An Examination Of The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence And Leadership Practices

AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
By
Barbara A. Alston
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
H. Wayne Huizenga School of Business and Entrepreneurship
Nova Southeastern University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
2009

UMI Number: 3352390
Copyright 2009 by
Alston, Barbara A
All rights reserved
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ABSTRACT
AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
by
Barbara A. Alston
Emotional intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated
emotional, personal and social abilities which influence one’s overall ability to actively
and effectively cope with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Dulewicz and
Higgs (1999) define emotional intelligence as being aware of, and managing one’s own
feelings and emotions; being sensitive to, and influencing others; sustaining one’s
motivation; and balancing one’s motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious, and
ethical behavior.
Successful leadership today is about how well leaders manage themselves and how well
they manage others. Successful leadership is not about intellectual ability or technical
expertise; it is about personal characteristics and human qualities that include empathy
and compassion, flexibility, and influence. Today’s leaders must have the ability and
flexibility to adapt to an ever-changing workforce, and it’s these human abilities that set
apart successful leaders. Emotional intelligence has become as important as, if not more
important than, intellectual quotient (IQ) and cognitive abilities.
This study’s hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis by regressing the
four dimensions of emotional intelligence on LPI, the dependent variable. Only one of
the emotional intelligence factors, the appraisal of emotion in self or others, is
significantly related to leadership (LPI) (beta coefficient = .520 and p-value of .000). In
addition, there is one demographic variable that is significantly related to LPI (beta
coefficient =.094 and p-value of .033). Therefore, years of supervision is positively
related to leadership. Today, successful leaders are defined by inspiring and motivating
others, promoting a positive work environment, perceiving and understanding emotions,
and fostering an organizational climate in which people turn challenging opportunities
into successes.
This investigation explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership practices. This researcher used the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence
Test (SSEIT) (Schutte et al., 1998) to assess emotional intelligence of managers, and
Kouzes and Posner’s (1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure leadership
practices. Emotions play a key role in decision-making. This study supports the position
that emotional stability and emotional intelligence are important factors for
organizational leadership.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks and much appreciation to my family members and friends who both
supported and encouraged me throughout this process. To my father for giving me the
courage and the tenacity to pursue this endeavor as well as many others in my life. I love
you dad!
I would like to express my appreciation to the members of my committee: Dr. Bahaudin
Mujtaba, chair; Dr. Barbara Dastoor; and Dr. Albert Williams.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Barbara Dastoor and sincerely grateful for your infinite
patience, direction, support, wisdom, and guidance throughout – you are my hero!
Special thanks to Dr. Rick Rees for your initial guidance; may you forever rest in peace.
And to my friend and colleague Dr. Claudette Chin-Loy for your much needed support
throughout this entire process.

vi
Table of Contents
Page
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................viii
List of Figures.................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter
I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................ 3
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................... 3
Research Questions................................................................................................. 4
Definition of Terms................................................................................................. 5
Limitations.............................................................................................................. 6
Summary................................................................................................................. 6
II. Review of Literature....................................................................................................... 8
Introduction............................................................................................................. 8
Emotional Intelligence............................................................................................ 8
Emotions Defined ................................................................................................. 11
Intelligence Defined.............................................................................................. 12
Emotional Intelligence.......................................................................................... 13
Emotional Intelligence & Training....................................................................... 18
Emotional Intelligence and Success...................................................................... 20
Measures of Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................... 23
Bar-On EQ-i.......................................................................................................... 23
MSCEIT................................................................................................................ 25
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) ............................ 26
Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI ) ............................................................. 27
Leadership............................................................................................................. 27
Transformational Leadership................................................................................ 28
Transformational Leadership, Effectiveness, & Success...................................... 31
Measures of Leadership ........................................................................................ 32
Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)....................................................... 32
MLQ and MLQ-Form 5x.......................................................................... 35
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership ................................................................ 36
Summary............................................................................................................... 42
III. Methodology............................................................................................................... 43
Introduction........................................................................................................... 43
Population and Sample ......................................................................................... 43

vii
Chapter Page
Variables and Measures ........................................................................................ 44
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) ............................ 44
Demographic Variables ........................................................................................ 47
Research Question and Hypotheses...................................................................... 48
Data Collection and Analysis................................................................................ 50
Summary............................................................................................................... 53
IV. Analysis and Presentation of Findings ....................................................................... 54
Introduction........................................................................................................... 54
Participants............................................................................................................ 55
Factor Analysis ..................................................................................................... 57
Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix....................................................... 63
Hypotheses Testing............................................................................................... 64
Results of Hypotheses Testing.............................................................................. 66
Summary............................................................................................................... 68
V. Summary and Conclusions........................................................................................... 70
Discussion of the Findings.................................................................................... 70
Conclusions........................................................................................................... 71
Managerial Implications ....................................................................................... 73
Limitations............................................................................................................ 75
Implications for Future Research.......................................................................... 76
Summary............................................................................................................... 78
Appendix
A. The Assessing Emotions Scale: Internal Consistency, Means and Standard Deviations
..................................................................................................................................... 81
B. Survey Materials .......................................................................................................... 88
References Cited ............................................................................................................. 101
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 113

viii
List of Tables
Table Page
1. Five Elements of Emotional Intelligence...................................................................... 18
2. Bar-On EQ-i.................................................................................................................. 24
3. MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test................................... 26
4. Five Practices and Ten Commitments of Exemplary Leadership................................. 33
5. Summary of Studies on Leadership Style, Emotional Intelligence and Other Study
Constructs ..................................................................................................................... 40
6. Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence.................................................................. 44
7. The Dimensions of the Independent and Dependent Measures.................................... 47
8. Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants ................................................... 56
9. Rotated Component Matrix(a)...................................................................................... 60
10. Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlation Matrix ....................................... 64
11. Regression Analysis.................................................................................................... 65
12. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results.................................................................... 68

ix
List of Figures
Figure Page
1. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model............................................................... 4
2. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model............................................................. 48
3. Scree Plot (with Rotated Component Matrix) .............................................................. 59

1
Chapter I
Introduction
Researchers recognize that leadership is an integral part of one’s everyday
existence as positive results continue to emerge from the literature on all three aspects of
leadership, encompassed in Bass’s (1985) leadership paradigm, transformational,
transactional and laissez-faire. One of the fascinating elements in the study of leadership
is the unrelenting endeavor to discover the attributes that are specific to successful
leadership. Technical experience and intellectual quotient (IQ) no longer are the only two
measures of managerial success. Interpersonal skills also have become an essential
component to effective leadership (Goleman, 1998b). For this reason, understanding the
effects of one’s emotional intelligence and the potential impact emotional intelligence has
on leadership deserves attention.
Emotional intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated
emotional, personal, and social abilities which influence our overall ability to actively
and effectively cope with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Dulewicz and
Higgs (1999) define emotional intelligence as being aware of and managing one’s own
feelings and emotions; being sensitive to and influencing others; sustaining one’s
motivation; and balancing one’s motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious, and
ethical behavior.
Successful leadership today is about how well leaders manage themselves and
how well they manage or deal with others. Successful leadership is not about intellectual
ability or technical expertise; it is about personal characteristics and human qualities that
include empathy and compassion, flexibility and influence. Today’s leaders must have

2
the ability and flexibility to adapt to an ever changing workforce, and it’s these human
abilities that set apart successful leaders. Emotional intelligence has become as important
as, if not more important than, intellectual quotient (IQ) and cognitive abilities.
Effective leadership is essential to an organization’s success; hence, the ability to
identify and define effective leadership is crucial. Conventional wisdom denotes
technical expertise, superior performance, and established experience translated into
effective leadership. Today, successful leaders are defined by inspiring and motivating
others, promoting a positive work environment, perceiving and understanding emotions,
fostering an organizational climate in which people turn challenging opportunities into
successes, and so forth. Kouzes and Posner (1995, p. 40) characterize, “true leaders tap
into people’s hearts and minds, not merely their hands and wallets.”
Throughout their research of more than 20 years, Kouzes and Posner (2003, p. 13)
found that “credibility is the foundation of leadership.” Their work lead to the
development of a five-practice theory of leadership termed the “Five Practices of
Leadership.” Kouzes and Posner (2003) believe that leadership can and should be
learned, advocating that these five practices are common to all successful people in
leadership positions. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral descriptors
designed to define the actions or “commitments” necessary to convey exemplary
leadership:
1. Model the way by 1) finding one’s voice and 2) setting the example.
2. Inspire a shared vision by 1) envisioning the future and 2) enlisting others.
3. Challenge the process by 1) searching for opportunities and 2) experimenting
and taking risks.

3
4. Enable others to act by 1) fostering collaboration and 2) strengthening others.
5. Encourage the heart by 1) recognizing contributions and 2) celebrating the
values and victories.
Both the five practices as well as behavioral descriptors are further defined in
Chapter II of this paper.
Statement of the Problem
Although there has been a substantial amount of research on leadership and
emotional intelligence as separate constructs, limited research has been conducted on the
relationship and/or linkage between emotional intelligence and the three different aspects
of leadership style, specifically in the human resources field. Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and
Stough (2001) explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and effective
leadership. Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) explored the association of emotional
intelligence and moral reasoning to leadership style and effectiveness. Also, Mandell and
Pherwani (2003) examined the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership.
Previous research indicates a positive relationship between emotional intelligence
and effective leaders (Caruso & Salovey, 2004; Goleman, 1998a, 1998b; Palmer et al.,
2001). Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle (2005) found that emotional intelligence scores
were a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. While there have been a few studies
in academia, the retail sector, and manufacturing, there still is a need for further research
on the two constructs in the area of human resource professionals.
Purpose of the Study
The framework for this study is based on Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) and

4
Goleman’s (1998a, 1998b) approaches to emotional intelligence and the constructs of
leadership practices as defined by Kouzes and Posner’s (1995) leadership practices
inventory (LPI).
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship of emotional
intelligence to leadership amongst human resource professionals. In this study, there are
four factors that define emotional intelligence: 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and
others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and
4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving, the independent variables.
Transformational leadership is the dependent variable. The model outlined in Figure 1
depicts the relationship among the variables.
Independent Variables Dependent Variable
The Appraisal of Emotion in
Self and Others
The Expression of Emotion Leadership
The Regulation of Emotion in
Self and Others
The Utilization of Emotion in
Problem Solving
Figure 1. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model.
Research Questions
This research proposes to examine the relationship between emotional
intelligence and leadership practices. The following research question will be explored: Is

5
there a relationship between leaders’ emotional intelligence (the appraisal of emotion in
self and others, the expression of emotion, the regulation of emotion in self and others,
and the utilization of emotion in problem solving) and leadership practices (challenging
the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way and
encouraging the heart)?
Definition of Terms
Emotional intelligence – Although there are many definitions of emotional
intelligence, the basis of this study utilizes Goleman’s (1998a, p. 317) definition of
emotional intelligence: “The capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our
relationships.”
Leadership – Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where
performance outcomes are strongly influenced by the leader’s ability to influence the
behavior of their followers (Humphrey, 2002).
Five practices of leadership – Kouzes and Posner (2003) believe that leadership
can and should be learned, advocating these five practices are common to all successful
people in leadership positions. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral
descriptors designed to define the actions or “commitments” necessary to convey
exemplary leadership: 1) Model the way by finding one’s voice and setting the example,
2) inspire a shared vision by envisioning the future and enlisting others, 3) challenge the
process by searching for opportunities and experimenting and taking risks, 4) enable
others to act by fostering collaboration and strengthening others, and 5) encourage the
heart by recognizing contributions and celebrating the values and victories.

6
Transformational leadership – Transformational leaders are described as leaders
who improve followers’ accomplishments and success by influencing their values and
needs. Transformational leaders change their followers’ attitudes, beliefs, and values to
align them with the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the organization. Transformational
leaders guide their followers towards self development and higher levels of success
(Bass, 1997).
Limitations
1) This study will be limited to the manager’s self assessment of emotional
intelligence. Self report responses are affected by the participants’ biases.
2) This study will be limited to the manager’s self assessment of leadership:
Again, responses are affected by the participants’ biases.
3) This study will be limited to a sample of managers in a human resource
capacity.
Summary
One of the fascinating elements in the study of leadership is the unrelenting
endeavor to discover the attributes that are specific to successful leadership. Technical
experience and intellectual quotient (IQ) no longer are the only two measures of
managerial success. Interpersonal skills also have become an essential component to
effective leadership (Goleman, 1998b). Successful leadership today is about how well
leaders manage themselves and how well they manage or deal with others. Successful
leadership is about personal characteristics and human qualities that include empathy and
compassion, flexibility and influence. It is these personal characteristics and human
qualities that are encompassed in the definition of emotional intelligence. Emotional

7
intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal,
and social abilities which influence one’s overall ability to actively and effectively cope
with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Goleman (1998b) proposes that
emotional intelligence plays a substantial role in leadership. Therefore, understanding the
effects of one’s emotional intelligence and the potential impact emotional intelligence has
on leadership is explored in this study.
Chapter I developed the basis and importance for the study of emotional
intelligence and leadership, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research
questions, and a definition of the terms as well as limitations of the study. The remainder
of this study consists of the following four chapters: Chapter II, a review of the literature
relevant to this study; Chapter III consists of the research methodology, with a
description of the research surveys that were used; Chapter IV offers an analysis and
detailed presentation of the data; and finally, Chapter V summarizes the research and its
findings, states the conclusions and implications as well as recommendations for further
research.

8
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between the four
factors of emotional intelligence and leadership practices. Chapter II reviews the
literature in the following order: emotional intelligence, leadership, then the two
together—emotional intelligence and leadership.
Emotional Intelligence
Leban and Zulauf (2004) examined the linkage between emotional intelligence,
transformational leadership, and performance, and found several significant linkages
between emotional intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style. Overall,
emotional intelligence and the ability to understand emotions were related significantly to
the inspirational motivation component of Bass’s (1985) transformational leadership
model. In addition, the strategic use of emotional intelligence was related significantly to
the idealized influence and individual consideration components of transformational
leadership.
Duckett and MacFarlane (2003) show a strong linkage between the theory of
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Their results demonstrate a high
level of commonality between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence
leadership profiles and success.
Mandell and Pherwani (2003) examined the predictive relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style, and examined gender
differences in the relationship between the two. Using regression analysis they found a

9
significant linear relationship between transformational leadership style and emotional
intelligence, suggesting that transformational leadership style of managers could be
predicted from their emotional intelligence scores. However, they found no significant
interaction between gender and emotional intelligence in predicting transformational
leadership style. They did find, however, that women managers scored significantly
higher than men managers in emotional intelligence. Additional findings show males are
as transformational in their leadership styles as females (Mandell & Pherwani).
Gardner and Stough (2002) investigated whether emotional intelligence measured
by the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT) predicted leadership
style measured by Bass’s (1985) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Results
supported a strong relationship between transformational leadership and overall
emotional intelligence. This study provides strong evidence for the usefulness of
emotional intelligence in identifying effective leaders (Gardner & Stough, 2002). The
results indicate that two SUEIT dimensions (the ability to identify and understand the
emotions of others and the ability to manage positive and negative emotions within
themselves and with others) stimulate effective leadership styles.
Examining the association of emotional intelligence and moral reasoning to
leadership styles and effectiveness, Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) revealed that leaders
who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence were perceived by their followers as
higher in transformational leadership and were perceived as more effective than those
with lower scores of emotional intelligence.
Palmer et al. (2001) provide empirical evidence for relationships between the
components of both emotional intelligence and effective leadership with several

10
significant correlations between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence.
Specifically, inspirational motivation and individualized consideration of
transformational leadership were significantly correlated with the ability to monitor and
the ability to manage emotions in oneself and others. The transformational component
“charisma” correlated significantly with the ability to monitor emotions within oneself
and others. Finally, individualized consideration was positively correlated with the ability
to monitor and the ability to manage emotions.
Ashkanasy and Dasborough (2003) conducted a classroom study where emotion
concepts were introduced and incorporated into an undergraduate leadership course that
was designed to help students value the need for advanced leadership skills in today’s
workplace. The authors predicted that students with high emotional intelligence would
perform better in a leadership course. Students completed the Wong and Law (2002) self
report measure of emotional intelligence as well as the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and
Sitarenios (2003) MSCEIT, which was optional. Students also completed a leadership
training package (LTP) while using relevant theory and research evidence to justify the
contents of their packages, in addition to a leadership process reflection paper and final
two-hour exam. Using descriptive statistics, results supported emotional intelligence
being related to course performance (evident only in the MSCEIT), and performance in
the LPT was related to the students’ understanding of emotions as displayed in their
answer on the exam question on this topic. Students who took the MSCEIT scored higher
in the self report measure of emotional intelligence and were more knowledgeable about
emotions. This study establishes that teaching about emotions and emotional intelligence
can affect performance.

11
Investigating the relationship of managerial emotional intelligence levels and a
rating of leadership effectiveness, Kerr et al. (2005) found that emotional intelligence
scores were a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. This study involved the
MSCEIT and subordinate ratings of supervisor performance in a manufacturing
organization. Correlation analysis was used to measure the relationship between
emotional intelligence and the employees’ ratings of supervisor effectiveness.
Douglas, Frink, and Ferris (2004) studied the relationship of students’ emotional
intelligence to conscientiousness and performance, and asked if conscientiousness and
performance are higher for those who are high in emotional intelligence. Bar-On’s (1997)
emotional quotient inventory was used to assess emotional intelligence, the self report
conscientiousness scale NEO-PI personality inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1987) was used
to measure conscientiousness, while exam scores and peer ratings measured the students’
performance. Hierarchical moderated regression analysis demonstrated that the
relationship is positive for individuals high in emotional intelligence.
Emotions Defined
To effectively discuss the notion of emotional intelligence, there must be a
general understanding of emotions as well as intelligence as separate concepts. Emotions
are usually viewed as structured reactions, “crossing many psychological subsystems,
including the physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems” (Pope &
Singer, 1990, p. 186). A person’s emotions usually surface in response to an internal or
external event. These emotions typically have a positive or negative meaning for the
individual. Leeper (1948, p. 17) implies emotions are primarily poignant forces; they are
“processes which arouse, sustain, and direct activity.” Emotions generally are recognized

12
as an awakened reaction to circumstance or situations (Ekman, 2007). M. George (2006)
suggests that emotions and moods are underlying, fundamental elements of behavior. The
level of intensity differentiates moods from emotions. Accordingly, moods tend to be low
intensity, all encompassing, and not specifically coupled with an event, whereas emotions
are high intensity and specifically tied to an event or incident.
Emotions can be valuable in guiding one’s attention to critical situations, assisting
in making decisions, and facilitating certain types of natural conscious or unconscious
processes (J. M. George, 2000). Emotional knowledge is defined as “understanding both
the determinants and consequences of moods and emotions, and how they evolve and
change over time” (J. M. George, p. 1037).
Intelligence Defined
Wechsler, Thorndike, Binet, and others led the way in psychometric studies
measuring the concept of intelligence (Fancher, 1985). Wechsler (1958, p. 7) defines
intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to
think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.” Wechsler’s definition
broadly encompasses what most individuals think of as intelligence (Pope & Singer,
1990). General intelligence is defined as the ability to gain fundamental knowledge and
use that knowledge in different situations. The two basic underlying assumptions are 1)
individuals are born with predetermined potential intelligence, and 2) one can measure
general intelligence (Gottfredson, 1998). Gottfredson deems “intelligence as measured by
IQ tests is the single most effective predictor known of individual performance at school
and on the job” (p. 24). In addition, she suggests that higher levels of general intelligence
contribute to the prediction of individual performance.

13
M. George (2006) deems rational intelligence as an inefficient means to arrive at a
decision, as it is a very slow process that requires a large amount of thinking. Intuition,
described as “a quiet voice from the depth of our consciousness” (M. George, p. 426), is
much faster, involving a very small amount of energy and open from bias which can alter
rational thinking. M. George further defines “intelligence” itself as “using what you know
in the right way, at the right time, in the right place, with the right intention” (p. 430).
The early definition of social intelligence influenced the way emotional
intelligence was later conceptualized. Contemporary theorists like Peter Salovey
and John Mayer originally viewed emotional intelligence as part of social
intelligence (1990, p. 189), which suggests that both concepts are related and in
all, represent interrelated components of the same construct. (Bar-On, 2006, p. 1)
Emotional intelligence also embraces inner thoughts and feelings that influence
performance which may or may not be related to social skills (M. George, 2006).
Essentially, emotional intelligence illustrates the skill to successfully link emotions and
reasoning, using emotions to aid reasoning intelligently about emotions (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997).
Emotions play an important role in understanding leadership and in being a good
leader (Humphrey, 2002). Pope and Singer (1990, p. 189) define emotional intelligence
as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and
others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and use this information to
guide one’s thinking and actions.” Goleman (1998a, p. 317) identifies emotional
intelligence as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for

14
motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our
relationships.” Goleman (1998a) recognized emotional aptitude as competencies that
blend feeling and thought.
Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the need for emotionally intelligent
individuals within the organization to ensure long-term success for the company.
Emotional intelligence is recognized as more than a collection of professional abilities. It
is a set of mental abilities that involves understanding, managing, perceiving, and using a
person’s emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) first used the expression emotional
intelligence, describing the model of intelligence as recognizing and managing the
emotions of others as well as oneself.
John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey (1990, p. 189) define emotional intelligence as
“the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings, to discriminate among them, and
to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.” Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso
(2004) further define emotional intelligence as
the capacity to reason about emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the ability
to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist
thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively
regulate emotions as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (p. 197)
An analysis of competence models for millions of employees in a variety of companies
worldwide illustrated emotional competencies counted twice as much as intellectual
quotient (IQ) and expertise (Goleman, 1998b). Not only can emotional intelligence be
developed (Covey, 2004), emotional intelligence should progress and mature with age
(Mayer et al., 2004).

15
Poon and Fatt (2002) conducted a study of emotional intelligence among local
and foreign undergraduates, and determined foreign undergraduates have higher
emotional intelligence scores. The Emotional Intelligence IQ Test developed by John
Mayer, Peter Salovey, and David Caruso (2002) was used to measure emotional
intelligence. T-tests and multiple regression results showed that males have higher
emotional intelligence scores than females in this study (Poon & Fatt).
M. George (2006) believes that emotional intelligence can influence and shape
one’s ability to foster and develop relationships as well as affect one’s decision-making
capacity. Recognizing feelings and controlling emotions are described as the core
competencies of emotional intelligence. Individuals that are emotionally intelligent can
work together when there is conflict to understand one another and each other’s views,
moving forward together towards a solution rather than against one another and
damaging the relationship. Emotional intelligence is necessary to work through this
process.
Emotional intelligence can be seen as a type of social intelligence; however,
emotional intelligence actually is a more focused concept that can be defined as the
processing of emotions and knowledge-related information (Grewal & Salovey, 2005).
As referenced in their recent work in emotional intelligence, Grewal and Salovey
outlined neurologist Antonio R. Damasio’s evidence that emotion and reason are
inseparable, that without feelings, the decisions people make may not be in their best
interest. Hence, people often focus on the logical alternative pros and cons of the
alternatives they face.

16
Salovey and Mayer (2002) propose a four branch model of emotional intelligence
that emphasize four domains of related skills: 1) the ability to perceive/identify emotions,
2) the ability to use emotions to facilitate thinking and reasoning, 3) the ability to
understand emotions, and 4) the ability to manage emotions in both oneself and others.
This model proposes that individuals vary in these skills and that these variances contain
consequences for individuals in everyday life (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). Research
suggests that the four aspects are positively related to each other (J. M. George, 2000;
Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
Individuals vary in their ability to manage their own emotions when faced with
challenges and solving problems. Moods and emotions such as emotional swings,
positive emotion, and also various moods such as anxiety and depression delicately yet
methodically shape some of the components and strategies involved in problem solving.
Individuals with emotional intelligence may be more creative in arriving at potential
alternatives to problems and more likely to incorporate emotional considerations when
deciding among those alternatives (Pope & Singer, 1990). Empathy, characterized by the
capacity to understand another’s emotions and to re-experience those emotions oneself, is
said to be a distinguishing attribute of emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
There has been an abundance of overlap between the concepts involved in
emotional intelligence (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Goleman (1998a) identifies five basic
emotional and social competencies to emotional intelligence:
1) Self awareness – knowing what one is feeling, having a realistic appraisal of
one’s own abilities, and having a grounded sense of self assurance and poise.

17
2) Self regulation – handling emotions so that they assist rather than impede a
situation, recovering quickly, and bouncing back from emotional stress.
3) Motivation – the internal inspiration that sets initiative in motion and steers
one towards their objectives.
4) Empathy – the ability to develop a connection and affinity with a diverse
group of people, an awareness of what people are feeling.
5) Social skills – the ability to read social situations and handle emotions in
relationships, to interrelate effortlessly while persuading and leading for
collaborations and teamwork.
Additionally, Covey (2004) proposes there are five commonly accepted crucial
elements of emotional intelligence: self-awareness, personal motivation, self regulation,
empathy, and social skills. Self awareness includes the ability to ruminate of one’s own
life and use that insight to enhance one’s own abilities. Personal motivation encompasses
what people are passionate about, their dreams, personal standards, morals, aspirations,
and so forth. Self regulation is the capacity to control and direct oneself toward one’s
aspirations. Empathy deals with the identification with and understanding of another's
situation, feelings, and motives. Finally, social skills include a group of skills which
people need to interact and communicate with others. Table 1 summarizes the five
commonly accepted crucial elements of emotional intelligence as defined by Covey.

18
Table 1
Five Elements of Emotional Intelligence
Component Characteristics
Self-Awareness Personal reflection
Personal Motivation What others are passionate about
Self-Regulation To control and direct oneself
Empathy Understanding of others feelings & motives
Social Skills Group of skills needed to communicate with
others
Emotional Intelligence & Training
The information that emotional intelligence functions on is considered emotional
knowledge, which can be taught and developed within individuals, thereby improving
emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004). Many practitioners and scholars believe that
emotional intelligence can be improved upon through development and training programs
(Cherniss & Caplan, 2001; Clark, Callister, & Wallace, 2003; Kerr et al., 2005; Sosik &
Megerian, 1999; Sy & Cote, 2004).
In 1991, American Express Financial Advisors (AEFA) initially designed an
emotional intelligence program to help their financial advisors handle the emotional
reactions that they experienced selling life insurance (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001). There
are three versions of this program in place today to train advisors, managers, sales
consultants, and so forth. Studies were conducted on two versions of the program, and
findings suggest that 1) advisors who receive the training generate more sales revenue; 2)
when vice presidents and their direct reports received emotional intelligence training,

19
their advisors generated 11% more growth in sales revenue during a 15-month timeframe;
and 3) when regional management teams are trained, their advisors generate more
revenue than advisors who were not trained in other regions (Cherniss & Caplan). AEFA
estimated an additional $200 million in sales revenue was generated as a result of this
training (Cherniss & Caplan).
Mayer, Perkins, Caruso, and Salovey (2001) examined the relationship between
emotional giftedness and emotional intelligence, and found those with higher emotional
intelligence were better able to recognize their own and others’ emotion and apply that
information to steer their actions. Consequently, the authors state that it is then
conceivable to expect that one could increase a person’s level of emotional functioning
by teaching individuals about emotional intelligence and emotional reasoning.
Positive results in the literature also support the importance of a manager’s level
of emotional intelligence in the training and development process (Kerr et al., 2005).
Organizations should encourage and support training programs regarding aspects of
emotional intelligence/emotional quotient, transformational leadership, and performance.
Doing so will allow team members to learn shared leadership skills on the job, gain
emotion-based skills to enhance and improve self-learning, develop leaders as mentors,
and assess and develop emotional competencies throughout the organization (Sosik &
Megerian, 1999).
Rozell, Pettijohn, and Parker (2001) explored emotional intelligence as a predictor
of performance, proposing that the declaration of viability will lead to the creation and
use of an assessment tool to be used in the selection process of managers as well as the
formation of management improvement and development programs for organizations.

20
Rozell et al. propose emotional intelligence may identify those skills that are necessary
components to success, therefore pin-pointing those that are lacking in managers that
need to be developed in order to effectively generate improved performance in the
workplace. Results indicate that emotional intelligence may have an association and
connection to success, hence inferring that emotional intelligence should be integrated
into management development programs. A manager’s awareness and understanding of
one’s own emotions and ability to effectively handle others’ emotions may influence the
overall success of that individual within the organization (Rozell et al., 2001). By
measuring emotional intelligence skills, organizations should be able to identify
appropriate candidates to train and develop for future leadership positions (Vrab, 2007).
Emotional Intelligence and Success
Using the MEIS, Lam and Kirby (2002) investigated whether higher levels of
emotional intelligence would explain increases in individual performance over and above
general intelligence levels. They examined the relationships between general intelligence,
emotional intelligence, and individual-based performance. Results suggest that overall
emotional intelligence contributed to individual performance over and above the level
attributable to general intelligence.
Mayer et al. (2004) suggest that emotional intelligence increases with age. As it
increases, so do amounts of relatedness, academic accomplishments, and the ability to
convey inspiring and motivating thoughts. Conversely, as emotional intelligence
deteriorates, drug use and deviant behavior rises. Someone with high emotional
intelligence can more easily recognize, understand, and manage emotions.

21
W. Chen, Jacobs, and Spencer (1998) have shown emotional intelligence is
attributable to close to 90% of success in leadership positions. Goleman (1998a, p. 34)
asserts, “For star performance in all jobs, in every field, emotional competence is twice as
important as purely cognitive abilities.” Knowing that emotional competencies
encompass two thirds or more of the elements of star performance, Goleman’s (1998a,
1998b) findings support that developing emotional intelligence competencies in existing
employees, or finding individuals that possess these skills, only will enhance an
organization’s bottom line.
The primary responsibility of the project manager within an organization is to
achieve project objectives through cross-functional teams. William V. Leban (2003)
investigated the linkages between leadership style, emotional intelligence, and the
success of complex projects. Using the MLQ Form 5X to measure leadership, the
MSCEIT to measure emotional intelligence, Perrow’s Non-Routine Activities and
Souder’s Project Complexity Items and Project Performance Questions to measure
project success, the author found the type of leadership style used by a project manager
and his or her emotional intelligence abilities do increase the probability of successfully
completing complex projects. In addition, this study revealed there are several linkages
between leadership style and emotional intelligence.
The ability to address underlying feelings and emotions is essential to effective
leadership (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). Higgs (2004) explored the association of emotional
intelligence and performance ratings of call center agents. Higgs (2004) suggests an array
of both skills and characteristic relationships be present within the framework of effective
performance. Overall, the results suggest a robust relationship between emotional

22
intelligence and individual performance. In addition, there was exploratory evidence
suggesting that organizations can achieve overall improved overall performance if the
emotional intelligence elements (self awareness, interpersonal sensitivity, motivation,
emotional resilience, and conscientiousness) are included in their selection criteria.
Sy, Tram, and O’Hara (2006) examined the interaction effect among managers’
emotional intelligence and employees’ emotional intelligence on job satisfaction and
performance in the food service industry. They predicted that employees’ emotional
intelligence is positively related to their job satisfaction and job performance. They also
examined the influence of managers’ emotional intelligence on employees’ work-related
outcomes. Results show that employees with higher emotional intelligence scores have
higher job satisfaction and higher job performance than employees with lower scores.
This study’s new contribution to the literature is that managers’ emotional intelligence is
more positively related to job satisfaction for employees with low emotional intelligence
than for employees with high emotional intelligence.
Using Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s (1999) emotional intelligence test, MSCEIT,
Kerr et al. (2005) investigated the relationship between managerial emotional intelligence
and leadership effectiveness. Overall results indicate an individual’s emotional
intelligence is a key determinant to effective leadership. The emotional intelligence of the
supervisor is strongly associated to employee perceptions of supervisor success.
With the pace of business accelerating, information increasingly more available,
markets becoming more global, and competition intensifying, today’s markets are
increasingly more complex. These multifaceted organizations are devising more
responsive configurations to meet their needs, hence, the matrix structure (Sy & Cote,

23
2004). The matrix structure exists in organizations where employees report to multiple
managers for different aspects of the business. It is grid-like with various dimensions,
allowing a company to address an assortment of business dimensions using various
command structures (Davis & Lawrence, 1977). Sy and Cote identify four interpersonal
challenges: misaligned goals, undefined roles and responsibilities, untimely and low-
quality decision-making, and silo-focused employees that impede matrix performance
and propose that emotionally intelligent employees experience better performance within
matrix organizations. Moreover, the decision-making process in matrix organizations is
delegated to the individuals with the most information as opposed to the top managers
(Sy & Cote).
Measures of Emotional Intelligence
Several measures of emotional intelligence are used rather widely and reported in
the recent literature. Each of these surveys measures a person’s general level of emotional
intelligence, pinpointing areas of strength as well as areas of opportunity. The surveys are
discussed below.
Bar-On EQ-i
The EQ-i was originally constructed in the early 1980s as an investigational
instrument to analyze a concept of emotional and social functioning. The thought was
that results gained from researching a diverse population in varied settings would
enlighten researchers in emotionally and socially competent behavior as well as the
fundamental concepts around emotional and social intelligence. Today’s EQ-i, published
in 1997, is a self-report measure of emotionally and socially competent behavior that
presents an assessment of emotional and social intelligence. As the first test of emotional

24
intelligence published by a psychological test publisher, the EQ-i measures assertiveness,
interpersonal effectiveness, empathy, impulse control, social responsibility, and reality
testing. Taking 30 – 40 minutes to complete, it is comprised of 133 items, using a five-
point Likert scale extending from 1 = “very seldom or not true of me” to 5 = “very often
true of me or true of me” appropriate for persons 17 years of age and older.
The EQ-i delivers a total EQ score and five EQ composite scale scores containing
15 subscale scores (Bar-On & Parker, 2000), as outlined in Table 2.
Table 2
Bar-On EQ-i
5 Composite Scales 15 Subscales
Intrapersonal EQ Self regard, emotional self awareness, assertiveness,
independence, and self actualization
Interpersonal EQ Comprising empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal
relationships
Stress Management EQ Stress tolerance and impulse control
Adaptability EQ Comprising reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving
General Mood EQ Comprising optimism and happiness
The total EQ score or the five scale scores typically are used in the analysis.
Average to above average scores indicate an emotionally intelligent, emotionally healthy
individual. The higher the score, the more positive is the prediction for overall general
success.

25
Reliability estimates have focused on internal consistent and test-retest stability.
The average Cronbach’s alpha coefficients range from a low of .69 to a high of .86 for all
of the subscales, with an average overall internal consistency coefficient of .76. Test-
retest reliability refers to the constancy of an instrument over time. Anchored in one
study, the EQ-i’s average stability coefficient was .85 after 1 month and .75 after 4
months (Bar-On, 1997). Over the past 17 years, nine types of validity studies have been
conducted in more than six countries (predictive, discriminant, divergent, criterion-group,
validity, content, face, construct, and convergent validity), demonstrating good estimates
of validity (Bar-On, 1997).
MSCEIT
The MSCEIT is an ability-based measure of emotional intelligence that identifies
a leader’s fundamental leadership skills. The model brings forth a means for one to
formalize, implement, and execute strategic plans that integrate emotions and emotional
relationships within an organization (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). The MSCEIT consists of a
141-item scale that separates emotional intelligence into four parts termed branches of
skills and abilities: 1) perceive emotion, 2) facilitate thought, 3) understand emotion, and
4) manage emotion. The order of the branches signifies the extent to which the skill or
ability is inclusive of a person’s complete personality, accurately translating the
emotional indicators in one’s tone of voice, emotional gestures in facial expressions, and
so forth. The MSCEIT contains eight tasks with two tasks assigned to each of the four
branches of abilities (previously described) that comprise emotional intelligence. Each
branch is measured by a separate method as outlined and defined in Table 3 below
(Mayer et al., 2004).

26
Table 3
MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
Branch Title
Measured
Through Definition
1 Perceiving Emotions Faces Participants are asked to identify the
emotions in faces.
2 Using Emotions to
Facilitate Thought
Sensations Participants are asked to compare
emotions to sensory stimuli.
3 Understanding Emotions Changes One’s ability is tested to recognize
under what circumstances lessen or
increases emotional intensity.
4 Managing Emotions Emotion
Management
Participants are asked how they
would respond to hypothetical
situations either by maintaining or
changing their feelings.
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)
The SSEIT, sometimes referred to in the literature as the Assessing Emotions
Scale or the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence test, is a self-report measure of emotional
intelligence containing 33 items. Developed by Schutte et al. (1998), the SSEIT measures
the four facets of emotional intelligence as defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990): 1) the
appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of
emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving. The
SSEIT focuses on average or usual emotional intelligence. In addition, four factor
analytic studies identified a four factor solution for the 33 items listed in the Schutte Self
Report Emotional Intelligence Test as perception of emotions, social skills or managing

27
others’ emotions, utilizing emotions, and managing emotions in self (Ciarrochi, Chan, &
Bajar, 2001).
Based on the results of a principal components analysis of a group of items
representing branches (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), Schutte et al. (1998) recommended
using total scores on the SSEIT to determine a total emotional intelligence score.
Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI )
The ECI 2.0 test is based on emotional intelligence competencies identified by
Goleman (1998b). Goleman and Boyatzis (2002) designed this 360-degree tool to assess
the emotional and social competencies of individuals in organizations. Through self
reports, this tool considers the observations, validation, and reliability of emotional
quotient (EQ) as a measurable element of organizational performance and effective
leadership.
Leadership
Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where performance
outcomes are strongly influenced by the leader’s ability to influence the behavior of their
followers (Humphrey, 2002). Horner’s (1997) definition of leadership includes the
behaviors, traits, and qualities of a leader. Gardner (1990, p. 38) writes, “Leadership is
the accomplishment of a group purpose, which is furthered not only by effective leaders
but also innovators, entrepreneurs, and thinkers; by the availability of resources; by
questions of value and social cohesion.” Gardner poses that leadership is not necessarily
the work of one person, the leader, but rather the result of the work of a variety of
members of the group. It is the skill of the leader that sets the direction to motivate and
move the group forward and also promotes group members’ contributions (i.e.,

28
knowledge, skills, social interaction, etc.) to the whole. Burns (1978) introduced the
constructs of transformational and transactional leadership as constructs at opposite ends
of the spectrum. Early empirical studies revealed that both transformational and
transactional variables could act independently of one another; hence, demonstrating a
minimum of two separate leadership constructs (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). Kouzes
and Posner (1997) define leadership as a set of behaviors that anyone in a leadership
capacity can be taught and become skilled at to achieve excellence.
Kouzes and Posner (2002) define leadership as a relationship that is built from a
foundation of trust which enables leaders and followers to seize opportunities and take
risks to effect change within an organization. Leaders must first change themselves
before they can effectively stimulate change within the organization (Covey & Gulledge,
1994). Leadership is about practice; leaders who can boost their understanding of the role
and impact of emotions in the workplace can effectively instill meaning and influence
into an organization’s management structure. A manager who can accurately and clearly
think about emotions often may be better able than a manager who cannot to foresee, deal
with, and effectively manage change (Mayer & Caruso, 2002).
Transformational Leadership
Bass’s (1985) leadership model identifies and defines the components of
transformational leadership. Transformational leaders improve followers’
accomplishments and success by influencing their values and needs, motivating them to
accomplish more than they considered possible. Transformational leaders change their
followers’ attitudes, beliefs, and values to align them with the attitudes, beliefs, and
values of the organization. Transformational leaders guide their followers towards self

29
development and higher levels of success. Bass’s fundamental theory of transformational
leadership includes four dimensions: charisma, inspiration, individualized consideration,
and intellectual stimulation.
Inspirational motivation is the capacity to formulate and communicate an alluring
vision of the future and impart that vision with confidence and zeal (Bass, 1997). The
vision addresses a higher level of needs of followers in addition to proffering challenge
and meaning. Leaders demonstrate a robust influence and a sense of purpose; they instill
self respect in their followers (Bass, 1990). Leaders can be perceived as more
inspirational if leaders provide a rational viewpoint and reliable data based on facts to
support an alluring vision. Inspiring leaders support and persuade followers to believe
their endeavors will be productive and rewarding (Felfe, Tartler, & Leipmann, 2004).
Intellectual stimulation refers to persuading followers to think creatively, to
reframe difficult situations, and to encourage innovative solutions (Bass, 1997),
encouraging employees to use new methods and tactics to long-standing challenges
(Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, & Spangler, 1995; Felfe et al., 2004).
Individualized consideration involves a cluster of behaviors and activities to
enhance employee performance. Leaders coach their subordinates by providing the
necessary resources and guidance to accomplish a task. They are attentive to their
followers and accepting of individual differences and aspirations (Bass, 1997). They
recognize and consider the exclusive needs and concerns of each employee (Dubinsky et
al., 1995). Additionally, these leaders provide mentoring, coaching, and counseling to
their subordinates (Dubinsky et al.). Subordinates may need rational persuasion from a
leader prior to carrying out a task; therefore, rational persuasion may be linked to

30
individualized consideration when a subordinate’s need for purpose and comprehension
is fulfilled through the leader’s coaching (Felfe et al., 2004).
Idealized influence is concerned with being respected, trusted, and admired,
functioning as a role model, symbolizing high moral standards, and displaying high
performance. Leaders exhibiting idealized influence articulate their beliefs, offer their
most important values, and would speak out on difficult issues (Bass, 1997). They also
earn trust, self assurance, and support of followers by taking personal risk and being
consistent in their actions (Felfe et al., 2004).
Transformational leaders advocate, encourage, and support individual
development while concomitantly shaping solid relationships with their followers
(Horner, 1997). Transformational leaders demonstrate and define the need for change,
cultivate a future vision, and marshal follower commitment to achieve exceptional results
(Spreitzer, Perttula, & Xin, 2005). In study after empirical study, researchers have found
transformational leadership consistently is related to leadership effectiveness (Bryman,
1992; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Followers of transformational leaders
are more motivated to perform over and above what is expected and demonstrate
reverence, loyalty, and confidence toward their leader, thus performing beyond the
expectations of the organization (Spreitzer et al.). In addition to the attention to current
needs, transformational leaders also focus on the future needs of the employee and the
organization, both short-term and long-term goals as well as long-term issues (Dubinsky
et al., 1995; Kotter, 1990). Transformational leadership theory assesses behaviors that
secure followers by engaging them in the process and focusing on their needs.

31
Accordingly, effective leaders then have the ability to improve their leadership
effectiveness, their follower’s ability, and organizational success (Cook, 2006).
Bass (1998) believes transformational leaders motivate followers to show extra
effort, a greater drive towards self-actualization, and the greater good in general. In
addition, transformational leadership is more attractive from an organizational
perspective as it improves employee satisfaction, trust, and commitment (Barling, Slater,
& Kelloway, 2000)
Transformational Leadership, Effectiveness, & Success
Transformational leadership consists of four factors: 1) intellectual stimulation, 2)
individualized consideration, 3) inspirational motivation, and 4) charisma (Bass &
Avolio, 2000). Studying two samples of leaders in Asia, Europe, and North America,
Spreitzer et al. (2005) demonstrated transformational leadership positively related to
effectiveness, supporting prior studies showing this relationship. The six dimensions of
transformational leadership used in this study, the ability of a leader to communicate a
vision, devise an appropriate model, promote group objectives, create high performance
expectation, and provide intellectual inspiration, was important in evaluating leadership
effectiveness. Although leaders with traditional values viewed task oriented dimensions
of transformational leadership as less significant to effectiveness, this research proposes
that individuals can advance toward a better appreciation of what effective leadership
looks like by identifying individual cultural values of the population.
Felfe et al. (2004) found that leaders in German organizations exhibit
transformational behaviors that positively influence organizational commitment and job
satisfaction. The approach that a manager uses to make a request of a follower is crucial,

32
as it may lead to a stronger commitment to the organization and its objectives, standards,
and ideals (Charbonneau, 2004). In addition, transformational leaders are believed to be
adept and efficient, and at the same time subordinates are likely to demonstrate extra
effort (Felfe et al.).
Dubinsky et al. (1995) examined a variety of job-related responses of salespeople
to assess the effect of transformational leadership in a sales environment. Salespeople and
their managers responded to questionnaires that included the following variables: job
satisfaction, commitment, role conflict, role ambiguity, job stress, burnout, salesperson
extra effort, and performance. Correlation analysis revealed transformational leadership
was significantly related to several work outcomes; however, its effects did not go
beyond the corresponding relationships between transactional leadership and the same
work outcomes.
Measures of Leadership
Leadership practices inventory (LIP). Kouzes and Posner (2002) identified 225
dissimilar qualities and characteristics that were consolidated and categorized into 20
specific attributes for the purpose of identifying successful leaders. Subsequently, shorter
surveys were distributed in order to deduce leadership commonalities amongst survey
respondents. Through these case studies, surveys, and interviews, Kouzes and Posner
identified five practices common to exceptional leadership experiences. These
commonalities were classified into five leadership practices, each containing two basic
strategies. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral descriptors designed to
define the actions or “commitments” necessary to convey exemplary leadership.

33
Table 4
Five Practices and Ten Commitments of Exemplary Leadership
Five Practices Ten Commitments
Model The Way Find Your Voice
Set the Example
Inspire a Shared Vision Envision the Future
Enlist Others
Challenge the Process Search for Opportunities
Experiment and Take Risks
Enable Others to Act Foster Collaboration
Strengthen Others
Encourage the Heart Recognize Contributions
Celebrate the Values and Victories
From Leadership Practices Inventory, Facilitators Guide, by J. Kouzes & B. Posner, 2003, San Francisco:
Pfeiffer.
Table 4 details Kouzes and Posner’s (2003) Five Practices and Ten Commitments
of Exemplary Leadership. Throughout their research of more than 20 years, they found
that “credibility is the foundation of leadership” (Kouzes & Posner, 2003, p. 13). Their
work led to the development of a five-dimension theory of leadership termed the “Five
Practices of Leadership.” Kouzes and Posner believe that leadership can and should be
learned, advocating these five practices are common to all successful people in leadership
positions.
Early on, Kouzes and Posner asked thousands of people to name past
distinguished leaders whom they admired most. Although there were many others, Martin

34
Luther King and Abraham Lincoln made the top of the list most often. Evaluating the top
chosen admired leaders, Kouzes and Posner (2002) found at least one commonality; they
were historical leaders with strong values who were passionate about something they
believed in. Strong leaders must have clear values and be firm in what they believe.
These values motivate and guide followers to action, consequently modeling the way.
Kouzes and Posner (2002) state that one needs to find his or her inner voice and set the
example in order to become a credible leader.
A strong leader is passionate around long-term performance and the ability to be
forward looking, setting a clear vision of the future while enlisting others. This vision
must have depth and meaning in order for others to follow. As the level of a leader’s
responsibility increases, the more proactive and forward-thinking one must be, hence,
inspiring a shared vision (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
Kouzes and Posner (2002) describe four essentials that are vital elements to
sustaining personal-best leadership experiences: seize the initiative, make challenge
meaningful, innovate and create, and look outward for new ideas. By challenging the
process, a good leader is searching for opportunities to change and grow and improve.
Effective leaders use these four essentials to experiment and take risks to transform
uncertainty into positive results.
In order to achieve and sustain high performance, collaboration is key. Effectively
enabling others to act requires leaders to “create a climate of trust, facilitate positive
interdependence and support face to face interactions” (Kouzes & Posner, 2002, p. 243).
Trust is the essential element in the most effective leadership situations, as individuals
pay attention to people they trust and allow their influence. As a leader, allowing others

35
to take ownership and responsibility for their team’s success strengthens others by
improving their confidence in their abilities. Leaders must intentionally let go to enable
others to find their way to ultimately strengthen, grow, and progress.
Encouraging the heart begins with the ability to recognize a good job and to
outwardly appreciate others for a job well done. Thanking and praising employees or
individuals publicly for encouraging and nurturing a mutual regard for their
accomplishments encourages individuals to give their personal best. It is important to
recognize individual contributions to effectively get results. Outstanding leaders focus on
four essential components to effectively motivate their employees: focus on clear
standards, expect the best, pay attention, and personalize recognition (Kouzes & Posner,
2003).
MLQ and MLQ-Form 5x. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), as
originally developed by Bass (1985), included nine dimensions: five transformational
scales, three transactional scales, and laissez-faire. The latest version, the MLQ 5x (Bass
& Avolio, 1995), is comprised of 45 items and includes 3 additional scales: extra effort,
effectiveness, and satisfaction with the leader. Available in both self-rater and 360-degree
format, the 360-degree instrument consists of two parts: one measurement is a self-
assessment of leaders’ leadership style; the second measurement is a subordinate, boss
and/or peers’ view and perception of their immediate subordinate, and boss and/or peers’
attributes and behaviors. Both contain identical scales; however, one instrument refers to
“self” whereas the other instrument refers to the supervisor.

36
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
A review of the literature on the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership behavior discloses a number of empirical studies have been conducted on this
relationship: Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002); Gardner and Stough (2000); Barling
et al. (2000); and Palmer et al. (2001), to name a few. Goleman et al. assert it is the level
of a leader’s understanding of the powerful role emotions play in the workplace that
separates the best leaders from the rest. The higher one goes in an organization, technical
skills and cognitive ability become less important while emotional intelligence becomes
increasingly so. It is competence in emotional intelligence that distinguishes top
performers in leadership (Goleman, 1998a, 1998b). Leaders that demonstrate more
emotional intelligence than their peers outperform and advance quicker in their careers
(Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Higgs & Rowland, 2002). J. M. George (2000) deems not only
are feelings an integral part of leadership, it is the multiplicity of mood and emotion that
influences leadership effectiveness. “Leaders are obviously human beings with the full
range of emotions potentially available to them” (M. George, 2006, p. 1032).
J. M. George (2000) proposes emotional intelligence may contribute to leaders’
foresight in their organization by using their emotions to boost their thought process
regarding internal challenges and opportunities. Leaders will be better equipped to use
positive emotions to facilitate improvements and influence followers so that they are
receptive to change and supportive of the leader. In addition, leaders high in emotional
intelligence will have the ability to manage their emotions and followers so that followers
are secure and optimistic about where they are going and their personal contribution to
the organization. Vrab (2007) posits that individuals with strong emotional intelligence

37
skills assert higher levels of transformational leadership proficiency, consequently
leading to higher performance.
Studying a sample of 194 professors from universities in Taiwan, J. K. Chen and
Chen (2008) examined the relationship of personal traits (thought, emotions, and
behavior) and leadership style to innovative operations. Factor analysis and correlation
analysis revealed that leadership style has a significant relationship to innovative
operations. In addition, personal traits have a considerable positive relationship to
innovative operations.
Higgs (2003) studied possible linkages between emotional intelligence and
leadership by developing a framework to uncover a potential relationship between the
concepts of both. Reviewing the literature, this study found an “emerging school” (Higgs,
2003, p. 277) of leadership. Along with these new concepts, leadership is being seen as
an amalgamation of personal characteristics and areas of competence. Regression
analysis showed a relationship with elements of emotional intelligence and leadership,
specifically; cognitive abilities and knowledge were related positively to strategic
leadership, intellectual leadership, and political leadership.
Leaders lead through a combination of logical decision-making and feeling.
Depending upon the situation, it may require more emotional intelligence and less logical
decision-making or vice versa (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). Barbuto and Burbach (2006)
tested the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership,
and found evidence consistent with previous studies that demonstrated positive
considerable relationships between the two (Barling et al., 2000; Leban & Zulauf, 2004;
Vrab, 2007).

38
Sosik and Megerian (1999) found four junctions between emotional intelligence
and transformational leadership, and suggest these components are necessary both to
create and to maintain strong emotional relationships with followers:
1) Adherence to professional standards of behavior and interaction, which relates
to idealized influence or charisma
2) Motivation, which is related to the inspirational motivation component of
transformational leadership
3) Intellectual stimulation
4) Individual focus on others, which is related to individualized attention
Using Bar-On’s (1997) emotional quotient inventory, Brown, Bryant, and Reilly
(2006) examined the probability of relationships between emotional intelligence,
leadership, and desired outcomes. Although results of the study confirmed previous
studies of transformational leadership predicting organizational outcomes (Avolio &
Bass, 1997), there was no evidence to support the relationship between emotional
intelligence and desired outcomes nor was there evidence to support a relationship
between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The authors make clear
it is impossible to explain the precise reason for dissimilar outcomes to previous studies
noted, however, they do attribute methodological differences as a possibility.
Sosik and Megerian (1999) extend the literature by examining the relationships
among emotional quotient (EQ), transformational leadership, and managerial
performance. Results of the study imply that self-awareness may offer individuals greater
perceived control over interpersonal experiences and outcomes in their life. In addition,

39
the study reports that transformational leaders who are self-aware benefit from high
levels of self-efficacy and self confidence, and also provide clear direction for followers.
Rahim and Psenicka (2005) investigated the relationships of two components of
emotional intelligence, empathy and social skills, to leader effectiveness. Results indicate
that empathy was a mediator of the relationship between social skills and leader
effectiveness in the United States. In order to improve their own effectiveness, managers
must develop, use, and improve upon their social skills and empathy as a leader in the
organization.
Based on a review of the literature, it has been argued that emotional intelligence
is necessary for measuring, selecting, and developing managers. It is assumed that the
rudiments of emotional intelligence are among the important attributes required for
effective leaders (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). It also is assumed that emotional intelligence
is related to actual leadership performance (Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005). Vrab (2007) rated
60 front line managers at a South African insurance company, examining the relationship
between emotional intelligence skills and leadership behavior. Correlation analysis
revealed a significant relationship between emotional intelligence skills and all the
outcomes of leadership. More specifically, a significant positive relationship exists
between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.
J. M. George (2000) suggests that moods and emotions (feelings) are a
fundamental factor in the leadership process. The ability to recognize and deal with these
feelings in oneself and others plays a major part in successful leadership within an
organization. J. M. George points to four major aspects of emotional intelligence:
appraisal and expression of emotion, knowledge about emotions, use of emotions to

40
enhance cognitive processes, and management of emotions. In addition, there are five
critical elements to effective leadership:
Development of collective goals and objectives; instilling in others an
appreciation of the importance of work activities; generating and maintaining
enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust; encouraging flexibility
in decision making and change; and establishing and maintaining a meaningful
identity for an organization. (J. M. George, p. 1027)
Table 5 summarizes key points in the research on emotional intelligence and
leadership style. It generally supports a positive relationship between the two so that one
strengthens the other in the relationship.
Table 5
Summary of Studies on Leadership Style, Emotional Intelligence and Other Study
Constructs
Authors Purpose of Study Variables Results
J. K. Chen and
Chen (2008)
To examine the
relationship of personal
traits (thought, emotions
and behavior) and
leadership style to
innovative operations.
Independent: Personal traits
(thought, emotions and
behavior) & Leadership
Style
Dependent: Innovative
Operations
Results show that
leadership style has a
significant relationship to
innovative operations. In
addition, personal traits
(thought, emotions and
behavior) are positively
related to innovative
operation.
Vrab (2007) To investigate the
relationship of first-line
managers’ emotional
skills and leadership
behavior.
Independent:
Skills
Dependent: Leadership
Behavior
The results of this study
support a positive
relationship between
emotional intelligence
and transformational
leadership.

41
Barbuto and
Burbach (2006)
To explore the
emotional intelligence and
transformational
leadership.
Independent: Emotional
Intelligence
Dependent:
Transformational
Leadership
Emotional intelligence
shared positive
relationships with
transformational
leadership. Several
correlations reinforce the
role of emotional
intelligence in
leadership.
Rosete and
Ciarrochi (2005)
To investigate the
leadership effectiveness.
Intelligence
Effectiveness
Higher levels of
were associated with
higher leadership
effectiveness. Regression
results show that
was positively related to
effective leadership.
Leban and Zulauf
(2004)
To determine whether
project managers’
contributes to their
leadership style and
subsequent project
performance.
Intelligence
Style & Project
Performance
There are a number of
positive linkages
between emotional
intelligence abilities and
transformational
leadership style.
Duckett and
MacFarlane
(2003)
To examine the
relationship between store
managers’ performance
and Emotional Quotient
profiles.
Independent:
Transformational
Leadership & Leader
Success
Dependent: Emotional
Quotient
A high level of
commonality between
Transformational
Leadership and
Emotional Quotient
leadership profiles
demonstrate a positive
relationship, thus
confirming previous
studies.
Mandell and
Pherwani (2003)
To study the predictive
transformational
leadership style.
Intelligence
Dependent:
Transformational
Leadership
There are significant
relationships between
transformational
leadership and emotional
intelligence. Regression
analysis suggested that
transformational
leadership could be
predicted from emotional
intelligence scores.

42
Gardner and
Stough (2002)
To investigate whether
predicts transformational,
transactional, and/or
laissez-faire leadership
styles.
Intelligence
Dependent:
Transformational
Transactional & Laissez-
faire Leadership Styles
Results supported a
strong positive
transformational
leadership and overall
emotional intelligence.
Sivanathan and
Fekken (2002)
To explore the association
of emotional intelligence
and moral reasoning to
leadership styles and
effectiveness.
Intelligence & Moral
Reasoning
Dependent:
Transformational
Leadership
Transformational
leadership behaviors
were positively related to
and leader effectiveness.
Palmer et al.
(2001)
To explore the
effective leadership.
Intelligence
Dependent: Effective
leadership
Significant positive
relationships were found
between selected
components of
transformational
leadership and emotional
intelligence subscales.
Summary
This chapter has reviewed the literature on emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership. Overall, research findings indicate that transformational
leadership and emotional intelligence are positively related. In addition, a variety of
measures of transformational leadership and emotional intelligence have been employed.
The strongest measures include Bar-On EQi, Mayer-Salovey-Caruso’s Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test
(SSEIT), and the Emotional Competencies Inventory (ECI 2.0).
Chapter III presents the population and sample, time frame, variables and
measures, demographic variables, research questions and hypotheses, and, finally, data
collection, analysis, and presentation techniques.

43
Chapter III
Methodology
Introduction
This investigation explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership practices. This chapter describes the method to study the relationship between
emotional intelligence and leadership practices, and presents the hypotheses emanating
from the review of the literature in Chapter II. This chapter focuses on the research
method and design employed to analyze the relationships among independent variables,
leadership practices, and the factors of emotional intelligence. Chapter III focuses on the
following components: population and sample, variables and measures, research
questions and hypotheses, and, finally, data collection, analysis, and presentation
techniques.
Population and Sample
The population for this study includes human resource professionals who work in
a Fortune 500 company that provides human resource services, including payroll
services, to other businesses. This organization has numerous offices and print centers
across the United States, employing over 12,000 people. The population for this study
includes supervisors, assistant managers, managers, regional managers, and directors in
various departments across the company. The better understanding individuals have of
their own levels of emotional intelligence, the better equipped they are to become better
leaders within their organizations. A sample of several hundred human resource
professionals was taken from this population.

44
Variables and Measures
This researcher used the SSEIT, Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test,
(Schutte et al., 1998) to assess emotional intelligence of managers, and Kouzes and
Posner’s (1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure leadership practices.
She also collected data on demographic characteristics of the respondents.
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)
Developed by Schutte et al. (1998), the SSEIT measures the four facets of
emotional intelligence as defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990): 1) the appraisal of
emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in
self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving.
These factors were described in detail in Chapter II. Table 6 provides a definition
of each of the four factors.
Table 6
Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence
Four Factors Construct Definition
Self and Others
Verbal and nonverbal appraisal of emotion
The Expression of Emotion Verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion
Self and Others
Using emotion to motivate
Problem Solving
Using emotion to motivate as part of the
utilization of emotions

45
The SSEIT also is referred to as the Assessing Emotions Scale or the Self-Report
Emotional Intelligence test. It is a self report measure of emotional intelligence
containing 33 items. The SSEIT focuses on average or usual emotional intelligence.
Based on the results of a principal component analysis (Salovey & Mayer, 1990),
researchers identified a strong one factor or first factor dimension for emotional
intelligence. Schutte et al. (1998), therefore, recommend using the scale as assessing one
factor by totaling all 33 items on the SSEIT to get a one factor/dimension for emotional
intelligence.
Taking only 5 minutes to complete, the survey is comprised of 33 items, using a
5-point Likert scale extending from 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree”. Total
scales scores are computed by reverse coding items 5, 28, and 33, and then a final
summation of all items. Total scores typically range from 33 – 165. High scores on all
items collectively indicate high levels of emotional intelligence (Schutte et al., in press).
The SSEIT has been used in over 200 publications listed in the PsycINFO
database (Schutte et al., in press). In the development of this assessment, the internal
consistency was measured by Cronbach’s alpha as .90 (Schutte et al., 1998). Researchers
also reported a 2-week test-retest reliability for total scale scores of .78. A detailed
analysis of validity estimates are described in Appendix A (derived from Schutte et al., in
press). Cronbach’s alpha will be used to test the reliability of several questions measuring
the latent factor.
Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)
This study used the 30-item Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) developed by
Kouzes and Posner (1995). LPI measures leadership practices as demonstrated in the

46
literature review in Chapter II. According to its developers, LPI can be used to assess
transformational leadership behaviors. Researchers have found the LPI can be used to
measure both transformational and transactional leadership, which have been suggested
to be underlying dimensions of leadership approaches (Fields & Herold, 1997).
Completing over 1,000 case studies followed by 38 in-depth interviews, Kouzes and
Posner’s (1995) LPI emerged.
Using qualitative findings, Kouzes and Posner (1995) developed the LPI scale
items. Kouzes and Posner (1995) examined the LPI’s psychometric properties (reliability
and validity) when they developed the scale. They reported that 1) the LPI is internally
reliable; 2) the six statements pertaining to each leadership practice are highly correlated
with one another; 3) test-retest reliability is high (the scores from one administration of
the LPI to another within a short time span and without any significant intervening event
are consistent and stable); 4) the five scales are generally independent (the five scales
corresponding to the five leadership practices do not all measure the same phenomenon,
each measures a different practice, as it should); and 5) the LPI has both face validity and
predictive validity. Face validity means that the results make sense to people. The words
and phrases look like they are describing leadership practices. Predictive validity means
that the results are significantly correlated with various performance measures and can be
used to make predictions about leadership effectiveness.
The dimensions and construct definitions of Schutte et al.’s (1998) SSEIT and
Kouzes and Posner’s (1995) LPI are summarized in Table 7.

47
Table 7
The Dimensions of the Independent and Dependent Measures
SSEIT
Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test
Independent variables Construct definition
The Appraisal of Emotion in Self
and Others
Verbal and nonverbal appraisal of emotion
The Expression of Emotion Verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion
Self and Others
Using emotion to motivate
Problem Solving
Using emotion to motivate as part of the
utilization of emotions
LPI
Leadership Practices
Dependent variable Construct definition
Leadership Challenging the process, inspiring a shared
vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way
and encouraging the heart.
Note. Permission was granted to reproduce and use the SSEIT as well as the LPI in this dissertation (see
Appendix B).
Demographic Variables
Demographic variables may influence levels of emotional intelligence and
leadership (Mayer et al., 2002). Hence, demographic data was entered into the regression
equation as a first step in order to hold their effects constant (control variables). Then the
emotional intelligence dimensions identified during the factor analysis process were
entered as independent variables with leadership dependent. The number of dependent

48
variables (leadership) also was determined by factor analysis. Demographic data
including gender, age, education, and years of leadership experience were solicited on the
questionnaire.
Research Question and Hypotheses
The research question and hypotheses are based on the following research model
as depicted in Figure 2.
Independent Variables Dependent Variable
Self and Others
The Expression of Emotion Leadership
Self and Others
Problem Solving
Figure 2. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model
This research examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership practices. As demonstrated in the review of the literature, researchers have
consistently reported, with only a few exceptions, that emotional intelligence is positively
related to transformational leadership. Thus, the overarching research question is as
follows: Is there a positive relationship between the four factors of leaders’ emotional
intelligence: 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion,
3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in

49
problem solving and leadership practices (challenging the process, inspiring a shared
vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart) among
human resources leaders?
Two scales were used to measure the variables. The first scale, the LPI, measured
leadership competencies. The second scale, the SSEIT, measured the leader’s level of
emotional intelligence. A demographic survey captured leaders’ relatable information,
such as age, gender, level of education, and years of leadership experience.
The hypotheses that follow proposed that emotional intelligence was related
positively to leadership practices. The hypotheses are based on previous research findings
that support positive relationships between emotional intelligence and leadership
practices (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; J. K. Chen & Chen, 2008; Duckett & MacFarlane,
2003; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Leban & Zulauf, 2004; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003;
Palmer et al., 2001; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Sivanathan & Fekken, 2002; Vrab, 2007).
Factor analysis identified the number of dimensions for both scales. Therefore, the
number of LPI dimensions cannot be specified before the factor analysis results.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses utilized the dimensions identified in previous
research for emotional intelligence. The four factors of emotional intelligence, as
assessed by the SSEIT, are the independent variables, and leadership is the dependent
variable.
The research question is expanded with related hypotheses stated in the null and
alternate forms below.
H01: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is negatively related or not
related to leadership.

50
H11: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is positively related to
leadership.
H02: The expression of emotion is negatively related or not related to
leadership.
H12: The expression of emotion is positively related to leadership.
H03: The regulation of emotion in self and others is negatively related or not
H13: The regulation of emotion in self and others is positively related to
leadership.
H04: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is negatively related or not
H14: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is positively related to
leadership.
Data Collection and Analysis
The constructs depicted in the research model in Figure 2 include four factors of
emotional intelligence (the appraisal of emotion in self and others, the expression of
emotion, the regulation of emotion in self and others, and the utilization of emotion in
problem solving) and leadership. The survey instrument contained an initial section on
demographic information and the two measures described previously. The introduction
letter, directions for completing the surveys, the demographic survey, and the two scales
appear in Appendix B.
The survey was distributed to managers in human resources working for a Fortune
500 company. They were emailed to the participant’s email address along with a cover

51
letter introducing and explaining the purpose of the study, stressing the confidentiality of
responses and enlisting the response of the participant.
The first step in data analysis was to perform a factor analysis and then the means,
standard deviations, and a correlation matrix. To further define, factor analysis is used to
uncover components or dimensions of a set of variables. It can be assumed that the
observed variables are linear combinations of certain unobservable factors. Some
factor(s) are assumed to be common to other factor(s), as others are assumed to be unique
(Kim & Mueller, 1978). Accordingly, the unique factors do not contribute to the
covariance, the measure of association between the variables. Factor analysis can be used
for any number of reasons to include reducing a sizable amount of variables to a lesser
number of factors for modeling intentions. One can validate an index or scale by
revealing that its essential items load on the same factor, dropping proposed index items
which cross load on more than one factor, or to identify clusters of outliers. Factor
analysis also is used to create a set of factors used as uncorrelated variables used in multi-
co-linearity with multiple regression.
Factor analysis extracts a set of factors from the data set and then orders that set
of factors in proportion of the variance to the original data set, giving the researcher a
remaining subset of factors which are kept and used for further consideration in the
research. The next step is to analyze the remaining subset of factors using an orthogonal
rotation method to interpret the relevant factors. Varimax (normalized) rotation,
developed by Kaiser (1958), is a common method of orthogonal rotation and is used in
this research (Kim & Mueller, 1978). Varimax rotation simplifies each column of the
factor matrix, maximizing the variance of squared loadings for each variable in the

An Examination Of The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence And Leadership Practices

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