf life of the produce.
3. Vermicompost is free flowing, easy to apply, handle and store and does not have bad odor.
4. It improves soil structure, texture, aeration, and water holding capacity and prevents soil
erosion.
5. Vermicompost is rich in beneficial micro flora such as a fixers, P- solubilizers,
6. Cellulose decomposing micro-flora etc in addition to improve soil environment.
7. Vermicompost contains earthworm cocoons and increases the population and
Activity of earthworm in the soil.
8. It contains valuable vitamins, enzymes and hormones like auxins, gibberellins etc
9. It prevents nutrient losses and increases the use efficiency of chemical fertilizers.
10. Vermicompost is free from pathogens, toxic elements, weed seeds etc.
11. Vermicompost minimizes the incidence of pest and diseases.
12. It enhances the decomposition of organic matter in soil.
Tool of Vermicomposting (Earthworm):
Earthworms belong to the phylum Annelida; class Oligochaeta, which consists of over 7000 species.
Their bodies are long & tube like, tapering on both ends and commonly ranging length from one to six
inches. Certain Australian earthworms are several feet long. Earthworms are function as either a male
or a female during reproduction. Self-fertilization does not occur.
Internal anatomy of an earthworm (lateral section): Internal anatomy of an earthworm (ateral
section): small, long, cylindrical animal without legs or hard body parts.
Mouth cavity: Entrance to the digestive tract of an earthworm.
Brain: Brain of an earthworm.
Pharynx: Part of the digestive tract of an earthworm just after its mouth.
Esophagus: Part of the digestive tract of an earthworm between the pharynx and the crop.
Dorsal blood vessel: Blood vessel situated in the front part of an earthworm.
Seminal receptacle: Pocket related to the semen of an earthworm.
Seminal vesicles: Small hollow organs that carry the semen of an earthworm.
3. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
51 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
Crop: Bulge of the esophagus of an earthworm.
Gizzard: Pocket used as the stomach of an earthworm.
Nephridia: Organ of an earthworm that performs the functions of kidneys.
Lateral heart: Blood-pumping organ of an earthworm.
Digestive System: The earthworm has a simple digestive system compared to other creatures. It
possesses an esophagus, which serves the same purpose as it does in higher animals: to carry food.
However, the worm esophagus leads to the crop and gizzard rather than to a stomach (which
earthworms do not possess). The crop and gizzard combined serve the purpose of a human stomach.
Gizzard’s main function is to grind and digest tough food through some digestive enzymes. The crop
holds food while the gizzard grinds it down mechanically to increase the surface area for the chemical
processing. Actually mineral matter accumulates in the gizzard, and ultimately the gizzard grinds the
particles. The gizzard leads into the intestine, which digests and absorbs the nutrients and it follows
the length of the earthworm’s body to the anus.
This passage from mouth -> esophagus -> crop -> gizzard -> anus constitutes the entire digestive
system.
Vermicast: Vermicast is produced by the feeding action of earthworms. Earthworms ingest organic
matter, fragmenting and grinding it into a finely divided peat like material with high porosity,
aeration, drainage and water holding capacity. Mucus type substance coated on each particle that
increases aeration in the soil, provides excellent water retention properties and improves the drainage
in heavy soils. This process enhances microbial activity and accelerates the rate of decomposition.
This leads to a humification effect where unstable organic matter or decomposing plant and animal
matter is oxidized and stabilized. Microbially, vermicast contains a far more diverse microbial
population (such as Azotobacter, PGPR, PSB, Actinomycetes) than other composts.
Microorganisms play an important part in soil fertility, they not only mineralize complex substances
into plant available nutrients but bacteria in the earth worms' digestive system also synthesize a whole
series of biologically active substances including plant growth regulators. Earth worms promote the
production of plant hormones, auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins from organic waste dramatically.
These hormones are dose significant and play a fundamental role in plant metabolism as well as plant
growth, development and crop quality significantly. Vermicast is humus rich. The breakdown of
organic material by earth worms accelerates the humification of organic matter.
The humic and fulvic acids produced in this process have been proven to stimulate plant growth.
Humic acids are large complex molecules. Partial oxidation of humic acids allows bonding sites for
plant nutrients including calcium and magnesium. Humic acids are produced by the breakdown of
organic matter by microorganisms. They are generally negatively charged so attracting positive ions,
for example calcium. Humic substances promote the conversion of a number of elements into forms
available to plants, of particular importance is phosphate. Phosphate reacts with other minerals in the
soil, (particularly iron and aluminium) and becomes locked or unavailable to plants. Humic acids help
substitute iron and aluminium with other elements e.g. calcium making phosphate plant available.
As a fertiliser, vermicast contains nutrients in a form that are readily taken up by plants, such as
nitrates, exchangeable phosphorous, soluble potassium, calcium and magnesium. A typical
breakdown of vermicast is as follows:
pH N P K S Mg Ca CEC (Me/100g) Organic Matter (humus)
6.6 2.3 3.0 0.6 0.1 0.65 8.6 52.75 20%
4. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
52 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
Vermicast vs. Chemical Fertilizers in Soil
Criteria for
Comparison
Chemical Fertilizers Vermicast
Macro nutrient
contents
Mostly contains only one (N
in urea) or at the most two (N
& P in DAP) nutrients
Contains all i.e. nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
& potassium (K) in sufficient quantities
Secondary nutrient
contents
Not available Calcium, magnesium & sulphur is available in
required quantities
Micro nutrient
contents
Not available Zinc, boron, manganese, iron , copper,
molybdenum and chlorine also present
pH balancing Disturb soil pH to create
salinity and alkalinity
conditions
Helps in the control of soil pH and checks the
salinity and alkalinity in soil
Organic carbon Not available Very high organic carbon and humus contents
improves soil characteristics
Moisture retention
capacity
Reduces moisture retention
capacity,
Increases moistures retention capacity of the
soil
Soil Texture Damages soil texture to reduce
aeration
Improves soil texture for better aeration
Beneficial bacteria
& fungi
Reduces biological activities
and thus the fertility is
impaired
Very high biological life improves the soil
fertility and productivity on sustainable basis
Vermicompost Technology (Preparation in Flow Chart)
a. Keep the 100 kg. Raw materials (organic matter) in raised cemented chamber.
b. Take 16 kilograms of cattle dung and mix it with 25 liters of water.
c. Mix this mixture with 100 Kilograms of raw material.
d. Keep this mixture moist and stir once every week for five weeks. It will be partially decomposed.
e. Make four raised chambers measuring 3ft. x 3ft. x 3 ft. with cemented floor.
f. Fix an asbestos sheet six foot above for protection from rains.
5. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
53 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
g. Cover it with a perforated cover (Metallic) having two mm holes.
h. Keep the partially decomposed matter in these chambers at least 1inch below the top.
i. Put the mixture of 4000 there earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae: Eisenia feotida: Perionyx excavatus=
1:1:1) over the surface of partially decomposed organic matter.
j. Spray little water once in three days.
k. These worms will eat the partially decomposed organic matter and put out the excreta as
vermicompost.
l. After every ten days by hand remove the vermicompost (excreta).
m. The vermicompost is sieved by use of one mm sieve and spread in thin layer for air drying.
n. Matter which could not be sieved is placed back on partially decomposed organic matter for
breakdown by earthworms.
o. In about one month all the partially decomposed organic matter gets converted into vermicompost.
p. Well air dried vermicompost is Packed in 1 to 5 Kg in polythene bags, and airtight.
DESCRIPTION OF VAT
Different types of vat are used.
6. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
54 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
Container method: Suitable for household purpose. Container of 1 m x 1 m x 0.75 m should contain
about 1000 worms. Container can be used provided it has good drainage.
Heap (Bed) Method:
Apart from this there are other types of bin that are used as commercial farm units. These are (a) Can-
O-Worms™ (b) Worm-A-Way® (c) Worm-A-Roo™.
(a) Can-O-Worms™
(b) Worm-A-Way®
(c) Worm-A-Roo™
Substrate (Raw Materials): Materials that is required for vermicomposting-
(A) 100 Kilograms of organic matter such as-
Suitable for both commercial and small farm units. Size of the shed varies
depending upon the availability of raw material and production requirement.
Small unit - 8m x 4m x 4m (10 tons production)
Big unit - 30m x 8m x 4m (2sheeds 100 tones production)
- Most popular
- Enclosed tier system
- Bottom catch tray & spigot
- Stackable mesh trays
- Worms migrate vertically
- asy to harvest castings
- $130.00 incl. shipping
-Plastic
-Ventilated
-Several sizes
-Lightweight
-$90-$100 incl. Worms & shipping
-Double bin system
-Plastic
-“Migration device”
-Lightweight
-$140-$170 incl. Supplies, worms, and shipping
7. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
55 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
1. Crop residues 5. Hotel refuse
2. Weed biomass 6. Waste from agro-industries
3. Vegetable waste 7. Biodegradable portion of urban and rural wastes.
4. Leaf litter 8. House organic waste
(B) Cattle dung about 16 Kilograms
(C) Earthworms species:
(a.) Eudrilus eugeniae
(b). Eisenia feotida
(c). Perionyx excavatus. About 4000.
PROCEDURE
Partial Decomposing of Raw Material:
a. Keep the 100 kg. Raw materials (organic matter) in raised cemented chamber.
b. Take 16 kilograms of cattle dung and mix it with 25 liters of water.
c. Mix this mixture with 100 Kilograms of raw material.
d. Keep this mixture moist and stir once every week for five weeks. It will be partially
decomposed.
Making of vermicompost from partially decomposed raw material:
a. Make four raised chambers measuring 3ft. x 3ft. x 3 ft. with cemented floor.
b. Fix an asbestos sheet six foot above for protection from rains.
c. Keep the partially decomposed matter in these chambers at least one inch below the top.
d. Cover it with a perforated cover (Metallic) having two mm holes.
e. Put the mixture of 4000 there earthworm (1:1:1) over the surface of partially decomposed
organic matter.
f. Keep it moist by little water spray. These worms will eat the partially decomposed organic
matter and put out the excreta as vermicompost. Spray little water once in three days.
Processing of the vermicompost:
a. After every ten days by hand remove the vermicompost (excreta).
b. Keep this vermicompost in heap in order to separate the very small earthworms. In 24 hours
these earthworms comes to the bottom part of vermicompost, which are then removed and
placed on the partially decomposed organic matter.
c. The vermicompost is sieved by use of one mm sieve and spread in thin layer for air drying.
d. Matter which could not be sieved is placed back on partially decomposed organic matter for
breakdown by earthworms.
e. In about one month all the partially decomposed organic matter gets converted into
vermicompost.
8. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
56 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
f. After 10 days of drying, vermicompost is collected and put in a heap. The idea is to remove
any remaining earthworm. For this purpose about half Kilogram of cattle dung is put inside
this heap. In about two days all remaining earthworms collect in the cattle dung. This cattle
dung is removed and placed on the recharged matter.
Vermicompost is ready in 2-2.5 months. When it is ready, it’s back, lightweight and has no bed smell.
PACKING
Before packing, the vermicompost is dried in air well but not in sunlight. Because in sunlight moisture
content of vermicompost become very low and as a result market price will be very low.
It is packed in 25-50 kgs polythene bags and airtight, just like that of other inorganic chemical
fertilizers packed in polythene bags. Packing cost per packet is generally 15-20 Rs.
Necessary Precautions
a. For protection of vermicompost preparation chamber from rains, roofing is essential.
b. Covering of vermicompost chamber by perforated cover is essential for proper aeration and
protection from rodents, birds etc.
c. Maintain the moisture at 50-60 % level in the pit.
d. Temperature between 25-28 ºC.
e. Base material (FYM) should be partially decomposed.
f. Proper aeration should be provided without disturbing the worms.
a. G.Vermicompost is dried in air well before packing.
APPLICATION
Vermicompost can be used for all crops (agricultural, horticultural, ornamental and vegetable) at any
stage of crop development.
For agricultural crops: Vermicompost can be applied in agricultural crops by broadcasting when the
seedlings are 12 to 15 cms in height and irrigate the field.
Flower, Vegetables and fruit trees: Apply vermicompost around the base of the plant, at any stage
of development and cover with soil. Water regularly.
Generally agricultural use: 3-4 tonnes/ha
Fruit trees: 5-10 kg/tree
Vegetables: 3-4tonnes/ha
Flowers: 500-750 kg/ha
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Nutrient status of vermicompost
Organic carbon % 20.43 – 30.31
Total nitrogen % 1.80 – 2.05
Phosphorus % 1.32 – 1.93
Potassium % 1.28 – 1.50
Calcium % 3.0 – 4.5
Copper % 0.0027 – 0.0123
Iron % 0.3 – 0.7
Zinc % 0.028 – 0.036
Sulphur % Traces to 0.40
Magnesium % 0.4 – 0.7
Sodium % 0.02 – 0.30
Boron % 0.0034 – 0.0075
Manganese % 0.40
Aluminium % Traces to 0.071
Cobalt, Molybdenum Present in available form
Carbon : Nitrogen 14-15 : 1
pH 6.5-7.5
Vermiwash: Vermin wash is a liquid plant growth regulator, which contains high amount of
enzymes, Vitamins and hormones like auxins, gibberellins etc along with macro and micronutrients
Used as foliar spray.
Apparatus: An apparatus for making a vermiwash, the apparatus comprising:
1. A bucket for holding the particulate matter.
2. One stop cork.
3. Two hanging pot
The stop cork added to the lower most part of the bucket .One hanging pot hangs over the bucket
which contain a hole in such a way so that waterfalls drop by drop in bucket and another hanging pot
hangs lower part of the stop cork so that vermiwash produced in the bucket collected in the pot. Upper
hanging pot contain water one fiftieth of the size of the main container.
Water is poured into this container and allowed to gradually sprinkle on the bucket overnight. This
water percolates through the compost, the burrows of the earthworms and gets collected at the base.
The stop cork is opened the next day morning and the vermiwash is collected. The tap is then closed
and the suspended pot is refilled with water that evening to be collected again the following morning.
Dung pats and hay may be replaced periodically based on need. The entire set up may be emptied and
reset between 10 and 12 months of use.
Substrate (Raw Materials)
1. Broken bricks 4. Partially decomposed cow dung.
2. Pieces of stones. 5. Soil.
3. Sand. 6. 100-200 nos. of earthworms
7. A layer of paddy straw.
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PREPARATION
1. Take one big bucket and one mug.
2. Set up one stop cork on the lower most part of the bucket.
3. Put a layer of broken bricks, pieces of stones having thickness of 10-15 cm in the bucket.
4. Over this layer put another layer of sand having thickness of 10-15 cm.
5. Then put a layer of partially decomposed cow dung having 30-45 cm thickness over it.
6. Then put another layer of soil having 2-3 thicknesses.
7. Now open the stopcock of the bucket and when the materials taken in the bucket.
8. Then put 100-200 nos. of earthworms in the bucket.
9. After that, a layer of paddy straw having 6 cm thickness is given.
10. Now open the stopcock of the bucket and spray water regularly for a period of 7-8 days.
11. After 10 days the liquid vermin wash will be produced in the bucket.
12. Hang one pot with a bottom hole over the bucket in such a way so that water falls drop by drop.
13. Every day 4-5 liters of water is to be poured in the hanging pot.
14. Keep another pot under stop cork to collect the vermin wash. Every day 3-4 liters Vermin wash
can be collected.
18. Vermiwash Analysis Report.
Organic Carbon % 0.008 ± 0.001
Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen % 0.01±0.005
Available Phosphate % 1.69 ± 0.05
Potassium (ppm) 25 ± 2
Sodium (ppm) 8 ± 1
Calcium (ppm) 3 ± 1
Copper (ppm) 0.01 ± 0.001
Ferrous (ppm) 0.06 ± 0.001
Magnesium (ppm) 158.44 ± 23.42
Manganese (ppm) 0.58 ± 0.040
Zinc (ppm) 0.02 ± 0.001
Total Heterotrophs (CFU/ml) 1.79 x 103
Electro conductivity dS/m 0.25 ± 0.03
pH 7.48 ± 0.03
Application
1. Mix 1 liters of vermin wash with 7-10 liters of water and spray the solution in the leaf (upper and
lower side) in the evening at the growing the crop.
2. Mix 1 liter of vermin wash with 1 liter of cow urine and then add 10 liters of water to the vermin
urine solution and mixed thoroughly and keep it over night before spraying 50-60 liter of such
solution and to be sprayed in one bigha of land to control various crop diseases.
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Vermiculture: Vermiculture refers to the biomass production of earthworms in semi natural
conditions, providing suitable substrate and feed for them to remain active all through the year.
Culturing of earthworms started as entrepreneurship in the later half of the 20th C. to supply them to
fishing enthusiasts. Earthworms that can survive in captivity under semi natural conditions, tolerant to
wide ranges of substrates and to other physical parameters like pH, temperature, moisture and
physical disturbances can only be maintained as cultures. They should show good population growth
for culture propagation. These characters are found in very few species of earthworms and hence,
successful culturing is possible only with these earthworms irrespective of the place of their origin.
In USA and Canada culturing of earthworms started as entrepreneurship where as in India they were
maintained as cultures for different research activities. Since more than a decade, farmers, agro based
industries and urban households are culturing earthworms as the biological material for organic waste
management in India. Though, many research laboratories are involved in carrying out research on
this aspect.
Vermicomposting and Sustainable Environment: Vermicompost, like conventional compost,
provides many benefits to agricultural soil, including increased ability to retain moisture, better
nutrient-holding capacity, better soil structure, and higher levels of microbial activity. Apart from this
Vermicomposts have great potential in horticulture and agriculture crop production due to production
of plant growth regulators by the greatly increased microbial populations. These accelerate the
germination, growth, flowering and yields of plants independent of nutrient supply. Vermicomposts
also have potential, as solids or aqueous vermicompost extracts, in integrated pest management
programs, since one application suppresses soil-borne plant pathogens, plant parasitic nematodes as
well as numbers and reproduction of arthropod pests such as aphids, beetles and caterpillars.
Pesticide/Herbicide Detoxification by Earthworm: Organophosphate degrading enzymes have been
intensively investigated in microorganisms. Since they can be potentially utilized to detoxify
environmental pollutions such as industrial wastes and pesticides. Phosphotriesterase (PTE) is an
enzyme that is able to hydrolyze organophosphate triesters. PTE was first detected in the soil
microorganisms, Pseudomonas diminuta and Flavobacterium sp, which is capable of hydrolyzing
paraoxon and parathion at a high catalytic activity. In soil macroinvertibrate such as earthworms, PTE
system was found, to effectively hydrolyze organophosphate pesticides applied to soil.
Earthworms play an important role in the disposition of soil xenobiotics. Glutathione and glutathione-
s-transferase (GST) play a major role in cellular defense mechanisms. Glutathione and glutathione-s-
transferase (GST) are present in earthworm. Glutathione S-transferases have been intensively studied
for their involvement in herbicide detoxification. Several widely used herbicides, among them
alachlor, metolachlor, propachlor or fenoxaprop are detoxified in biological systems by the formation
of glutathione acetanilide conjugates. This conjugation is mediated by GST. Carboxylesterases (CbEs;
EC 3.1.1.1) are hydrolases that cleave carboxyl esters to yield the corresponding alcohol and
carboxylic acid. These enzymes participate in the detoxification of pyrethroid (PYD), carbamate (CB)
and some organophosphorus (OP) insecticides. This Carboxyl esterases is found in earthworms some
tissues and organs seminal vesicles, seminal receptacles, pharynx, crop, gizzard, anterior intestine
wall muscle and Intestinal tissues.
Phosphotriesterase (PTE) system :PTE activity appeared to be primarily localized in intestinal
tissues. The highest level of PTE activity was found in epithelial tissue. The native molecular weight
of earthworm PTE was 260 kDa and the isoelectric point was approximately 4
. The optimal pH was
approximately 9
.
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60 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
This enzyme was shown to bioactivate pesticides containing p-nitrophenyl moiety such as p-
nitrophenylphosphate, bis (p-nitrophenyl) phosphate. Parathion and paraoxon by releasing p-
nitrophenol as metabolite. In the earthworm, it has been reported that paraoxon hydrolase, a PTE was
able to hydrolyze paraoxon to produce diethylphosphate and p-nitrophenol in vivo and in vitro.
The presence of EGTA and EDTA completely abolished the activity and replacement of Ca2+ ion
restored activity to greater than 95%, suggesting that Ca2+ ion is essential to maintain the activity.
Figure 1: Histological distribution of phosphotriesterase activity in Eisenia Andrei.
Each tissue was homogenized in 50mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.5) containing 0.1% Triton X-100 and
2mM CaCl2. After centrifugation at 13,000 g for 60 min, the resulting supernatant was used as enzyme
source of phosphotriesterase activity. Phosphotriesterase activity was measured by monitoring the
absorbance at 400 nm of p-nitrophenol produced when 1mM paraoxon was hydrolyzed into
diethylphosphate and p-nitrophenol. As shown in the Figure 1, all tissues tested exhibited PTE
activity. However over 90% of PTE activity appeared to be associated with gut tissues such as
chloragogue and epithelial tissue. The highest level PTE activity was found in the epithelial tissue.
Ch-Chloragogue tissue; Ep-epithelial tissue of gut; Ex-Extra-gut tissue.
Figure 2: Determination of isoelectric point of the PTE from Eisenia Andrei.
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61 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
After focusing, the pH gradient (open circle) was normally established through a range from 2.5 to
10.0. The pH value was determined as the mean of three fractions, the distribution of
phosphotriesterase activity in each fraction was determined (closed circle).An aliquot of 200 micro
liter of each fraction was added to assay buffer (0.2 M, pH 8.5 Tris-HCl contain 2mM CaCl2). Note a
distinct peak at fraction no 3 for which the pH was 4. Therefore earthworm PTE appeared to be acidic
protein.
Figure 3: pH profile of phosphotriesterase activity from Eisenia andrei- At pH 9 the activity was
maximal. Therefore the enzyme could be alkaline phosphotriesterase.
Figure 4: Double reciprocal plot of phosphotriesterase activity of the earthworm
Eisenia andrei with paraoxon as substrate at pH 8.5.
Activity (v) is expressed as nmol p-nitrophenol produced/min/mg protein. Data points represent the
mean SD of triplicate determinations. The range of substrate concentration was 0.25 to 2 mM. The
double reciprocal plot yielded apparent Km and Vmax of 2.4mM and 4.8nM/min/mg respectively.
From the above experiment it is concluded that PTE system of earthworm has the ability to detoxify
pesticides.
Heavy Metal Tolerance by Earthworm: The earthworm Lumbricus rubellus takes up and retains
lead from soil containing a high concentration of lead. Irrespective of the copper, zinc and manganese
concentrations in the soil, these metals appear to be regulated in the tissues.
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In soil containing high concentrations of zinc and calcium there are species differences in tissue metal
content. L. rubellus contained the highest amounts of zinc and manganese, Dendrobaena veneta the
highest concentration of cadmium and the highest mean lead content was found in Eiseniella
tetraedra. The concentration of soil calcium and copper, together with species differences in tolerance
to heavy metals, are considered as factors which may influence heavy metal accumulation.
Earthworms concentrate cadmium from the environment at higher levels than any other metal studied.
Bioaccumulation is usually based on a summation of the amount of metal adsorbed to the body wall
and absorbed into the body. The relative proportions of metal adsorption and absorption are usually
not quantified. The distinction between adsorbed and absorbed metals was investigated when exposed
to metals for 2 weeks. The earthworm Lumbricus rubellus was chosen as representative for organisms
mainly taking up metals via the dermal route. Cross-sections of whole animals were made using a
cryostat and accumulated metals were localized by means of an autoradiography. Radiolabels were
used to determine the distribution of metals over the different organs and to distinguish between
adsorption and absorption. Cd in the earthworm was mainly found in tissues of the chloragogenous
region, whereas Zn was also found in various other organs and in the connective tissue. Adsorbed
amounts of Cd and Zn were negligible compared to internalized Cd and Zn concentrations.
Future Perspective
1. Highlights the critical beneficial role of earthworms for plant and soil health and their important
role in organic waste management
2. Presents in-depth discussion of earthworm biogeography, diversity, taxonomy, and systematic.
3. Provides full coverage of feeding behavior, food preferences, dietary requirements, and the
interaction between earthworms and microbial communities.
4. Includes information on the impacts of climate, human activities, soil properties, predation,
disease and parasitism, and competition upon earthworm ecology.
5. It also controls soil as well as environmental pollution. So we have to know how it helps to
control soil as well as environmental pollution.
6. Earthworms effectively harness the beneficial soil micro flora, destroy soil pathogen and convert
organic wastes in to vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics, PGH, protein rich products and others organic
compounds. More information is needed in this field.
7. Offers new perspectives on vermicomposting research.
CONCLUSION
“Nobody and nothing can be compared with earthworms in their positive influence on the whole
living Nature. They create soil and everything that lives in it. They are the most numerous animals on
Earth and the main creatures converting all organic matter into soil humus providing soil’s fertility
and biosphere’s functions: disinfecting, neutralizing, protective and productive.”
(Anatoly M. Igonin21, Ph. D., Professor at the Vladimir Pedagogical University, Vladimir, Russia, as
quoted in Casting Call 9(2), Aug 2004.)
Aristotle called worms the “intestines of the earth” and Charles Darwin wrote a book on worms and
their activities, in which he stated that there may not be any other creature that has played so
important a role in the history of life on earth (Bogdanov 36
)(Pl. delete). There can be little doubt that
humankind’s relationship with worms is vital and needs to be nurtured and expanded. The following
sections touch on some of the most important areas in which our natural environment can be
15. An Outlook … Kalam and Ahmad.
63 J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec. D, November 2016 – January 2017; Vol.7, No.1; 049-065.
preserved and sustained through a partnership with these engines of the soil. Vermicompost
containing higher amount of growth promoting substances, vitamins, and enzymes, which in turn
increased the microbial population and the addition Azospirillum increased the root biomass
production, which resulted in higher production of root exudates increasing the beneficial bacteria,
fungi and actinomycetes population in rhizosphere region and influenced the soil physical, chemical
and biological fertility. Vermicompost spread on farm land will not result in pathogen contamination
of ground or surface waters. Also pasturelands seeded and re-seeded with E. feotida cocoons could
help to prevent water contamination by pathogens, since fresh manure dropped by grazing animals
will be quickly colonized by compost worms.
Climate change is one of the most serious and pressing environmental problems of our time. One of
the principal benefits of vermicomposting occurs through carbon sequestration. This is the process of
locking carbon up in organic matter and organisms within the soil. Soils worldwide have been
gradually depleted of carbon through the use of non-organic farming systems. The consistent
application of compost or vermicompost gradually raises the level of carbon in the soil. Although
carbon is constantly leaving the soil as more is being sequestered, the use of composts can increase
the equilibrium level, effectively removing large amounts of carbon permanently from the
atmosphere. Earthworms have an extremely important role to play in counteracting the loss of
biodiversity. Worms increase the numbers and types of microbes in the soil by creating conditions
under which these creatures can thrive and multiply. The earthworm gut has been described as a little
“bacteria factory”, spewing out many times more microbes than the worm ingests. By adding
vermicompost and cocoons to a farm’s soil, you are enriching that soil’s microbial community
tremendously. This below-ground biodiversity is the basis for increased biodiversity above ground, as
the soil creatures and the plants that they help to grow are the basis of the entire food chain. The
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has acknowledged the importance of below-ground
biodiversity as a key to sustainable agriculture, above-ground biodiversity, and the overall economy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are grateful to Department of Microbiology, Bidhannagar college for providing infrastructure
& library and also Department of Environment, Govt. of West Bengal for financial assistance to do
the work.
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*Corresponding author: Abul Kalam; Department of Microbiology,
Bidhannagar Govt College, Salt Lake City, Kolkata, India. kalam66@gmail.com