1) A field experiment was conducted in a commercial Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard block to examine the intra-block spatial and temporal variability of plant water status and its effects on grape and wine parameters.
2) Plant water status, soil characteristics, topography and climatic conditions were monitored for target vines selected across the block. Grape and wine compounds like anthocyanins and tannins were analyzed.
3) The results showed spatial and temporal variability in plant water status within the block. Vines experiencing water stress had higher sugar content, anthocyanins and tannins, and lower yields. The level of stress corresponded to differences in soil texture and topography.
Cranberry nutrient management document from UMass Extension. Background information for presentation during the Buzzards Bay Coalition's 2013 Decision Makers Workshop on landscape solutions to nitrogen pollution.
Quality of iw for soil management by dr.ab jadhavDrAnandJadhav
The document summarizes a presentation on soil management for climate smart agriculture given from June 14 to July 4, 2021. It discusses various parameters for assessing irrigation water quality, including electrical conductivity, sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, and concentrations of specific ions like boron and chloride. Optimal ranges are provided for pH, salinity, hardness, sodium, and other characteristics. Derived parameters for permeability index, Kelley's ratio, and soluble sodium percentage are also covered. The goal is to evaluate irrigation water quality and its impacts on soil properties, crop growth, and appropriate management approaches.
Vegetable growers in the Suwannee Valley of North Florida have adopted drip irrigation and plastic mulch over the past 25 years due to sandy soils with low water holding capacity and organic matter. Extension agents worked with 31 growers on 1,500 acres to improve fertilizer and irrigation management through on-farm demonstrations of best practices like soil moisture sensors and sap testing to determine nutrient needs. These programs helped growers reduce fertilizer use, improve yields and quality, and adopt recommendations on 100% of acres, saving an estimated $100,000 while protecting water resources.
Assessment of soil quality for soil healthPAJANCOA
Soil quality and soil health are closely related terms referring to a soil's ability to function properly. Assessing soil quality involves measuring indicators related to physical, chemical, and biological properties. Commonly used indicators include soil organic matter, nutrient levels, pH, infiltration rate, aggregate stability, and microbial biomass. Assessment results are used to evaluate management practices, identify issues, and guide more sustainable practices. The Government of India has initiatives like the Soil Health Card Scheme to promote soil testing and balanced fertilizer use to improve soil quality and agricultural productivity.
Shallow rooted crops are very sensitive to both nutrients and water stresses; thus, they have to be frequently irrigated and fertilized with balanced nutrients or the two materials together as fertigation especially in semi-arid and arid areas of agriculture. So, this paper was reviewed with the objective of evaluating the effects of soil water and nutrients interaction on the yields and nutrients use efficiency of shallow rooted vegetable crops. Many research activities have been done regarding the interactions of water and nutrients and their use efficiency in different vegetable crops under different agro-ecological conditions. Short supply of fresh water and fertilizer pollution has promoted many investigations into the interaction effects of water and nutrients on crop yield and nutrient and water use efficiency of crops, and some achievements have been made. The value of soil nutrients in plant growth and agricultural output is closely related to water availability and also the agricultural water productivity is in larger part determined by nutrient supplies. Yield or crop productivity is more or less closely correlated with water and nutrients utilization. Nutrient and water application can destabilize the soil nutrient balance and have long-term negative impacts on crop growth and harvest then on the final productivity of the crop. To overcome these problems it requires different mechanisms to be adopted in areas where nutrients and water stresses are a serious problem. Thus, it is possible to increase crop productivity through utilization of an opportunity of selecting improved variety and balanced nutrients application or application of organic fertilizers for dry areas. In conclusion, integrated nutrient and water management is an important issue to minimize the negative impacts of water and nutrients stresses and to increase both yield potential and quality of shallow rooted crops for producers.
This study evaluated changes in soil acidity and basic cations under pine plantations of different ages in South Africa. The main finding was a decrease in soil solution ionic strength with increasing plantation age. A strong decline in basic cations and increase in acidity occurred in the first two decades following afforestation. The ratios of basic cations to acidity on exchange sites and of Ca to Al in soil solutions fell below critical levels in some plantations, indicating potential future forest productivity problems. Further research on changes in the first 20 years and between soil horizons was recommended, as well as studying the effects of tree species and physical soil properties.
The document summarizes practices and issues within the US wine industry. It notes that there are now over 5,400 wineries in the US, up from 2,500 in 1999, with California producing about 90% of US wine. It discusses viticulture practices like soil management, integrated pest management, canopy management and harvesting. It also discusses enology, the science of winemaking, noting the process involves fermentation, aging, and finishing steps. The economics of the industry are summarized, with grapes being the highest value US crop at $35 billion, and over 1 million jobs related to wine production.
Cranberry nutrient management document from UMass Extension. Background information for presentation during the Buzzards Bay Coalition's 2013 Decision Makers Workshop on landscape solutions to nitrogen pollution.
Quality of iw for soil management by dr.ab jadhavDrAnandJadhav
The document summarizes a presentation on soil management for climate smart agriculture given from June 14 to July 4, 2021. It discusses various parameters for assessing irrigation water quality, including electrical conductivity, sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, and concentrations of specific ions like boron and chloride. Optimal ranges are provided for pH, salinity, hardness, sodium, and other characteristics. Derived parameters for permeability index, Kelley's ratio, and soluble sodium percentage are also covered. The goal is to evaluate irrigation water quality and its impacts on soil properties, crop growth, and appropriate management approaches.
Vegetable growers in the Suwannee Valley of North Florida have adopted drip irrigation and plastic mulch over the past 25 years due to sandy soils with low water holding capacity and organic matter. Extension agents worked with 31 growers on 1,500 acres to improve fertilizer and irrigation management through on-farm demonstrations of best practices like soil moisture sensors and sap testing to determine nutrient needs. These programs helped growers reduce fertilizer use, improve yields and quality, and adopt recommendations on 100% of acres, saving an estimated $100,000 while protecting water resources.
Assessment of soil quality for soil healthPAJANCOA
Soil quality and soil health are closely related terms referring to a soil's ability to function properly. Assessing soil quality involves measuring indicators related to physical, chemical, and biological properties. Commonly used indicators include soil organic matter, nutrient levels, pH, infiltration rate, aggregate stability, and microbial biomass. Assessment results are used to evaluate management practices, identify issues, and guide more sustainable practices. The Government of India has initiatives like the Soil Health Card Scheme to promote soil testing and balanced fertilizer use to improve soil quality and agricultural productivity.
Shallow rooted crops are very sensitive to both nutrients and water stresses; thus, they have to be frequently irrigated and fertilized with balanced nutrients or the two materials together as fertigation especially in semi-arid and arid areas of agriculture. So, this paper was reviewed with the objective of evaluating the effects of soil water and nutrients interaction on the yields and nutrients use efficiency of shallow rooted vegetable crops. Many research activities have been done regarding the interactions of water and nutrients and their use efficiency in different vegetable crops under different agro-ecological conditions. Short supply of fresh water and fertilizer pollution has promoted many investigations into the interaction effects of water and nutrients on crop yield and nutrient and water use efficiency of crops, and some achievements have been made. The value of soil nutrients in plant growth and agricultural output is closely related to water availability and also the agricultural water productivity is in larger part determined by nutrient supplies. Yield or crop productivity is more or less closely correlated with water and nutrients utilization. Nutrient and water application can destabilize the soil nutrient balance and have long-term negative impacts on crop growth and harvest then on the final productivity of the crop. To overcome these problems it requires different mechanisms to be adopted in areas where nutrients and water stresses are a serious problem. Thus, it is possible to increase crop productivity through utilization of an opportunity of selecting improved variety and balanced nutrients application or application of organic fertilizers for dry areas. In conclusion, integrated nutrient and water management is an important issue to minimize the negative impacts of water and nutrients stresses and to increase both yield potential and quality of shallow rooted crops for producers.
This study evaluated changes in soil acidity and basic cations under pine plantations of different ages in South Africa. The main finding was a decrease in soil solution ionic strength with increasing plantation age. A strong decline in basic cations and increase in acidity occurred in the first two decades following afforestation. The ratios of basic cations to acidity on exchange sites and of Ca to Al in soil solutions fell below critical levels in some plantations, indicating potential future forest productivity problems. Further research on changes in the first 20 years and between soil horizons was recommended, as well as studying the effects of tree species and physical soil properties.
The document summarizes practices and issues within the US wine industry. It notes that there are now over 5,400 wineries in the US, up from 2,500 in 1999, with California producing about 90% of US wine. It discusses viticulture practices like soil management, integrated pest management, canopy management and harvesting. It also discusses enology, the science of winemaking, noting the process involves fermentation, aging, and finishing steps. The economics of the industry are summarized, with grapes being the highest value US crop at $35 billion, and over 1 million jobs related to wine production.
2017 Oregon Wine Symposium | The Myth of Terroir and Understanding Your Site:...Oregon Wine Board
A comprehensive understanding of the terroir of your site can lead to more effective vineyard management strategies. Learn about terroir misconceptions, truths and the recent advancements in demonstrating that each site has discernible distinctions that require growers and winemakers to intimately comprehend in order to nurture the unique character for optimum expression. Understanding the effects of various climatic elements, such as temperature, rainfall at each growing site and the role of water and nitrogen in the soil, will help attendees choose the right plant material and management strategies to optimize the unique terroir expression of their vineyard.
1. The document reviews the effect of fruit quality and fermentation conditions on wine quality. It discusses how factors like grape species, vineyard location, ripeness, and seasonal variation impact fruit quality.
2. Fermentation conditions such as temperature, pH, sugar content, and microorganisms are also reviewed. The optimal temperature range for fermentation is discussed.
3. The conclusion emphasizes that wine quality depends on both the fruit quality and vinification process. Proper temperature control and yeast selection during fermentation are important for producing high quality wine.
Evalution the changes of some biomolecules of two grapevine cultivars against...Innspub Net
Salinity is one of the limiting factor for grape growing in arid and semi-arid areas. Hence he effect of salinity on some physiological and biochemical characteristics of two seedless cultivars of grape namely Flame Seedless and Perlette under salinity stress were investigated. The design of the experiment was factorial arrangement in a complete randomized design with four replications. Five levels of salinity (0, 25, 50,75 and 100 m molar of NaCl) in irrigation water were surveyed on rooted cuttings of both cultivars. Results indicated that with increasing salinity levels photosynthesis, amount of soluble proteins and relative leaf water content was decreased and amount of proline and soluble sugars were increased. Ion leakage of cell membrane and malondialdehyde were increased with increased salinity. Withoute salinity application Perlette cultivar produced the best values for physiological and morphological indices. In general, Perlette cultivar proved more tolerance against salinity than Flame Seedless cultivar did. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-5-may-2015-jbes/
The document discusses factors that contribute to grape quality and maturity, including climate, soil type, and vineyard management practices. It notes that seasonal variability can limit efforts to manage quality, and that soil variability within vineyards also inhibits uniform quality. The key is to understand sources of variability and determine which factors can be effectively managed to improve fruit quality through long-term planning and short-term practices. New technologies in soil mapping can help vineyards proactively assess spatial variability and develop targeted management strategies.
Understanding Water Quality Dynamics in Aquaculture Ponds in Sunyani, Ghana: ...Premier Publishers
Knowledge of water quality in aquaculture ponds in Ghana is limited due to lack of qualitative and quantitative field data. We conducted detailed field measurements to assess the effect of hydrographic and production factors on water quality. Ponds cultured with Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, and African catfish Clarias gariepinus, were selected for the study. Eleven fish ponds with stock ranging between 7-21 days were randomly selected and sampled at monthly intervals for five months, with the aim of capturing water quality patterns through a full production cycle. Seventeen parameters were measured and analyzed using Partial Least Squares (PLS) - Path Modeling. Most ponds had unusually shallow depths, characterized by excessive stocking densities of 200% on average above recommended rates. This necessitates high feeding rates, thereby reducing the assimilative capacity of ponds. The effect of feeding intensity on water quality increased with stock age. Persistent algal blooms, low DO, high temperatures and elevated levels of ammonia, nitrite, phosphate, TDS and conductivity were indicative of generally poor water quality. The model showed that 82 % variability in water quality was due to production inputs. Standard stocking rates, feeding rates and construction of deeper ponds are recommended.
Analysis of Physicochemical and Microbiological Parameters of Wine Produced f...IIJSRJournal
Wine is a fermented drink made by the controlled culture of yeasts on fruit juices. This study was undertaken to produce acceptable wines from blends of banana and pineapple by the fermentative action of Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S. The fermentation process lasted for a period of 28 days and, the aging process was for 2 months. The fermentation process comprised two set ups- one was fermented by Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and the other was fermented by Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S. The process was monitored and controlled by carrying out physicochemical analysis (pH, temperature, specific gravity, total titratable acidity, and alcohol content) and yeast count using standard methods. There was a decrease in the pH for both wines and an increase in the total titratable acidity. The temperature was between 17 and 27 0C for both wines. The specific gravity of the wines decreased during the fermentation leading to an increase in alcohol production. There was an increase in yeast count from 6.7×107 sfu/ml to 1.8×108 sfu/ml between days 1 and 17 and a decrease from 1.8×108 sfu/ml to 0 sfu/ml between days 17 to 85 for Meyerozyma guilliermondii; also an increase from 5.1×107 sfu/ml to 1.7×108 sfu/ml from day 1 to 17, and a decrease from 1.7×108 sfu/ml to 0 sfu/ml between day 17 to 85 for Pichia guilliermondii. Statistically, there was no significant difference between the yeast counts, temperature, pH, total titratable acidity, and specific gravity but there was signa ificant difference between the alcohol production for both wines. This study shows that wines can be successfully produced using Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S.
We are pleased to share the documents presented at the round table discussion on “Vineyard and climate change”, in which Enrico Peterlungen, José Ramón Lissarrague and Gregory Jones participated on the 2nd day of the #10thWBWE
Quantifying the relative impact of physical and human factors on the viticult...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— This work assesses the relative importance of the terroirs factors: climate, soil and the relation source-sink, on the vegetative development, yield, berry composition and plant sanitary status. The study was carried out between 2011 and 2014 in nine vineyards from six viticultural regions over the coast of Río de la Plata (Uruguay). The cultivar studied was Tannat, vertically trellised and north-south oriented. The year effect refers to climate, which was characterized using solar irradiation and three indices. The soil was characterized using pits and physico-chemical analyses, to determine three textural categories and to define soil depth and water availability. The source-sink relationship referred to four categories of relations between leaf surface and yield per vine. Statistical analyses included a Mixed Model with random effects to determine the relative importance of each factor to the total variability within the dataset. Total yield per vine was explained by the source-sink relationship, the year and their interaction, both linked to the rainfall amount occurred during the maturation period. The synthesis of primary compounds in the berries was more dependent on the year and the interaction of soil and year with the source-sink relationship. Secondary compound concentrations in the berry depended mainly on the source-sink relationship and climate. This study represents a significant advance to the knowledge of grapevine adaptation to the Río de la Plata terroirs, assigning a fundamental role to the vine grower actions. The growers can modulate grapevine balance as a function of the environment.
EFFECT OF BIOFERTILIZAÇÃO ON YELLOW PASSION FRUIT PRODUCTION AND FRUIT QUALITYAna Aguiar
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the effects of bovine biofertilizer on yellow passion fruit production and fruit quality. It was conducted in Brazil using three passion fruit genotypes and five doses of cattle biofertilizer applied monthly. The biofertilizer did not negatively impact the production capacity of two of the genotypes. Overall, the biofertilizer doses led to fruit quality characteristics that met or exceeded market requirements. The study suggests that bovine biofertilizer has potential to improve yellow passion fruit production and quality.
Abstract— Selection of the appropriate autochthonous yeasts assures the maintenance of the unique enological characteristics, which could be considered representative of an enological region. The evaluation of yeasts of the Indian Geographical origin on fermentation was carried out using Cabernet Sauvignon. The organic acid profiling of wines indicated a decrease in tartaric and malic acids with a concomitant increase in lactic and succinic acids. Non-anthocyanin transformation studies indicated the increase in monomeric forms (except coumaric, catechin, quercetin) in wines. Principal component analysis model developed was capable of classifying the volatile compounds with respect to yeast and aging, thus indicating that the volatile profile varied with yeast treatment and aging of wine. Sensory analysis of wines revealed that all wines were organoleptically accepted. Thus autochthonous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains exhibited desired enological properties equivalent to the commercial S.cerevisiae.
Enhancing Productivity and Livelihoods among Smallholders Irrigations through...Jenkins Macedo
This field research was presented at the 2015 3rd Global Conference on Climate-Smart Agriculture in Montpelier, France on March 18, 2015.
Climate change and climate variability pose significant risks to smallholders in the rainfed lowlands of Lao PDR. Increased surface temperatures, declining rainfall, persistent drought and depletion of soil nutrients all serve to impact agricultural productivity and livelihoods. This study investigates the impact of five treatments on soil nutrients, moisture, plant growth, and yield of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). The treatments tested were rice husk biochar only, biochar inoculated with manure, manure tea, inorganic fertilizer and the control. The costs and benefits of the treatments were also assessed. The randomized complete block design was used to assign five treatments and eight replications to the experimental units. Biochar was produced through slow pyrolysis. Soil physical properties were assessed with the visual soil assessment method and 15-randomized soil samples were collected for chemical analyses. Sprinklers were used for irrigation and a weather station installed to monitor the climate. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance were used to analyze the data. Costs-benefits evaluation of the treatments was conducted to determine the net benefits relative to the initial costs ratio. The analysis of variance of mean yield indicates that the difference in yield among the treatments was highly significant. The computed F value (8.28) was higher than the F critical (2.64) at the 5% level of significance. The calculated coefficient of variance of mean yield was 17.33%. The net benefits to initial costs ratio of treatments suggest that the control (4.11), biochar inoculated with manure plus NPK (1.64), and biochar plus manure tea (1.01) are preferred. The net benefits and initial costs evaluation of treatments is important to assess whether utilizing these treatments would impact smallholders’ livelihoods. The results of this study contribute to the evidence that biochar could play an essential role to mitigate climate change risks by enhancing soil quality and increase agricultural productivity.
Spatiotemporal assessment of the quality of surface water the most polluted i...Innspub Net
In recent years, the quality of Fez city surface water has deteriorated day after day because of the development of various human activities, the thoughtless modernization of the wastewater discharge of unregulated manner and solid waste. This constitutes a real threat to the environment and health of consumers. The objective of this study is to realize a space-time monitoring of parameters assessing the water quality of wadis Tghat and Zhoun in the city of Fez, at a rate of one sample per month for 2017 by the SEQ-SIG approach and by the statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA), after identifying the most polluted. The study of the overall quality of surface waters of both sites S1 and S2 most polluted identified Fez by the SEQ-GIS approach has allowed us to define ten alterations involving physicochemical parameters and faecal coliforms and clean alteration to their metallic charge. She recorded that these waters are endocrine effect loaded with organic pollutants and trace metals and reveals that they are of poor quality. The analysis of variance ANOVA results of the spatiotemporal assessment of the water quality of wadis Tghat and Zhoun says the results of SEQ GIS-based technique alterations definition and calculation of weighted indices, and denotes factor that the site has less influence on each of the parameters analyzed the month factor and the fecal coliforms parameter does not vary significantly with the month.
Consistent Relationship of Both Watercontent and Activity With Maize Seed Qua...bioejjournal
Seed quality can be explained using a range of indices that are acceptable within the standards set by the
International Seed Testing Association. There is a need to improve existing models to explain the wellknown variations in seed quality within and between crop species. The objective of this study was to
determine the consistency of using grain water occurrence to explain seed quality in terms of viability and
vigour in maize (Zea mays L.). Four sites were used over two seasons to grow three cultivars in order to
monitor changes in water content, water activity, dry mass and total starch observed in different cob
sections (tip, medium and bottom) at 30, 60 and 90 days after pollination. Seed quality was determined
based on the germination and vigour of physiologically mature kernels. It is concluded that grains that
seed quality is linked to the water activity and position on the cob.
Climate change and mitigation strategy for fruit productionpriyankakatara2
Priyanka katara gave a seminar on climate change and mitigation strategies for fruit production. She discussed how climate change is impacting fruit crops through increasing temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events. Rising temperatures and humidity are leading to flower and fruit drop in citrus, pre-mature ripening in mango, and increased incidence of diseases and pests across fruit crops. Adaptation strategies presented included using drought and disease resistant varieties, mulching, shelter belts, high density planting, shifting to new crop schedules, and water management techniques like drip irrigation. Genetic approaches involve utilizing genetic diversity through field gene banks and selection of rootstocks tolerant to stresses. The seminar emphasized the need for research
Three biowastes - swine manure, vinasse, and composted biosolids - were applied to a sodic soil at different doses to measure their effect on the soil's productivity potential (SPP) indicator over time. The SPP takes into account biological, physical, and chemical soil properties using fuzzy logic modeling. Application of the biowastes generally increased the SPP compared to the control, with swine manure most increasing it in the short term and composted biosolids most in the long term. The biowastes also reduced exchangeable sodium percentage and electric conductivity. While total porosity did not significantly change, CO2 production increased in all treatments versus the control, where SPP
BiotechnologicaApproaches to Improve Nutritional Quality and Shelf life of fr...anilasajjad
The document discusses using biotechnology approaches like genetic modification and gene editing to improve the nutritional quality and shelf life of fruits and vegetables. It notes challenges like increasing population, water scarcity, and climate change that require developing hardier crops. The use of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing is described to modify ethylene production and other genes involved in ripening, potentially extending shelf life while maintaining taste and quality. Specific examples targeting genes influencing texture, firmness, and softening in crops like tomatoes and strawberries are provided.
Efficacy of hibiscus cannabinus l. (kenaf) crude seed powderAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on using hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf) crude seed powder and methanol extract for water purification. The study tested the powders and extracts on water samples with high (160NTU) and low (49NTU) turbidity. For high turbidity water, the powder was more effective at removing turbidity (96% removal) than the extract (85.6% removal). However, for low turbidity water, the extract performed better (89.4% removal) than the powder (84.4% removal). The pH of the water remained unaffected after treatment. Compared to alum, the natural coagulants removed turbidity similarly but did not lower the pH
Effectiveness of various salinity on leaf growth of Gazania | IJAARInnspub Net
Salt stress is induced by Nacl and it minimizes the growth owing to variation in interior plant structure. The present work was designed in line to investigate the behavior of Gazania harlequin (L.) seedlings were raised with dissimilar salt combinations (25 ppm, 50 ppm, 75 ppm & 100 ppm of NaCl solution). The CRD experiment with 4 repetitions was done. The NaCl treatments were repeated in 4 times with 20 days interval totally for 80 days after transplanting in pots. Anatomical observations were recorded by the microscope of in NaCl affected growth leaf. The results illustrated that salinity levels had a negative effect on anatomical characters as (xylem region, phloem region, cortex region, epidermis region and density of leaf lamina). So, it is concluded from the study that control treatment (without salinity effect) showed improved outcome comparatively others treatments which were under the saline situation. As the salinity increases ultimately it affects leaf anatomy of the plant.
This document discusses using hydrogeochemistry as a tool to manage the coastal Bou Areg aquifer in Morocco. The aquifer faces issues like overexploitation, water scarcity, and pollution from agriculture and development. The study aims to understand the aquifer's natural water quality, impacts on the adjacent lagoon, and identify pollution sources. Methods include geochemical analysis and isotopic dating. Results show high natural salinity from rock dissolution, and agricultural return flows are the main cause of additional salinization. Nitrate levels often exceed standards due to septic effluents and fertilizers. While saline intrusion is minor, polluted groundwater discharges affect the lagoon's quality. Improved monitoring
#1 guidelines for expression of stable isotope ratio resultsMahbubul Hassan
This document provides guidelines for expressing stable isotope measurement results in a clear and consistent manner. It aims to clarify terminology related to isotope ratios and relative differences in isotope ratios. Key recommendations include using the delta (δ) notation to express relative differences compared to a standard, specifying the isotope when using terms like "depleted" or "enriched", and following International System of Units guidelines for formatting numbers, units, and uncertainty values. The guidelines are intended to improve communication of isotopic data across scientific disciplines.
This document provides a guide for isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). It describes the key components and functioning of elemental analyzer IRMS (EA-IRMS) and thermal conversion EA-IRMS systems. These systems involve converting samples to simple gases like CO2, N2, CO, and H2 using an elemental analyzer, then introducing the gases into a mass spectrometer for isotope ratio analysis. The guide outlines instrument setup, calibration, making measurements, data handling procedures, quality assurance, and troubleshooting topics to help users reliably obtain isotope ratio data.
2017 Oregon Wine Symposium | The Myth of Terroir and Understanding Your Site:...Oregon Wine Board
A comprehensive understanding of the terroir of your site can lead to more effective vineyard management strategies. Learn about terroir misconceptions, truths and the recent advancements in demonstrating that each site has discernible distinctions that require growers and winemakers to intimately comprehend in order to nurture the unique character for optimum expression. Understanding the effects of various climatic elements, such as temperature, rainfall at each growing site and the role of water and nitrogen in the soil, will help attendees choose the right plant material and management strategies to optimize the unique terroir expression of their vineyard.
1. The document reviews the effect of fruit quality and fermentation conditions on wine quality. It discusses how factors like grape species, vineyard location, ripeness, and seasonal variation impact fruit quality.
2. Fermentation conditions such as temperature, pH, sugar content, and microorganisms are also reviewed. The optimal temperature range for fermentation is discussed.
3. The conclusion emphasizes that wine quality depends on both the fruit quality and vinification process. Proper temperature control and yeast selection during fermentation are important for producing high quality wine.
Evalution the changes of some biomolecules of two grapevine cultivars against...Innspub Net
Salinity is one of the limiting factor for grape growing in arid and semi-arid areas. Hence he effect of salinity on some physiological and biochemical characteristics of two seedless cultivars of grape namely Flame Seedless and Perlette under salinity stress were investigated. The design of the experiment was factorial arrangement in a complete randomized design with four replications. Five levels of salinity (0, 25, 50,75 and 100 m molar of NaCl) in irrigation water were surveyed on rooted cuttings of both cultivars. Results indicated that with increasing salinity levels photosynthesis, amount of soluble proteins and relative leaf water content was decreased and amount of proline and soluble sugars were increased. Ion leakage of cell membrane and malondialdehyde were increased with increased salinity. Withoute salinity application Perlette cultivar produced the best values for physiological and morphological indices. In general, Perlette cultivar proved more tolerance against salinity than Flame Seedless cultivar did. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-5-may-2015-jbes/
The document discusses factors that contribute to grape quality and maturity, including climate, soil type, and vineyard management practices. It notes that seasonal variability can limit efforts to manage quality, and that soil variability within vineyards also inhibits uniform quality. The key is to understand sources of variability and determine which factors can be effectively managed to improve fruit quality through long-term planning and short-term practices. New technologies in soil mapping can help vineyards proactively assess spatial variability and develop targeted management strategies.
Understanding Water Quality Dynamics in Aquaculture Ponds in Sunyani, Ghana: ...Premier Publishers
Knowledge of water quality in aquaculture ponds in Ghana is limited due to lack of qualitative and quantitative field data. We conducted detailed field measurements to assess the effect of hydrographic and production factors on water quality. Ponds cultured with Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, and African catfish Clarias gariepinus, were selected for the study. Eleven fish ponds with stock ranging between 7-21 days were randomly selected and sampled at monthly intervals for five months, with the aim of capturing water quality patterns through a full production cycle. Seventeen parameters were measured and analyzed using Partial Least Squares (PLS) - Path Modeling. Most ponds had unusually shallow depths, characterized by excessive stocking densities of 200% on average above recommended rates. This necessitates high feeding rates, thereby reducing the assimilative capacity of ponds. The effect of feeding intensity on water quality increased with stock age. Persistent algal blooms, low DO, high temperatures and elevated levels of ammonia, nitrite, phosphate, TDS and conductivity were indicative of generally poor water quality. The model showed that 82 % variability in water quality was due to production inputs. Standard stocking rates, feeding rates and construction of deeper ponds are recommended.
Analysis of Physicochemical and Microbiological Parameters of Wine Produced f...IIJSRJournal
Wine is a fermented drink made by the controlled culture of yeasts on fruit juices. This study was undertaken to produce acceptable wines from blends of banana and pineapple by the fermentative action of Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S. The fermentation process lasted for a period of 28 days and, the aging process was for 2 months. The fermentation process comprised two set ups- one was fermented by Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and the other was fermented by Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S. The process was monitored and controlled by carrying out physicochemical analysis (pH, temperature, specific gravity, total titratable acidity, and alcohol content) and yeast count using standard methods. There was a decrease in the pH for both wines and an increase in the total titratable acidity. The temperature was between 17 and 27 0C for both wines. The specific gravity of the wines decreased during the fermentation leading to an increase in alcohol production. There was an increase in yeast count from 6.7×107 sfu/ml to 1.8×108 sfu/ml between days 1 and 17 and a decrease from 1.8×108 sfu/ml to 0 sfu/ml between days 17 to 85 for Meyerozyma guilliermondii; also an increase from 5.1×107 sfu/ml to 1.7×108 sfu/ml from day 1 to 17, and a decrease from 1.7×108 sfu/ml to 0 sfu/ml between day 17 to 85 for Pichia guilliermondii. Statistically, there was no significant difference between the yeast counts, temperature, pH, total titratable acidity, and specific gravity but there was signa ificant difference between the alcohol production for both wines. This study shows that wines can be successfully produced using Meyerozyma guilliermondii strain 1621 and Pichia guilliermondii strain PAX-PAT 18S.
We are pleased to share the documents presented at the round table discussion on “Vineyard and climate change”, in which Enrico Peterlungen, José Ramón Lissarrague and Gregory Jones participated on the 2nd day of the #10thWBWE
Quantifying the relative impact of physical and human factors on the viticult...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— This work assesses the relative importance of the terroirs factors: climate, soil and the relation source-sink, on the vegetative development, yield, berry composition and plant sanitary status. The study was carried out between 2011 and 2014 in nine vineyards from six viticultural regions over the coast of Río de la Plata (Uruguay). The cultivar studied was Tannat, vertically trellised and north-south oriented. The year effect refers to climate, which was characterized using solar irradiation and three indices. The soil was characterized using pits and physico-chemical analyses, to determine three textural categories and to define soil depth and water availability. The source-sink relationship referred to four categories of relations between leaf surface and yield per vine. Statistical analyses included a Mixed Model with random effects to determine the relative importance of each factor to the total variability within the dataset. Total yield per vine was explained by the source-sink relationship, the year and their interaction, both linked to the rainfall amount occurred during the maturation period. The synthesis of primary compounds in the berries was more dependent on the year and the interaction of soil and year with the source-sink relationship. Secondary compound concentrations in the berry depended mainly on the source-sink relationship and climate. This study represents a significant advance to the knowledge of grapevine adaptation to the Río de la Plata terroirs, assigning a fundamental role to the vine grower actions. The growers can modulate grapevine balance as a function of the environment.
EFFECT OF BIOFERTILIZAÇÃO ON YELLOW PASSION FRUIT PRODUCTION AND FRUIT QUALITYAna Aguiar
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the effects of bovine biofertilizer on yellow passion fruit production and fruit quality. It was conducted in Brazil using three passion fruit genotypes and five doses of cattle biofertilizer applied monthly. The biofertilizer did not negatively impact the production capacity of two of the genotypes. Overall, the biofertilizer doses led to fruit quality characteristics that met or exceeded market requirements. The study suggests that bovine biofertilizer has potential to improve yellow passion fruit production and quality.
Abstract— Selection of the appropriate autochthonous yeasts assures the maintenance of the unique enological characteristics, which could be considered representative of an enological region. The evaluation of yeasts of the Indian Geographical origin on fermentation was carried out using Cabernet Sauvignon. The organic acid profiling of wines indicated a decrease in tartaric and malic acids with a concomitant increase in lactic and succinic acids. Non-anthocyanin transformation studies indicated the increase in monomeric forms (except coumaric, catechin, quercetin) in wines. Principal component analysis model developed was capable of classifying the volatile compounds with respect to yeast and aging, thus indicating that the volatile profile varied with yeast treatment and aging of wine. Sensory analysis of wines revealed that all wines were organoleptically accepted. Thus autochthonous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains exhibited desired enological properties equivalent to the commercial S.cerevisiae.
Enhancing Productivity and Livelihoods among Smallholders Irrigations through...Jenkins Macedo
This field research was presented at the 2015 3rd Global Conference on Climate-Smart Agriculture in Montpelier, France on March 18, 2015.
Climate change and climate variability pose significant risks to smallholders in the rainfed lowlands of Lao PDR. Increased surface temperatures, declining rainfall, persistent drought and depletion of soil nutrients all serve to impact agricultural productivity and livelihoods. This study investigates the impact of five treatments on soil nutrients, moisture, plant growth, and yield of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). The treatments tested were rice husk biochar only, biochar inoculated with manure, manure tea, inorganic fertilizer and the control. The costs and benefits of the treatments were also assessed. The randomized complete block design was used to assign five treatments and eight replications to the experimental units. Biochar was produced through slow pyrolysis. Soil physical properties were assessed with the visual soil assessment method and 15-randomized soil samples were collected for chemical analyses. Sprinklers were used for irrigation and a weather station installed to monitor the climate. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance were used to analyze the data. Costs-benefits evaluation of the treatments was conducted to determine the net benefits relative to the initial costs ratio. The analysis of variance of mean yield indicates that the difference in yield among the treatments was highly significant. The computed F value (8.28) was higher than the F critical (2.64) at the 5% level of significance. The calculated coefficient of variance of mean yield was 17.33%. The net benefits to initial costs ratio of treatments suggest that the control (4.11), biochar inoculated with manure plus NPK (1.64), and biochar plus manure tea (1.01) are preferred. The net benefits and initial costs evaluation of treatments is important to assess whether utilizing these treatments would impact smallholders’ livelihoods. The results of this study contribute to the evidence that biochar could play an essential role to mitigate climate change risks by enhancing soil quality and increase agricultural productivity.
Spatiotemporal assessment of the quality of surface water the most polluted i...Innspub Net
In recent years, the quality of Fez city surface water has deteriorated day after day because of the development of various human activities, the thoughtless modernization of the wastewater discharge of unregulated manner and solid waste. This constitutes a real threat to the environment and health of consumers. The objective of this study is to realize a space-time monitoring of parameters assessing the water quality of wadis Tghat and Zhoun in the city of Fez, at a rate of one sample per month for 2017 by the SEQ-SIG approach and by the statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA), after identifying the most polluted. The study of the overall quality of surface waters of both sites S1 and S2 most polluted identified Fez by the SEQ-GIS approach has allowed us to define ten alterations involving physicochemical parameters and faecal coliforms and clean alteration to their metallic charge. She recorded that these waters are endocrine effect loaded with organic pollutants and trace metals and reveals that they are of poor quality. The analysis of variance ANOVA results of the spatiotemporal assessment of the water quality of wadis Tghat and Zhoun says the results of SEQ GIS-based technique alterations definition and calculation of weighted indices, and denotes factor that the site has less influence on each of the parameters analyzed the month factor and the fecal coliforms parameter does not vary significantly with the month.
Consistent Relationship of Both Watercontent and Activity With Maize Seed Qua...bioejjournal
Seed quality can be explained using a range of indices that are acceptable within the standards set by the
International Seed Testing Association. There is a need to improve existing models to explain the wellknown variations in seed quality within and between crop species. The objective of this study was to
determine the consistency of using grain water occurrence to explain seed quality in terms of viability and
vigour in maize (Zea mays L.). Four sites were used over two seasons to grow three cultivars in order to
monitor changes in water content, water activity, dry mass and total starch observed in different cob
sections (tip, medium and bottom) at 30, 60 and 90 days after pollination. Seed quality was determined
based on the germination and vigour of physiologically mature kernels. It is concluded that grains that
seed quality is linked to the water activity and position on the cob.
Climate change and mitigation strategy for fruit productionpriyankakatara2
Priyanka katara gave a seminar on climate change and mitigation strategies for fruit production. She discussed how climate change is impacting fruit crops through increasing temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events. Rising temperatures and humidity are leading to flower and fruit drop in citrus, pre-mature ripening in mango, and increased incidence of diseases and pests across fruit crops. Adaptation strategies presented included using drought and disease resistant varieties, mulching, shelter belts, high density planting, shifting to new crop schedules, and water management techniques like drip irrigation. Genetic approaches involve utilizing genetic diversity through field gene banks and selection of rootstocks tolerant to stresses. The seminar emphasized the need for research
Three biowastes - swine manure, vinasse, and composted biosolids - were applied to a sodic soil at different doses to measure their effect on the soil's productivity potential (SPP) indicator over time. The SPP takes into account biological, physical, and chemical soil properties using fuzzy logic modeling. Application of the biowastes generally increased the SPP compared to the control, with swine manure most increasing it in the short term and composted biosolids most in the long term. The biowastes also reduced exchangeable sodium percentage and electric conductivity. While total porosity did not significantly change, CO2 production increased in all treatments versus the control, where SPP
BiotechnologicaApproaches to Improve Nutritional Quality and Shelf life of fr...anilasajjad
The document discusses using biotechnology approaches like genetic modification and gene editing to improve the nutritional quality and shelf life of fruits and vegetables. It notes challenges like increasing population, water scarcity, and climate change that require developing hardier crops. The use of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing is described to modify ethylene production and other genes involved in ripening, potentially extending shelf life while maintaining taste and quality. Specific examples targeting genes influencing texture, firmness, and softening in crops like tomatoes and strawberries are provided.
Efficacy of hibiscus cannabinus l. (kenaf) crude seed powderAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on using hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf) crude seed powder and methanol extract for water purification. The study tested the powders and extracts on water samples with high (160NTU) and low (49NTU) turbidity. For high turbidity water, the powder was more effective at removing turbidity (96% removal) than the extract (85.6% removal). However, for low turbidity water, the extract performed better (89.4% removal) than the powder (84.4% removal). The pH of the water remained unaffected after treatment. Compared to alum, the natural coagulants removed turbidity similarly but did not lower the pH
Effectiveness of various salinity on leaf growth of Gazania | IJAARInnspub Net
Salt stress is induced by Nacl and it minimizes the growth owing to variation in interior plant structure. The present work was designed in line to investigate the behavior of Gazania harlequin (L.) seedlings were raised with dissimilar salt combinations (25 ppm, 50 ppm, 75 ppm & 100 ppm of NaCl solution). The CRD experiment with 4 repetitions was done. The NaCl treatments were repeated in 4 times with 20 days interval totally for 80 days after transplanting in pots. Anatomical observations were recorded by the microscope of in NaCl affected growth leaf. The results illustrated that salinity levels had a negative effect on anatomical characters as (xylem region, phloem region, cortex region, epidermis region and density of leaf lamina). So, it is concluded from the study that control treatment (without salinity effect) showed improved outcome comparatively others treatments which were under the saline situation. As the salinity increases ultimately it affects leaf anatomy of the plant.
This document discusses using hydrogeochemistry as a tool to manage the coastal Bou Areg aquifer in Morocco. The aquifer faces issues like overexploitation, water scarcity, and pollution from agriculture and development. The study aims to understand the aquifer's natural water quality, impacts on the adjacent lagoon, and identify pollution sources. Methods include geochemical analysis and isotopic dating. Results show high natural salinity from rock dissolution, and agricultural return flows are the main cause of additional salinization. Nitrate levels often exceed standards due to septic effluents and fertilizers. While saline intrusion is minor, polluted groundwater discharges affect the lagoon's quality. Improved monitoring
#1 guidelines for expression of stable isotope ratio resultsMahbubul Hassan
This document provides guidelines for expressing stable isotope measurement results in a clear and consistent manner. It aims to clarify terminology related to isotope ratios and relative differences in isotope ratios. Key recommendations include using the delta (δ) notation to express relative differences compared to a standard, specifying the isotope when using terms like "depleted" or "enriched", and following International System of Units guidelines for formatting numbers, units, and uncertainty values. The guidelines are intended to improve communication of isotopic data across scientific disciplines.
This document provides a guide for isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). It describes the key components and functioning of elemental analyzer IRMS (EA-IRMS) and thermal conversion EA-IRMS systems. These systems involve converting samples to simple gases like CO2, N2, CO, and H2 using an elemental analyzer, then introducing the gases into a mass spectrometer for isotope ratio analysis. The guide outlines instrument setup, calibration, making measurements, data handling procedures, quality assurance, and troubleshooting topics to help users reliably obtain isotope ratio data.
This document provides guidelines for expressing stable isotope measurement results in a clear and consistent manner. It aims to clarify terminology related to isotope ratios and relative differences in isotope ratios. Key recommendations include using the delta (δ) notation to express relative differences compared to a reference standard, and specifying the isotope when using terms like "depleted" or "enriched". Measurement results should include associated uncertainties and be reported in a way consistent with international standards for quantities and units. The guidelines are intended to improve communication in scientific fields involving stable isotope measurements.
This document discusses stable isotope deltas, which are tiny yet robust signatures that can be measured in nature. It explains that two fundamental processes, isotopic fractionation and isotope mixing, are responsible for most stable isotope variations seen in terrestrial systems. Isotopic fractionation occurs through equilibrium or kinetic processes that fractionate isotopes due to small differences in their physical or chemical properties. Isotope mixing models can provide information about processes like 14C abundances in the atmosphere and past ocean isotopic compositions. The document also proposes a new unit called the "urey" to describe isotope deltas in a way that overcomes limitations of traditional units.
#2 determination of o 18 of water and c-13 of dic using simple modification o...Mahbubul Hassan
This document describes a method for determining the stable isotope ratios (d18O and d13C) of water and dissolved inorganic carbon using an elemental analyzer coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Small amounts of water sample are equilibrated with CO2 gas in sealed vials. The headspace CO2 is then injected into the elemental analyzer for analysis. The method requires only a simple modification to the elemental analyzer and provides precise results without extensive offline sample preparation. Reproducible results with a precision of better than 0.2% can be obtained for both water isotope and dissolved inorganic carbon ratios using this coupled approach.
13 c analyses of calcium carbonate comparison between gb and eaMahbubul Hassan
This document compares the GasBench and elemental analyzer techniques for analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition (d13C) of calcium carbonate samples. It analyzed the d13C of two in-house carbonate standards and ten paleosol samples using both techniques. The results found that for pure calcium carbonate samples, both techniques produced similar d13C values with comparable precision of better than 0.08%. However, the GasBench technique generally had slightly better precision, especially for samples with less than 85% calcium carbonate content. The study suggests the elemental analyzer technique can also be used to analyze the d13C of pure calcium carbonate samples.
Samples are prepared for 13C analysis of dissolved organic carbon by adding phosphoric acid and potassium persulfate to water samples to expel inorganic carbon and digest organic carbon. Samples are then flushed with helium and microwaved to completely release carbon dioxide. Samples are analyzed using continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry where a sample aliquot is injected and analyzed by comparing isotopic ratios to a reference gas. Three internal carbon standards are prepared and analyzed under the same conditions as samples to calibrate results reported against an international reference material.
This document reviews normalization procedures and reference material selection for stable isotope analyses. It discusses that normalization methods using linear regression based on two or more reference standards are preferred over single-point normalization or normalization to a working gas. Using multiple reference standards that span the expected range of sample δ values and performing replicate measurements can reduce uncertainty by 50%. While chemical matching between reference materials and samples is important for some materials and techniques, like δ18O of nitrate or δ2H of hair, it is not always necessary. To ensure comparability, laboratories should report details of their normalization procedures and reference materials.
2016 new organic reference materials for h, c, n measurements supporting in...Mahbubul Hassan
This document describes 19 new organic reference materials developed for hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen stable isotope ratio measurements, in addition to analyzing 3 pre-existing reference materials. The new reference materials span a wide range of isotope values and include materials like caffeines, n-alkanes, fatty acid methyl esters, glycines, L-valines, polyethylenes, and oils. Eleven laboratories from 7 countries performed isotope ratio measurements of the materials using multiple analytical techniques. Bayesian statistical analysis was used to determine the mean isotope values for each material. The new reference materials will enable normalization of sample measurements to international isotope scales.
Absolute isotopic scale for deuterium analysis of natural watersMahbubul Hassan
This document defines an absolute isotopic scale for deuterium analysis of natural waters based on measurements of two reference standards - Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) and Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation (SLAP). The absolute D/H ratios were measured through mass spectrometric comparison with calibration mixtures prepared in the laboratory. The results obtained are:
1) The absolute D/H ratio of SMOW is 155.76 ± 0.05 x 10-6.
2) The absolute D/H ratio of SLAP is 89.02 ± 0.05 x 10-6.
3) The δD value of SLAP relative to SMOW is -428.50 ±
Acid fumigation preparing c-13 solid samples for organic analysisMahbubul Hassan
1) The document provides tips for preparing difficult soil, sediment, filter, wood, and carbonate samples for 13C and 15N analysis, including removing inorganic carbonates from calcareous samples.
2) It recommends weighing samples into silver capsules, placing them in an acid desiccator to release carbon dioxide from carbonates over 6-8 hours, then drying and re-encapsulating samples in tin capsules for combustion.
3) The additional tin capsule acts as an important combustion catalyst and prevents leaks that could lose sample material during crimping.
Acid fumigation of soils to remove co3 prior to c 13 isotopic analysisMahbubul Hassan
This document describes a method for removing carbonates from soil samples prior to isotopic analysis of total organic carbon or carbon-13. It compares the effectiveness of acid fumigation using hydrochloric acid vapor versus acid washing. The key findings are:
1) Hydrochloric acid fumigation is highly effective at removing carbonates from soils, does not remove water-soluble organic carbon, and does not alter the carbon-13 signature of the residual soil organic matter.
2) Acid washing soils with hydrochloric acid, while removing carbonates, results in significant losses of total soil carbon and nitrogen as well as changes to the carbon-13 signature.
3) Hydrochloric acid f
Carbonate removal by acid fumigation for measuring 13 cMahbubul Hassan
This study evaluated a method of removing carbonates from soil samples using acid fumigation to allow for accurate measurement of soil organic carbon concentrations and isotopic signatures. Soil samples from two depths were exposed to hydrochloric acid vapors for varying time periods. Analysis found that a minimum of 30 hours of exposure was needed to remove all carbonates from surface soil samples containing 0.80% inorganic carbon, while 56 hours was required for subsurface samples containing 1.94% inorganic carbon. The rate of inorganic carbon removal was similar to previous studies. A correction factor was also used to account for mass changes during fumigation to allow accurate determination of soil organic carbon concentrations.
Carbonate removal from coastal sediments for the determination of organic c a...Mahbubul Hassan
The document compares two methods for removing inorganic carbon from samples to isolate organic carbon for analysis: the aqueous method using hydrochloric acid (HClaq) and the vaporous method using hydrochloric acid vapor (HClvap). It evaluates the methods based on their ability to have low blank levels, efficiently remove dolomite, yield accurate measurements of organic carbon percentage and isotopic signatures (δ13C and Δ14C). The vaporous method met all criteria if samples were not overexposed to acid. The aqueous method gave similar results but was less reliable and consistently underestimated organic carbon percentage. Optimal acid exposure times need to be determined for each sample type to obtain the most accurate isotopic measurements.
This document provides an overview of stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) and its forensic applications. IRMS is a technique that can help distinguish between sources of the same substance. It does this by measuring the natural variations in isotope ratios present due to fractionation effects during chemical and physical processes. The document reviews how IRMS has been used to individualize samples in cases involving explosives, ignitable liquids, and illicit drugs. It also discusses the delta notation and standards used to report isotope ratio data and the kinetic and thermodynamic fractionation effects that create characteristic isotope ratio signatures.
Improved method for analysis of dic in natural water samplesMahbubul Hassan
This improved method allows for the isotopic and quantitative analysis of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in natural water samples. It involves injecting an aliquot of water into a glass tube containing phosphoric acid, which converts the DIC into gaseous and aqueous carbon dioxide. After 15-24 hours of equilibration, a portion of the headspace gas, mainly carbon dioxide, is introduced into a gas chromatograph coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer to measure the carbon isotope ratio and determine the δ13C value of DIC. Standard solutions are used to calibrate the method and account for carbon isotope fractionation between gaseous and aqueous carbon dioxide phases. The method can analyze around 50 samples per day and
This document provides an introduction to isotopic calculations, including:
- Methods for expressing isotopic abundances using terms like atom percent and fractional abundance.
- Isotopic mass balance calculations for combinations of materials and isotope dilution analyses.
- The delta notation used to express differences in isotopic composition between samples.
- How fractionations between isotopes can provide information about isotope effects and processes samples have undergone.
- How the reversibility of reactions and whether systems are open or closed impact isotopic distributions between reactants and products at equilibrium.
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) is a technique that determines the relative abundances of isotopes in a sample to find its geographic, chemical, and biological origins. Variations in isotope ratios of elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen occur through kinetic and thermodynamic processes and can differentiate between chemically identical samples. IRMS instruments precisely measure subtle differences in natural isotope abundances to provide information in many fields. Sample introduction is usually through elemental analyzers, gas chromatography, or liquid chromatography interfaced with an IRMS instrument.
Measurement of slap2 and gisp 17 o and proposed vsmow slap normalizationMahbubul Hassan
The document presents new measurements of the δ17O values of SLAP2 and GISP ice core water samples. It aims to establish a standardized δ17O value for SLAP to improve normalization and reduce discrepancies in reported δ17O and 17Oexcess values between laboratories. The authors measured the samples on a mass spectrometer and recommend defining SLAP to have δ18O = -55.5‰ and 17Oexcess = 0, yielding an approximate δ17O value of -29.6968‰. Using this normalization, their measured values of GISP were δ17O = -13.16 ± 0.05‰ and 17Oexcess = 22 ± 11 per meg. They conclude
Method of sampling and analysis of 13 c dic in groundwatersMahbubul Hassan
This document describes a new method for analyzing the stable carbon isotopic composition (δ13C) of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in groundwater samples. The method uses a gas evolution technique where water samples are injected into vials containing phosphoric acid, which causes the DIC to evolve as CO2 gas. The vials are then analyzed using an automated continuous-flow gas preparation system coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer. This allows for fast (10 minute) analysis of DIC δ13C with high precision (0.1‰) and accuracy. The method is robust, requires minimal field handling, and is well-suited for large sample batches analyzed using an autosampler.
karnataka housing board schemes . all schemesnarinav14
The Karnataka government, along with the central government’s Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), offers various housing schemes to cater to the diverse needs of citizens across the state. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the major housing schemes available in the Karnataka housing board for both urban and rural areas in 2024.
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
RFP for Reno's Community Assistance CenterThis Is Reno
Property appraisals completed in May for downtown Reno’s Community Assistance and Triage Centers (CAC) reveal that repairing the buildings to bring them back into service would cost an estimated $10.1 million—nearly four times the amount previously reported by city staff.
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Combined Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) Vessel List.Christina Parmionova
The best available, up-to-date information on all fishing and related vessels that appear on the illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing vessel lists published by Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) and related organisations. The aim of the site is to improve the effectiveness of the original IUU lists as a tool for a wide variety of stakeholders to better understand and combat illegal fishing and broader fisheries crime.
To date, the following regional organisations maintain or share lists of vessels that have been found to carry out or support IUU fishing within their own or adjacent convention areas and/or species of competence:
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT)
General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM)
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC)
International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC)
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO)
North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)
North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC)
South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO)
South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation (SPRFMO)
Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA)
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC)
The Combined IUU Fishing Vessel List merges all these sources into one list that provides a single reference point to identify whether a vessel is currently IUU listed. Vessels that have been IUU listed in the past and subsequently delisted (for example because of a change in ownership, or because the vessel is no longer in service) are also retained on the site, so that the site contains a full historic record of IUU listed fishing vessels.
Unlike the IUU lists published on individual RFMO websites, which may update vessel details infrequently or not at all, the Combined IUU Fishing Vessel List is kept up to date with the best available information regarding changes to vessel identity, flag state, ownership, location, and operations.
United Nations World Oceans Day 2024; June 8th " Awaken new dephts".Christina Parmionova
The program will expand our perspectives and appreciation for our blue planet, build new foundations for our relationship to the ocean, and ignite a wave of action toward necessary change.
This report explores the significance of border towns and spaces for strengthening responses to young people on the move. In particular it explores the linkages of young people to local service centres with the aim of further developing service, protection, and support strategies for migrant children in border areas across the region. The report is based on a small-scale fieldwork study in the border towns of Chipata and Katete in Zambia conducted in July 2023. Border towns and spaces provide a rich source of information about issues related to the informal or irregular movement of young people across borders, including smuggling and trafficking. They can help build a picture of the nature and scope of the type of movement young migrants undertake and also the forms of protection available to them. Border towns and spaces also provide a lens through which we can better understand the vulnerabilities of young people on the move and, critically, the strategies they use to navigate challenges and access support.
The findings in this report highlight some of the key factors shaping the experiences and vulnerabilities of young people on the move – particularly their proximity to border spaces and how this affects the risks that they face. The report describes strategies that young people on the move employ to remain below the radar of visibility to state and non-state actors due to fear of arrest, detention, and deportation while also trying to keep themselves safe and access support in border towns. These strategies of (in)visibility provide a way to protect themselves yet at the same time also heighten some of the risks young people face as their vulnerabilities are not always recognised by those who could offer support.
In this report we show that the realities and challenges of life and migration in this region and in Zambia need to be better understood for support to be strengthened and tuned to meet the specific needs of young people on the move. This includes understanding the role of state and non-state stakeholders, the impact of laws and policies and, critically, the experiences of the young people themselves. We provide recommendations for immediate action, recommendations for programming to support young people on the move in the two towns that would reduce risk for young people in this area, and recommendations for longer term policy advocacy.
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed online journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
1. Agricultural Water Management
Intra-block spatial and temporal variability of plant water status and its effect on grape
and wine parameters
--Manuscript Draft--
Manuscript Number: AGWAT-D-20-00151
Article Type: Research Paper
Keywords: Anthocyanins; Tannins; Yield; Cabernet Sauvignon; Stem water potential; Micro-
vinification
Abstract: Improving wine quality is a critical factor for the wine industry. For that matter, phenolic
compounds play an important role in wine quality contributing to its organoleptic
characteristics. Although several factors can influence the phenolic concentration,
water in particular has shown to have a direct impact on the phenolic compounds. It is
however complex to quantitate water stress by plant water status measurements as
they depend on the specific site (topography, viticultural management practices and
soil characteristics) creating variable values with-in the vineyard block. This study
focused on analysing the effect of natural and temporal variability of plant water status
on grape and wine parameters. A field experiment was done in a commercial Cabernet
Sauvignon block to monitoring the temporal and spatial intra-block variability of plant
water status using a grid sample method. Soil analysis and topography were included
in the evaluation. Each target vine was assessed for yield, ripeness as well as
standard juice parameters. Micro-vinification was done for each target vine in small lots
of 2 kg and the concentration of flavonoids (anthocyanins and tannins) analysed. The
results showed that the spatial and temporal variability was evident along the season.
Plant water status influenced changes in the concentration of phenolic compounds and
grape parameters. The vines in the stressed class were associated with changes in
soil texture and topography. These plants presented a significant increase in sugar
content, anthocyanins and tannins and a strong decrease in yield. The results of this
study may help to understand and quantify how spatial variability is naturally distributed
and its effect on grape and wine quality parameters.
Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation
2. Highlights
• Several factors can influence the phenolic concentration in wine; however, water stress has a direct
impact.
• Plant water status is variable with-in the vineyard block and depend on the specific site conditions
(topography, management practices and soil characteristics).
• A field experiment was done in a commercial Cabernet Sauvignon block to monitoring the temporal
and spatial intra-block variability of plant water status using a grid sample method.
• The level of water stress reached by the vines was associated with changes in soil texture,
topography, and climatic conditions along the season.
• The vines in the stressed class presented a significant increase in sugar content, anthocyanins and
tannins and a strong decrease in yield.
Highlights
3. Intra-block spatial and temporal variability of plant water status and its
effect on grape and wine parameters
Aladino Jasse1
, Anke Berry1
, Carlos Poblete-Echeverría1,
*
1
Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1,
Matieland 7602, South Africa.
* Correspondence: cpe@sun.ac.za; Tel.: +27-21-808-2747
Abstract
Improving wine quality is a critical factor for the wine industry. For that matter, phenolic compounds play an
important role in wine quality contributing to its organoleptic characteristics. Although several factors can
influence the phenolic concentration, water in particular has shown to have a direct impact on the phenolic
compounds. It is however complex to quantitate water stress by plant water status measurements as they depend
on the specific site (topography, viticultural management practices and soil characteristics) creating variable
values with-in the vineyard block. This study focused on analysing the effect of natural and temporal variability
of plant water status on grape and wine parameters. A field experiment was done in a commercial Cabernet
Sauvignon block to monitoring the temporal and spatial intra-block variability of plant water status using a grid
sample method. Soil analysis and topography were included in the evaluation. Each target vine was assessed
for yield, ripeness as well as standard juice parameters. Micro-vinification was done for each target vine in
small lots of 2 kg and the concentration of flavonoids (anthocyanins and tannins) analysed. The results showed
that the spatial and temporal variability was evident along the season. Plant water status influenced changes in
the concentration of phenolic compounds and grape parameters. The vines in the stressed class were associated
with changes in soil texture and topography. These plants presented a significant increase in sugar content,
anthocyanins and tannins and a strong decrease in yield. The results of this study may help to understand and
quantify how spatial variability is naturally distributed and its effect on grape and wine quality parameters.
Keywords: Anthocyanins; Tannins; Yield; Cabernet Sauvignon; Stem water potential; Micro-vinification.
Manuscript File Click here to view linked References
4. 2
1. Introduction
Plant water status in a vineyard is variable inside of the blocks (intra-block variability) according to
topography, viticultural management practices, and soil characteristics. Previous research has established that
vine and bunch variability have a direct impact on the composition of the final wine (Kontoudakis et al. 2010).
Although the grape parameters, such as yield, present spatial variability in the same block, traditional viticulture
approaches the variability in the field in a uniform manner (Arnó et al. 2009). To this end, Precision Viticulture
(PV) technologies aims at understanding and managing the spatial variability. PV covers a wide group of
techniques and technologies with the objective of controlling spatial variability improving grape quality,
adjusting crop management to field spatial variability (Santesteban 2019). Irrigation strategies such as regulated
deficit irrigation (RDI) largely affect plant water status (Acevedo-Opazo et al. 2010) when applied in specific
areas of the vineyards. Interestingly, Brillante et al. (2017) demonstrated that spatial variability in plant water
status still exist in a homogenous irrigation scheme.
Advances of wine production methods have led to the awareness of phenolic compounds impacting
wine quality (Kennedy et al. 2006). Phenolic compounds are a crucial quality parameter of wines contributing
to their organoleptic characteristics, particularly to colour, flavour, texture, and astringency of the wine and to
its antioxidant properties (Teixeira et al. 2013). The sensory attributes are determined by the grape physiological
and phenolic ripeness when the winemaker decides to harvest and are directly related with the level of phenolics
in the berry (Adams 2006). Standard physiological ripeness parameters such as sugar concentration, titratable
acidity, pH, and sensorial taste are straightforward to evaluate at harvest, however, phenolic ripeness is costly
and time-consuming (Guidetti et al. 2010). In this sense, to answer wine consumer demands, winemakers and
researchers have focused on controlling phenolic ripeness (Kontoudakis et al. 2010). When grapes reach the
ripe stage (red berries) skins are rich in flavonols, flavan-3-ols and anthocyanins, while seeds are known to be
high in flavan-3-ols, which contributes to astringency and bitterness (Williams 2012). It has been demonstrated
that the presence of phenolic compounds in the final wine is dependent on the biosynthesis in the grapevine,
the phenolic ripeness process (Adams 2006), winemaking, and ageing (Monagas et al., 2006). Different factors
can therefore influence the concentration of phenolic compounds. Previous research has established the impact
of viticulture practices, different oenological techniques (Nel 2018), variety, vintage, and location on the
phenolic composition of grapes and wines (Cliff et al. 2007).
5. 3
Viticultural practices can influence berry secondary metabolite concentrations and therefore contribute
to wine sensorial attributes, antioxidant capacity, stabilization, and protection during aging (Ferrandino &
Lovisolo 2014). This concept is supported by Vilanova et al. (2009) who noted that scientific literature perceives
environmental conditions or viticultural practices as having a strong impact on the concentration of flavonoids.
Guidoni et al. (2008) reported that berry phenolic ripening is directly impacted by seasonal climatic conditions
and viticulture practices (cluster thinning and leaf removal). It has been widely reported that plant water status
can influence the levels of phenolic compounds in grapes and wine (e.g. Braidot et al. 2008; Deloire et al. 2004;
Downey et al. 2006). A detailed examination of the influence of viticulture practices on grape phenolic
compounds is presented by Brillante et al., (2018), in this study, the authors determined that the application of
water restrictions to grapevine has a higher influence on berry ripening than canopy management. Overall, there
seems to be some evidence to indicate that reducing plant water status has an implication on skin concentration
of tannins and anthocyanins in berries with the same size (Roby et al. 2004). Along with the level of water
deficit, the period of water stress also plays an important role. The application of water stress before or after
veraison, is significant in determining fruit and wine phenolic composition. Bindon et al. (2011), Blancquaert
et al. (2019) and Kennedy et al. (2002) suggested that water deficit applied before or after veraison affects the
biosynthesis of flavonoids in a different manner.
It is therefore important to understand the development of chemical compounds from grapes to wine
in a spatial and temporal context with the aim of improving viticulture practices, such as irrigation, which can
aid in achieving better wine quality. Therefore, this study is focused primarily on evaluating spatial and temporal
natural intra-block plant water status variability as well as traditional harvest parameters to investigate the effect
of these variations on grape and wine quality parameters by defining classes of water stress.
2. Methods and material
2.1. Site description, soil, and weather data
The study was carried out during the growing season 2019-2020 at a commercial vineyard (Thelema
Mountain Vineyards). The experimental site is located at the Stellenbosch Wine of Origin district, Simonsberg-
Stellenbosch ward – South Africa (SAWIS, 2014), 33°54'11.8"S - 18°55'12.4"E and at 430 m above sea-level.
The geology of the region is characterized by compacted sedimentary formations of the Malmesbury Group from
the Precambrian Era (King 1983; Carey 2005).
6. 4
The climate in the area is Mediterranean with winter rainfall. According to Köppen-Geiger climate
classification it presents a Dry and Warm Summer -Csb (Peel et al., 2007), receiving summer morning Northerly
hot winds and afternoon cooler South-Westerly breezes originating from False Bay (Morgenthal 2004). The
seasonal (from September 2019 to February 2020) maximum average temperature was 33.03°C and minimum
average temperature was 10.65°C, and the seasonal effective rainfall is approximately 639.05 mm.
The experimental block is composed of 2.24 ha of sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.7, planted in 2003 with
vines cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (clone CS 338 C), grafted on 101-114 Mgt rootstock - Vitis riparia x Vitis rupestris.
The 4,840 planted vines in the block have an inter row spacing of 2.5 m and 2 m of vine spacing. The vines were
trained to a Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) trellis system with bi-lateral cordon and spur pruned. The block has
an orientation North/South, facing South. The vineyard was drip-irrigated with emitters spaced at 0.6 m and totally
delivering 2.3 L/h per vine. The historical average yield in the block is 8.24 Ton/ha with an average of 4.0 kg/vine.
2.2. Selection of the target vines
A combination of plant, soil and water stress variables were measured and analysed to select the target
vines, covering all the spatial variability conditions (different levels of vigour) presented in the experimental block.
Soil surface electrical conductivity (ECa), Trunk circumference (TC), and Normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI) (from previous seasons) were used to locate the target vines.
2.2.1. Soil surface electrical conductivity (ECa)
At the beginning of the experiment, (September 2019), ECa was measured, using an electromagnetic
sensor (EM38, Geonics Ltd., Mississauga, Canada) together with a Garmin eTrex 10 GPS. The GPS locations
of each vine in the block were manually geo-corrected using the number of vines per row, distance between
vines and length of the rows. The entire block was scanned in a row alternate sequence, with a sampling
frequency of 5 reads per second on vertical dipole mode.
2.2.2. Trunk circumference
At the same period that ECa was measured (September 2019), TC of all vines in the block was
determined by manual measuring the circumferences of the trunk at an average section between 10 cm above
the graft union and 10 cm bellow the head of the vine.
7. 5
2.2.3. Normalized difference vegetation index
The standard normalized vegetation index (NDVI) from 2 previous seasons (2017-2018 and 2018-
2019) was calculated for the maximum vegetative growth period (January to February) using Sentinel-2A
images corresponding to T34HCH tile. Free-cloud atmospherically corrected images were downloaded from
the European Space Agency (ESA) Copernicus project website. NDVI was calculated in R (R Core Team, 2020)
using the standard equation proposed by Rouse et al. (1974).
2.2.4. k-means analysis
Data from ECa, TC and NDVI was analysed generating classes of variability using the standard
unsupervised k-means function in R (R Core Team, 2020). The k-means algorithm is one of the most used
methods for clustering and it partitions the data by minimizing the within-cluster sum of squares to achieve
higher within-cluster similarity. The basic idea behind k-means clustering consists of defining clusters so that
the total intra-cluster variation is minimized (Zhao et al. 2010). In this study, the experimental vineyard block
was divided arbitrarily into 4 spatial clusters for each analysed variable. The clusters were ordered in ascending
way and then in the matching areas the target vines were located considering a separation of 5 vineyard rows to
cover the whole vineyard block. As a result, a total of 43 target vines were selected (Fig. 1). The block edges
were avoided in order to decrease the influence of winds, solar exposition, and water streams on vine
measurements. All target vines were subjected to the same canopy management, vine treatments, and irrigation
schedules along the growing season.
Fig.1. Location of the target vines and distribution in the experimental block.
8. 6
2.3. Field measurements on the target vines during the growing season.
2.3.1. Soil physical and chemical characteristics
At the beginning of the season, soil samples were extracted at a depth of 50 cm, distancing 30 cm from
the target vines at the beginning of the season. The samples were analysed at the Directorate Plant science of
Elsenburg for texture, resistance, macro/micronutrients, exchangeable acidity, particle size and ammonium
(NH4).
2.3.2. Plant water status
Stem water potential (SWP) was measured weekly, from November to the end of February, using a
pressure chamber (PMS Instrument Company, model 1505D, Albany, USA). SWP was measured around
midday (12:00 to 13:00 local time) on every target vine. Mature and healthy leaves were selected from the
middle of the canopy, facing the shaded side of the canopy to avoid overheating. To diminish leaf transpiration
each selected leaf was covered with aluminium foil inside a plastic zip bag at least 1 hour before midday
measurements (Choné et al. 2000).
2.4. Harvest measurements
2.4.1. Physical measurements (Yield components)
All target vines were harvested 1 day before the commercial harvest of the block, with an average 23.8
Brixº for the entire block. All bunches were carefully handpicked. Each target vine was analysed individually
for the following variables: Total vine weight (TVW), bunch counting (BC) and bunch weight (BW).
2.4.2. Standard berry composition
The bunches of each target vine were destemmed, and the berries crushed, separately, for micro-
vinification. A sample of 4 ml of juice was collected after crushing the berries. The juice was immediately
analysed to determine sugar concentration (PAL-1 Digital Pocket Refractometer, Atago, USA), pH and
titratable acidity (TA) (Metrohm, model 702 SM Titrino, Switzerland).
9. 7
2.5. Micro-vinifications
Harvest date was determined by sugar concentration and berry physical evaluation by the farm winemaker.
Each target vine was harvested and kept separately. After physical measurements were complete, bunches were
destemmed and berries were homogenized for each target vine. In order to make fermentation relatable, all
fermentations were scaled to a standardized 2 kg CONSOL jar. The berries were hand crushed and standard
experimental winemaking procedures specified by the Department of Viticulture and Oenology at Stellenbosch
University, were followed. The must was inoculated with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Lalvin ICV D21,
Lallemand, France) and a blended complex yeast nutrient (Fermaid K Lallemand France) was added. After 10
days of fermentation in a temperature control room at 23ºC, all wines had a minimum residual sugar of 2.5 g/l
and grapes were manually pressed.
2.6. Phenolic analysis in wine
Wine phenolic compounds were calculated using spectrophotometric analysis with a Multiskan GO
Microplate Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA), following the protocol
proposed by (Aleixandre-Tudo et al. 2019). The supernatant was diluted 50 times with HCL 1M, kept in the
dark for 1 hour and analysed with a Multiskan GO Microplate Spectrophotometer. The absorbance was
calculated in the wavelengths of 270 nm, 290nm, 500nm, 520nm, 540nm. The results were uploaded to the
online web-based phenolic analysis platform - Phenolab.co.za - to calculate the content of anthocyanins and
tannins (Aleixandre-Tudo et al. 2017; Aleixandre-Tudo et al. 2019).
2.4.5. Data analysis
Basic descriptive analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis were applied to
the variables measured during the growing season. PCA supported the search for patterns in the data and the
classification of any combination of variables that could explain the impact of plant water status on the wine
and grape parameters analysed. The correlation analysis was used to evaluate the strength of relationship
between the analysed variables and the final result was presented as a correlation matrix. The non-parametric
Kruskal–Wallis Rank Sum Test was used to determine whether the variables belonging to the water stress
classes were different. Moreover, Pairwise-Wilcox Test was used to determine which classes differed
statistically according to the level of water stress for the analysed grape and wine variables. All data processing,
statistical analyses and graphical results were performed using R software (R Core Team, 2020).
10. 8
3. Results
3.1. Weather conditions and Total water application
In a historical context of 9 seasons, the season 2019-2020 presented maximum values similar to
the historical records, however the minimum temperature was higher than the historical average by 1.36
°C. Considering an equivalent growing season period, the season 2019-2020 registered the lowest
accumulated precipitation (639.05 mm - historical average 888.63 mm). The precipitation was scarce
resulting in a noticeable water deficiency during the grapevine growing season. From budburst to berry
setting the experimental site received 176.5mm of rain. However, between Berry setting and Harvest only
27 mm of precipitation was registered (Table 1). After veraison, almost no precipitation was registered
(only one event of 1.01 mm). According to these conditions, two irrigations were scheduled by the farm
manager.
Table 1. Summary of climatic data of the experimental site per Week during the study period.
W
T
(°C)
Tmax
(°C)
Tmin
(°C)
RH
(%)
Pp
(mm/week)
I
(m3
/ha)
SR
(MJ/m2
/day)
ET0
(mm/week)
VPD
(kPa)
1 18.66(±20.1) 29.53 10.66 65.71(±20.2) 8.12 - 22.03(±21.2) 25.64 0.74
2+
16.01 (±15.4) 25.00 9.72 68.92(±12.6) 0.00 - 26.94(±4.4) 27.38 0.57
3 19.69 (±6.3) 33.36 12.38 65.18(±6.7) 0.00 - 24.75(±20.7) 34.30 0.80
4 20.83(±13.8) 32.86 10.01 51.49(±16.7) 6.59 - 26.72(±11.9) 36.43 1.20
5 20.34(±17.03) 29.48 10.89 68.21(±23.8) 9.13 - 28.63(±6.3) 28.95 0.76
- 17.76(±18.3) 27.24 11.50 69.32(±18.0) 3.15 - 23.45(±25.0) 25.12 0.62
- 17.95(±11.5) 29.97 10.31 66.90(±14.1) 7.11 - 20.93(±38.5) 28.91 0.68
- 21.51(±20.2) 27.45 16.09 57.80(±19.0) 0.00 - 23.36(±37.9) 10.98 1.08
6++
20.11(±8.6) 28.01 15.00 75.17(±14.5) 0.00 - 24.61(±32.0) 22.27 0.59
7 21.37(8.5) 31.40 14.77 69.16(±8.8) 0.00 - 24.87(±18.4) 30.01 0.79
8 24.32(±18.8) 34.33 15.70 60.07(±9.7) 0.00 123.04 24.17(±35.8) 34.70 1.22
9 20.90(±17.2) 28.62 12.44 66.20(±19.2) 1.01 23.14(±23.8) 29.87 0.84
10 22.21(±12.3) 33.45 12.66 62.84(±20.9) 0.00 184.56 25.65(±6.7) 33.53 1.00
11 22.50(±11.0) 33.57 16.02 65.48(±19.8) 0.00 23.73(±17.2) 31.91 0.94
12+++
24.68(±16.0) 34.27 15.08 58.18(±27.3) 0.00 - 23.46(±15.2) 34.43 1.30
W is the Week number from 04/11/2019 to 17/02/2020, numbered weeks indicated the weeks with SWP measurements, no numbered
weeks indicates that SWP was not measured by problems with the weather conditions, +
indicates Setting,++
indicates Veraison,+++
indicates
Harvest, T is the average ambient temperature, Tmin is the minimum ambient temperature, Tmax is the maximum ambient temperature, Pp is
the precipitation, RH is the relative humidity, I is the irrigation amount, SR is the solar radiation, ET0 is the reference evapotranspiration,
VPD is the average vapor pressure deficit. Values in brackets indicate the coefficient of variation expressed in percentage.
11. 9
The plant water status analysis was done during the course of 12 weeks with a gap between the week 5
and 6, because during this period the weather conditions were not suitable for SWP measurements (light rain
and cloudiness at midday). The maximum temperature in January and February was 34.3°C and 37.1°C,
respectively. High values of vapor pressure deficit (VPD) were calculated for the corresponding higher values
of temperature and evapotranspiration (ETo). The highest atmospheric demand was registered at post-veraison,
with a maximum in week 8 (ETo = 34.7 mm/week and VPD = 1.22 kPa) (Table 1).
3.2. Descriptive analysis of grape and oenological variables
The results obtained from the juice and wine analysis are summarized in Table 2. Block scale
represents the value reported by the winemaker at commercial harvest. As was expected the Block value
registered for sugar content, TA and yield was between the minimum and maximum value and close the
average calculated for the 43 target vines.
Table 2. Descriptive analysis of field and wine variables.
Anthocyanins+
(mg/L)
Tannins+
(mg/L)
Sugar content++
(°Bx)
TA++
(g/L)
Yield
(kg/plant)
Block scale - - 25.00 5.43 4.90
Avg 590.8 1119.8 23.87 4.50 5.23
Max 817.8 1911.2 26.53 5.83 9.20
Min 323.6 577.4 19.90 3.87 2.01
CV 19.02 26.28 5.41 10.35 34.34
+ Indicates phenolic compounds measured in wine, ++ Indicates chemical analysis measured in juice, Block scale is the value reported by
the winemaker at commercial harvest, Avg is the average value for the target vines, Max is the maximum value for the target vines, Min is
the minimum value for the target vines, CV is the coefficient of variation (%), TA is the total acidity.
From the target vines, high variability was registered for yield, tannins and anthocyanins with CV values
of 34.34%, 26,28% and 19.02%, respectively (Table 2). The lowest variability was registered for sugar content
(5.41%). Only 3 plants registered a juice sugar content bellow 22° Bx and 7 plants presented values higher than
25° Bx.
Table 3 indicates the values of SWP along the growing season from November to February (12 weeks).
SWP values increase as grapes reached closer to the maturity stage, reaching a maximum water stress period
during Week 11 (post-veraison period). The variability was around 17% with higher values at the beginning of
the season (lower water stress). From week 1 to week 6 the average of SWP varies between 4.85 bar and 7.32
bar, showing low to medium limitation in plant water availability before veraison. A slight decrease in water
12. 10
availability is observed in week 5, after the maximum daily temperatures increased significantly in the previous
weeks. From the initial phase of veraison (week 6) the steady increase in average SWP values (from 7.32 to
10.90 Bar) indicates a decrease in the plant water availability (average reduction of 32.8%). As shown in Figure
2, spatial variability of SWP changed along the season as well as the level of water stress reached by the plants.
Plants with higher values of SWP (more water stress) are spatially concentrated in the central, top central and
top right areas of the block. This distribution is in line with the topographic inclination of the block and the soil
texture analysis.
Table 3. Variation of the SWP per Week during the studied season.
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W.d
Avg 4.86 4.12 4.85 5.30 6.50 7.32 8.92 10.23 8.73 10.63 11.43 10.90 7.82
Diff - -0.74 0.73 0.45 1.20 0.82 1.61 1.31 -1.50 1.91 0.79 -0.52 -
Max 6.89 5.99 7.41 6.72 8.90 10.15 11.64 13.78 11.65 13.80 14.10 13.90 9.26
Min 3.05 2.32 2.30 3.66 3.38 5.10 6.80 6.55 6.10 6.27 6.50 6.90 6.18
CV 20.45 20.76 20.07 14.95 20.05 14.85 14.38 18.07 16.10 17.87 14.96 16.76 10.77
W.d is the whole dataset, Avg is the average value for the target vines (Bar), Max is the maximum value for the target vines (Bar), Min is
the minimum value for the target vines (Bar), Diff is the difference between consecutives weeks (Bar), CV is the coefficient of variation
(%), W indicates weeks.
Fig. 2. Temporal and spatial variability of SWP for the target vines from pre-Veraison (Week 3) to
Harvest (Week 12).
13. 11
3.3. PCA and correlation analysis
A PCA analysis was done to explore the effect of the SWP measured during 12 weeks over the 43
target plants on grape and wine parameters (Figure 3). The first 2 dimensions explained 53.9% of the variation
in the data, with 40.3% explained by Dimension 1 and 12.5% explained by Dimension 2. As expected,
anthocyanins and tannins were directly correlated with the Sugar concentrations and indirectly correlated with
yield and acidity. The 12-SWP weekly measurements presented different associations with the phenolic
compounds (anthocyanins and tannins) showing an effect of the time progression. This time effect is evident in
the correlation matrix (Figure 4) where higher correlation values between phenolic compounds and SWP were
registered from week 7 onwards. Also, a positive significant correlation was indicated between phenolic
compounds and sugar concentration. As anticipated, the total acidity and yield had a strong negative correlation
with sugar content and the phenolic compounds.
Fig. 3. PCA analysis considering all the data set from the 2019 growing season for cv. Cabernet Sauvignon.
Nomenclature used: P represent the target plants, W represent SWP for the 12 weeks, Acidity is the total
acidity (TA), Sugar is the grape juice sugar content, Anth is the anthocyanins concentration measured in wine,
Tannins is the tannin concentration measured in wine, Yield is the yield per vine, contrib is the level of
contribution each variable had to the dimensions. Size and colour intensity of the circles indicate the
contribution of the individuals (target plants).
14. 12
Fig. 4. Correlation matrix of the studies variables. W represent SWP for the 12 weeks. Colour and the size of
the circles are proportional to the correlation coefficients between the variables.
3.2. Classification of the target vines according to the plant water status
From the SWP measured values along the season, the target plants were grouped according to the level,
period, and duration of the waters stress in 3 classes: i) Class 1 - low water deficit, ii) Class 2 - moderate water
deficit and iii) Class 3 - severe water deficit (Fig. 5). As benchmarks, the period between week 6 to 8 (veraison)
was used to discriminate the level of stress. The general thresholds indicated for Class 1, 2 and 3 were < 9 Bar,
between 9 to 12 Bar and > 12 Bar, respectively.
Fig. 5. Classification of the seasonal evolution of SWP along the growing season. Yellow area represents the
Veraison period and arrows indicate the irrigation events.
Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation
15. 13
Plants in Class1 have a more homogeneous variation along the season, with a low amplitude of SWP
values from Week 1 to Week 12. On the other side, plants from Class 3 presented a greater amplitude of SWP
during the season. The progression of water deficit in the plants until veraison is similar in all three classes,
however, between week 6 and week 8 (veraison period) the plants in Class 3 rapidly reached the point of severe
water deficit. This trend in Class 3 was only diminished for a week, with the first irrigation event, to return
rapidly to the same level of water deficiency until harvest (Fig. 5). The irrigation events had a lighter effect on
SWP values in Class 1 and Class 2 than in Class 3, where vine water deficit was severely affected.
Table 4. Descriptive analysis water, soil, grape and wine variables in the 3 water stress classes.
SWP
(Bar)*
Sand
(%)**
Clay
(%)**
Carbon
(%)**
Anth
(mg/L)+
Tann
(mg/L)+
SC
(°B)++
TA
(g/L)++
MA
(g/L)++
Yield
(Kg/v)
Class 1
Avg 7.04 24.86 41.00 8.43 523.4 1028.4 23.18 4.55 3.38 5.03
Max 11.80 50.00 46.00 14.00 673.1 1454.3 24.7 5.6 5.4 9.2
Min 2.32 8.00 36.00 6.00 323.6 577.4 19.9 4.1 2.4 8.4
CV 7.63 40.29 8.12 21.18 17.1 26.6 6.0 9.3 27.0 31.4
Class 2
Avg 7.89 40.58 8.32 1.78 583.5 1041.2 23.77 4.56 3.72 5.88
Max 13.90 48.00 12.00 2.30 757.7 1464.2 25.4 5.7 5.3 8.3
Min 2.43 34.00 6.00 1.35 440.5 764.0 22.0 4.0 2.6 3.0
CV 7.45 8.31 23.05 13.78 16.10 21.92 3.67 9.07 21.51 28.17
Class 3
Avg 8.86 39.11 8.89 1.71 711.1 1427.7 25.17 4.29 3.50 3.56
Max 14.10 44.00 12.00 2.03 817.8 1911.2 26.5 5.8 5.1 5.8
Min 2.30 32.00 8.00 1.35 544.3 1049.1 23.7 3.9 2.6 2.0
CV 13.35 9.08 19.84 13.54 12.21 18.46 3.76 14.26 21.75 34.08
*
Indicates field measurements of SWP (Stem Water potential) average value, **
Indicates soil analysis (surrounding soil)
from each target vine, +
Indicates phenolic compounds measured in wine, ++
Indicates chemical analysis measured in juice,
Avg is the average value for the target vines, Max is the maximum value for the target vines, Min is the minimum value for
the target vines, CV is the coefficient of variation (%), TA is the total acidity, MA is the malic acid, SC is the sugar content
in grape juice, Anth is the anthocyanins concentration in wine and Tann is the tannin concentration in wine.
The box plots presented in Fig. 6, gives an indication of the dispersion of the variables inside the water
stress classes and the statistical differences between classes (Wilcoxon Rank Sum test). In general, acidity
presented lower differences, no statistical differences among the classes were registered for malic acid (Fig. 6e)
and a single difference between Class 2 and Class 3 was registered for titratable acidity (Fig. 6b). The analysis
of anthocyanins, tannins, sugar content and yield, presented significant statistical differences for Class 3 in all
cases. For anthocyanins, Class 3 was significantly higher than Class 1 and 2 (Fig. 6a). The positive skew in
Class 3 reveals that 50% of the observations in this group were higher than 711.1 mg/L (Table 4). Likewise,
tannins presented significantly higher values in Class 3 (Fig. 6d). However, Class 3 demonstrates a much
16. 14
smaller 2nd quarter, indicating that 50% of the plants presented value superior to 1427.7 mg/L and a highest
mean value of 1911.2 mg/L (Table 4). The sugar content was similar for Class 1 and 2, however, Class 3 was
significantly higher (Fig. 6c) ranging from 23.7°Brix to 26.5°Brix (Table 4). As expected, the yield of the plants
in Class 3 was significantly lower than the yield in the remaining 2 classes (Figure 6f). In fact, 50% of the plants
in Class 3 had a yield lower than 3.56 kg/plant. Conversely, more than 75% of the plants in Class 1 and 2 had
a yield superior to 4.26 kg/plant.
Figure 6. Boxplots of grape and wine parameters within each water stress class, a) Anthocyanins, b)
Titratable acidity, c) Sugar content, d) Tannins, d) Malic acid, e) Yield per vine. p-values for Kruskal-Wallis
tests indicate a difference in means within a group. Lines with p-values indicate statistically significant (p-
value < 0.05) in the Wilcoxon Rank Sum test for respective pairwise differences in means.
4. Discussion
4.1. Temporal variability of SWP
SWP is a plant based direct measurement variable used to evaluate the amount of water inside the plant
and therefore the plant water requirement (McCutchan & Shackel 2019). In this regard, SWP has been described
as the most convenient way to measure vine water status as it is used as an aid in vineyard irrigation management
17. 15
decisions (Williams 2012; Choné et al. 2001). In our experiment the temporal variability of SWP during the
growing season was evident. Water stress measured by SWP increased along the season, indicating a decrease
of the plant water content as a consequence of high atmospheric demand and lower soil water availability. This
temporal pattern has been reported in several articles (Brillante et al. 2016; Van Leeuwen et al. 2009; Hardie &
Considine 1976).
The atmospheric demand characterized by VPD and ETo increased along the season reaching
maximum values in the post-veraison period where the maximum water stress was also evidenced by SWP
measurements (Table 1 and Table 3). It has been previously reported that SWP, in drip irrigated vineyards, are
more closely correlated to the atmospheric demand (e.g. VPD) than to soil moisture (Rogiers et al. 2012). In
our experiment this condition was clear since SWP was well correlated with the changes in VPD and ETo along
the season. SWP values registered in this study were positively impacted by the irrigation events (lower SWP
values) in the post-Veraison period (Fig. 4). This finding is consistent with other studies that report a clear
impact of irrigation on plant water content (Acevedo-Opazo et al. 2010; Zúñiga et al. 2018; Chaves et al. 2007;
Brillante et al. 2018).
4.2. Spatial intra-block variability of SWP
When viticulture practices are homogeneous to all plants in a block, soil type and topography are the
main responsible factors for the natural spatial variability in vineyards (Yu et al. 2020). As temperature
increased, the relative humidity diminished and the soil became drier, thus plant water status established a clear
spatial pattern in our experimental block (Fig. 2). Therefore, spatial variability of plant water status was noticed
with CV values around 18% (Table 3). Brillante et al. (2016) indicated the existence of big natural spatial
variations in grapevine water status within short distances in vineyards. In the mentioned study plant water
stress of Chardonnay grapevines was monitored by stem/leaf water potential in two plots with different soil
properties. The singularity of water variation in shallow layers was attributed to soil characteristics affecting
soil evaporation, grapevine root density and cover crop uptake. Significant analysis concluded that soil
properties is the main factor for plant water content differences between plants over short distances.
Topography was another important factor to explain the spatial variability. Kitchen et al. (2003) has
established that topography is a measure to study availability of water in the soil. In accordance with this
concept, Van Leeuwen et al. (2004) concluded that the intensity of vine water deficit stress depends on the
18. 16
water-holding capacity of the soil. In our study, plants with higher SWP were more concentrated at the top
central area of the block. The top central area is characterized by a steeper slope than the remaining of the block.
Plants located in areas with steeper inclination registered less water content than the remaining plants. This
result could be associated with a lower penetration of water in slopes due to run-off and soil texture, therefore,
a lower level of available water in the soil. In accordance with these results, Koundouras et al. (2006)
investigated the influence of site (flood plain, hill slope and plateau) on grape and wine composition from
uniformly viticultural conditions of V. Vinifera L.cv. Agiorgitiko vines. Plant water deficit became significantly
higher during grape maturation to grapevines planted on the hill slope plot, suggesting that plant water uptake
is dependent on soil capacity to retain and supply water to grapevines. When combining these two factors soil
water availability is the major factor of spatial variability of plant water status. In this sense, Ledderhof et al.
(2017) in an attempt to assess the relationship between vine water status and yield and berry composition found
that the amount of clay in the soil texture composition is the main driver of variability. This idea is supported
by our classification, where Class 1 presented an average value of clay content 5 times higher than Class 2 and
3.
4.3. Classification based on plant water status
In our experiment the target plants were grouped into 3 classes according to level, period, and duration
of the waters stress using the veraison period as benchmark. Veraison is the beginning of berry ripening and it
is in this stage that berries start a variety of physical and chemical changes. According to several authors
(Gambetta et al. 2020; Ferrandino & Lovisolo 2014) sugar accumulation and abscisic acid (ABA) concentration
are responsible for berry composition modifications during this period. The resultant immediate effect of the
sugar and ABA accumulation in the berry is, first the change of skin colour, and then, the softening of the berry
and resume of berry growth. Other changes during veraison include increase of berry volume, biosynthesis of
skin and pulp compounds, an increase of pH and a decrease of acidity. Since the increase of berry size during
ripening is mainly related to the amount of water accumulated in the mesocarp vacuoles it has been suggested
that water is the most important component for berry maturation. Until veraison the xylem flow is the main
transporter of water to berries, however at veraison phloem flow becomes the only source of water to grape
berries (Keller 2015). Because of the different effects of water deficit on berry development around veraison, it
was hypothesised that veraison is a critical period on the impact of water status on berry development. The
proposed classes categorize target vines under different water conditions according the SWP values registered
during the season (Table 4).
19. 17
Vine water status can be monitored by means of SWP. The level of stress can be classified according
to the water potential measured on leaves. A significant study on the subject was presented by Leeuwen et al.,
(2009). In an investigation into vine water stress impact on the overall vintage quality, average thresholds for
plant water status have been proposed: no water deficit < 6 bar, weak water deficit 6 to 9 bar, moderate to weak
water deficit 9 to 11 bar, moderate to severe water deficit 11 to 14 bar, severe water deficit > 14 bar. In another
major study Gambetta et al. (2020) determined that, in irrigated and non-irrigated vineyards, SWP higher than
15 bar lead to leaf shedding and risk of vine mortality due to cavitation or turgor loss. Furthermore, the SWP in
viticultural management for premium wine is normally targeted between 12 to 14 bar. In our study the proposed
classes were determined considering the level of water stress and the evolution of plant water content from
Veraison onwards. Target plants with a SWP below 9 Bars at veraison were categorized as Class 1. Plants with
a SWP between 9 and 12 were classified as Class 2 and vines with SWP higher that 12 Bar were classified as
Class 3. Additionally, the level of stress of the plants in post-veraison until harvest was also considered.
Acevedo-Opazo et al. (2010) found that in an experiment of cv. Cabernet Sauvignon under three different RDI
events, the most effective irrigation treatment optimizing grape quality was the event that restricted SWP to
values bellow 12 Bar.
Even though before veraison there is no evidence of stressed plants, a steady decrease of plant water
content is already perceptible. Furthermore, target plants rapidly reached a medium level of water stress at
veraison, until achieving the maximum stress four weeks later at harvest. The reason for this rapid water stress
development in the targeted plants is generally related with the immediate increase of temperature, the depletion
of soil moisture and the subsequent plant reaction, opening the stomata and increasing evapotranspiration
(Choné et al. 2001; Phogat et al. 2017).
The temporal and spatial variability is more pronounced between veraison and harvest. However, the
spatial variability in classes can be explained in part by the retention of water in the soil, due to the position of
target plants in the block, the exposition of plants to sun and wind. When target plants are located in a higher
inclination receive more sun exposition and are affected by stronger wind, this translates into the plants
developing a higher stress condition than plants located in a flat area of the block, with low sun exposition and
less wind. These results reflect those of Brillante et al. (2017) who also found that despite vineyards being
irrigated, spatial variability in water content still exists and vineyard irrigation management should be executed
differently for the different SWP classes of the block.
20. 18
Temporal variability in grapevine water content has been well documented (Zúñiga et al. 2018; Chaves
et al. 2007; Acevedo-Opazo, et al. 2010; Brillante et al. 2018). The evolution of plant water content along the
season is a result of soil, weather, and plant management factors. However, the plant water content pattern is
that plants progressively contain less water until harvest (Chaves et al. 2007) and that has a determinant impact
on grape composition (Acevedo-Opazo et al. 2010). The evaluation of plant water content during the period of
water deficit in post-veraison is a complex task. It involves the analysis of changing weather temporal factors
and spatial pedological factors. Our water stress classes were defined following the logic behind the concept of
water stress integral proposed by Myers (1988) where a cumulative evolution of water potential along the water
deficit period is considered.
4.4. Impact of water stress on Yield, grape juice composition and wine phenolics
It has been proved that water stress has an impact in the physiology of the vines. In this sense, irrigation
techniques have been implemented and analysed to modulate vines response under specific water stress
conditions. Among these techniques regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) is the most followed by producers and
researchers.
As a common rule, grape producers apply water deficit in grapes in order to improve grape composition
and concentration. However, water limitation to grapevines at the end of the growing season has different effects
in grape quality depending on application timing. Plant water balance is markedly different before and after
veraison. Before, berries are more sensitive to alterations in plant water content (Gambetta et al. 2020). In this
phase plant water deficit affects the berry capacity of cell division and expansion, and therefore, berry size and
structure. (Bondada & Shutthanandan 2012). After veraison, the cuticular berry transpiration decreases
progressively and the sugar transport and accumulation increase rapidly, and the berry is more resistant to
shrivelling (Gambetta et al. 2020). Acevedo-Opazo et al. (2010) demonstrated that the application of water
restrictions in the period between veraison and harvest has no significant effect on yield. Therefore, grape berry
is less sensitive to plant water deficit in post-Veraison (Kennedy et al. 2002).
Our results follow an opposite tendency. Plants which reported lower levels of water stress (Class 1
and 2) in post-veraison, reported significantly higher yield values (av. 5,46 kg/plant) Conversely, plants from
Class 3 with higher water stress reported a lower yield (3.56 kg/plant). This finding suggests a threshold of plant
water stress that promotes yield component in grapevines. This is a strong indication that plant water content in
21. 19
post-veraison is a determinant factor for yield. Phogat et al. (2017) proposed that yield and average number of
clusters increase with water application. This study has been unable to demonstrate a difference in number of
clusters between the classes. However, the average plants with a critical water deficit in Class 3 registered
clusters with a lower yield (103g/cluster) in comparison to plants in Class 1 and 2 (av. 136g/cluster) with a
moderate water deficit in post-veraison. According to these data, we can infer that plants with a higher water
content in the period of post-veraison result in a higher yield per plant. As noted by Lovisolo et al. (2010) yield
and berry quality depend strongly on vine adaptability to drought. The level of drought recovery in grapevines
is related with the cultivar and environmental conditions affecting plant water stress.
Optimum production of wines is dependent on the grape composition at harvest. As a standard in
wineries, measurement of grape quality parameters is done by means of visual and sensorial evaluation of the
grapes and the analysis of total soluble solids (TSS) and acidity (Guidetti 2010). High sugar, lower acid, rich
colour and full varietal fruitiness are criteria for harvesting the ripe fruit at desirable ripeness (Boulton et al.,
1999). However, depending on the style and level of quality intended to be achieved there are several potential
harvest dates.
To date there has been little agreement about the effects of water deficit in berry juice quality
parameters (pH, TA and sugar content). Some authors suggest that plant water status derived from deficit
irrigation has a substantial impact on soluble solids of grape composition (Yu et al. 2020; Esteban et al. 2001).
Other have found no evidence of significant water deficit irrigation effect on grape soluble solids composition
of pH, TA (Acevedo-Opazo et al. 2010) and sugar accumulation (Chaves et al. 2007). In our study the values
of berry juice quality parameters analysed at harvest demonstrated no significant differences between classes
for pH, however, a small decrease of TA was registered in Class 3. Van Leeuwen et al. (2009) argues that mild
conditions of water deficit are beneficial to grape quality, decreasing malic acid and increasing sugar,
anthocyanins, and tannins of grape content. In our study the sugar content at harvest was well correlated with
the level of plant water stress. Grape berry sugar content increases with the level of stress between classes. This
augment in sugar can be related to the decrease of water content in the berry, therefore berry size, which leads
to the increase of sugar concentration in the berry. The chemical composition of grape juice and wine correlation
analysis illustrated a strong positive relationship (+0.9) between anthocyanins, tannins, and sugar. The analysis
demonstrated that anthocyanins and tannins in wine were highly correlated with the sugar concentrations
indicating that sugar may be useful as an indicator of wine phenolic content. The impact of water deficit in the
22. 20
increase of Brix° has been reported by Roby et al., (2004). Brix° values were higher for water stressed plants in
Class 3, but this was already expected since sugar is a component of Brix°.
4.5. Wine phenolics
The phenolic content and composition of red grapes are the main attributes to wine sensory properties
and wine colour. Anthocyanins are phenolic compounds that impart red colour to wine and tannins contribute
to the mouth feel properties (Aleixandre-Tudo et al. 2018). Although extensive research has been carried out
on flavonoid composition of wines, few studies have investigated the relationship between plant water deficit
and flavonoid composition of wines. A study conducted by Downey et al. (2006) suggests that plant water status
is a common denominator for flavonoids in wine. In our study a positive relationship was noticed between the
increase of water stress in plants of Class 3 and the increase of anthocyanins content of fermented wines.
Even though some authors argue that wine tannin concentrations can only be altered with higher values
of water deficits (Yu et al. 2020), our experiment demonstrated that plant water deficit is a strong driver for
tannin concentration in fermented wines and for anthocyanin concentration in wines. The experiment shows
that tannin and anthocyanin concentration 27% and 23%, respectively between low water deficit Class 1 and 2
and high-water deficit in Class 3. This finding was also reported by Kennedy et al., (2002) who reported an
increase of tannin concentration in response to water deficit. In our study, total phenols content in wine was
24% lower in Class 1. A similar result was presented by Nadal & Arola (1995) who reported a decrease of 22%
of total phenols in wines produced from irrigated vines.
Proanthocyanidins (tannins) are synthesised before anthesis through veraison and anthocyanin and
sugar accumulation, begins at veraison until harvest (Ollé et al. 2011). In our experiment the values of tannins,
anthocyanins and sugar (brix°) are higher in wines from Class 3, suggesting that temperature had a high
influence on the synthesis of these compounds during grape development. This observation may support the
hypothesis that the average temperatures in pre- and post-veraison periods were very high, mainly affecting the
plants with lower soil water content located in the steepest areas of the bock. This suggest that plant water
deficit in this period induces the accumulation of B-ring trihydroxylated anthocyanins through the differential
regulation of flavonoid 3’-hydroxylase and flavonoid 3’,5’-hydroxylase (Castellarin et al. 2007). Here the
influence of low water status before veraison impacts nonacylated anthocyanins (cyanidin and peonidin),
whereas in post-veraison it mainly affects cyanidin derivatives (p-coumaroyl substitutions) (Ollé et al. 2011).
23. 21
There is still uncertainty, however, whether plant water deficit has an impact on the increase wine
phenolic concentration because of alterations occurring through grape biosynthesis or due to the enhanced
concentration. It is also uncertain how this change will influence phenolic extraction during fermentation
(Casassa et al. 2015). Ojeda et al. (2002) confirmed two types of berry responses to water deficit: an indirect
and always positive effect on the concentration of phenolic compounds due to berry size reduction, and a direct
action on biosynthesis that can be positive or negative, depending on the type of phenolic compound, period of
application, and severity of the water deficit (Kennedy et al. 2002; Ojeda et al. 2002). Other than a direct
stimulation of biosynthesis, water deficits could also increase the concentrations of skin tannins and
anthocyanins due to the differential growth responses of the skin and inner mesocarp tissue to water deficits,
resulting in greater skin mass and relative skin mass per berry, and therefore greater amounts of skin-localised
solutes (Roby et al. 2004). Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken.
5. Conclusion
The present study highlights the complex response of wine phenolic content (anthocyanins and
tannins) and grape parameters (sugar content, TA, MA and yield) to the temporal and spatial variability of plant
water status in a commercial block induced by natural conditions of topography and soil characteristics.
In this study all target plants were treated with the same viticultural management practices and only
the natural effects were accountable to the spatial variability. Plant water status variability occurred along the
season, suggesting soil texture and topography as key factors for this effect. Plant water status influenced
changes in the concentration of phenolic compounds (anthocyanins and tannins) and grape parameters
particularly yield, and sugar content.
The results of this study may help to understand and quantify how spatial variability is naturally
distributed in a vineyard and ultimately impacts the style of wine that is possible to produce from a section or
the whole block. Further studies at intra-block scale are needed to understand the implications of plant water
status in the phenolic composition of wines focusing on the specific compounds that can play an important role
in the wine quality as well as the drivers associated with the variability.
References
Acevedo-Opazo, C., Ortega-Farias, S., et al., 2010. Effects of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) water status on water
consumption, vegetative growth and grape quality: An irrigation scheduling application to achieve
regulated deficit irrigation Agric. Water Manag. 97, 7, 956–964.
24. 22
Acevedo-Opazo, C., Tisseyre, B., et al., 2010. Spatial extrapolation of the vine (Vitis vinifera L.) water status:
A first step towards a spatial prediction model Irrig. Sci. 28, 2, 143–155.
Adams, D.O., 2006. Phenolics and ripening in grape berries Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 57, 3, 249–256.
Aleixandre-Tudo, J.L., Buica, A., et al., 2017. Spectrophotometric Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Grapes
and Wines J. Agric. Food Chem. 65, 20, 4009–4026.
Aleixandre-Tudo, J.L., Nieuwoudt, H., et al., 2019. Towards on-line monitoring of phenolic content in red wine
grapes: A feasibility study Food Chem. 270, July 2018, 322–331.
Arnó, J., Martínez Casasnovas, J.A., et al., 2009. Review. Precision viticulture. Research topics, challenges and
opportunities in site-specific vineyard management Spanish J. Agric. Res. 7, 4, 779.
Bindon, K., Myburgh, P., et al., 2011. Response of Grape and Wine Phenolic Composition in Vitis vinifera L .
cv . Merlot to Variation in Grapevine Water Status 32, 1, 71–88.
Blancquaert, E.H., Oberholster, A., et al., 2019. Effects of abiotic factors on phenolic compounds in the grape
berry - A review South African J. Enol. Vitic. 40, 1.
Bondada, B. & Shutthanandan, J., 2012. Understanding Differential Responses of Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)
Leaf and Fruit to Water Stress and Recovery Following Re-Watering Am. J. Plant Sci. 03, 09, 1232–
1240.
Boulton, R.B., Singleton, V.L., et al., 1999. Principles and Practices of Winemaking. Vol. 97.
Braidot, E., Zancani, M., et al., 2008. Transport and accumulation of flavonoids in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)
Plant Signal. Behav. 2324, 9.
Brillante, L., Bois, B., et al., 2016. Variations in soil-water use by grapevine according to plant water status and
soil physical-chemical characteristics-A 3D spatio-temporal analysis Eur. J. Agron. 77, 122–135.
Brillante, L., Martínez-Luscher, J., et al., 2017. Assessing Spatial Variability of Grape Skin Flavonoids at the
Vineyard Scale Based on Plant Water Status Mapping J. Agric. Food Chem. 65, 26, 5255–5265.
Brillante, L., Martínez-Lüscher, J., et al., 2018. Applied water and mechanical canopy management affect berry
and wine phenolic and aroma composition of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., cv. Syrah) in Central
California Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 227, June 2017, 261–271.
Casassa, L.F., Keller, M., et al., 2015. Regulated deficit irrigation alters anthocyanins, tannins and sensory
properties of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and wines Molecules 20, 5, 7820–7844.
Castellarin, S.D., Matthews, M.A., et al., 2007. Water deficits accelerate ripening and induce changes in gene
expression regulating flavonoid biosynthesis in grape berries Planta 227, 1, 101–112.
Chaves, M.M., Santos, T.P., et al., 2007. Deficit irrigation in grapevine improves water-use efficiency while
controlling vigour and production quality Ann. Appl. Biol. 150, 2, 237–252.
Choné, X., Van Leeuwen, C., et al., 2001. Stem water potential is a sensitive indicator of grapevine water status
Ann. Bot. 87, 4, 477–483.
Cliff, M.A., King, M.C., et al., 2007. Anthocyanin, phenolic composition, colour measurement and sensory
analysis of BC commercial red wines Food Res. Int. 40, 1, 92–100.
Deloire, A., Carbonneau, A., et al., 2004. Vine and water a short review In: J. Int. des Sci. la Vigne du Vin. Vol.
38 1–13.
Downey, M.O., Dokoozlian, N.K., et al., 2006. Cultural Practice and Environmental Impacts on the Flavonoid
Composition of Grapes and Wine: A Review of Recent Research Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 3, 257–268.
Esteban, M.A., Villanueva, M.J., et al., 2001. Effect of irrigation on changes in the anthocyanin composition of
the skin of cv Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L) grape berries during ripening J. Sci. Food Agric. 81, 4,
409–420.
Ferrandino, A. & Lovisolo, C., 2014. Abiotic stress effects on grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): Focus on abscisic
acid-mediated consequences on secondary metabolism and berry quality Environ. Exp. Bot. 103, 138–
147.
Gambetta, G.A., Herrera, J.C., et al., 2020. The physiology of drought stress in grapevine: towards an integrative
definition of drought tolerance J. Exp. Bot. 71, 16, 4658–4676.
Gaudillère JP, van Leeuwen C, T.O., 2000. The assessment of vine water uptake conditions by 13c/12c
discrimination in grape sugar J. Int. des Sci. la Vigne du Vin 34, 4, 169–176.
Guidoni, S., Ferrandino, A., et al., 2008. Effects of seasonal and agronomical practices on skin anthocyanin
profile of Nebbiolo grapes Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 59, 1, 22–29.
Hardie, W.J. & Considine, J. a, 1976. Response of Grapes To Water-Deficit Stress in Particular Stages of
Development Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 27, 2, 55–61.
Jose Luis Aleixandre-Tudo, 2018. Understanding phenolic compounds in red winemaking. Stellenbosch
university.
Keller, M., 2015. The Science of Grapevines: Anatomy and Physiology: Second Edition. Vol. 1.
Kennedy, J.A., Matthews, M.A., et al., 2002. Effect of maturity and vine water status on grape skin and wine
flavonoids Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 53, 4, 268–274.
Kennedy, J.A., Saucier, C., et al., 2006. Grape and wine phenolics: History and perspective Am. J. Enol. Vitic.
57, 3, 239–248.
25. 23
King, W.B., 1983. Geomorphology of the cape peninsula University of Cape Town.
Kitchen, N.R., Drummond, S.T., et al., 2003. Soil electrical conductivity and topography related to yield for
three contrasting soil-crop systems Agron. J. 95, 3, 483–495.
Kontoudakis, N., Esteruelas, M., et al., 2010. Influence of the heterogeneity of grape phenolic maturity on wine
composition and quality Elsevier 124, 767–774.
Koundouras, S., Marinos, V., et al., 2006. Influence of vineyard location and vine water status on fruit
maturation of nonirrigated cv. Agiorgitiko (Vitis vinifera L.). Effects on wine phenolic and aroma
components J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 14, 5077–5086.
Ledderhof, D., Reynolds, A.G., et al., 2017. Spatial variability in Ontario pinot noir vineyards: Use of geomatics
and implications for precision viticulture Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 68, 2, 151–168.
Van Leeuwen, C., Friant, P., et al., 2004. Influence of climate, soil, and cultivar on terroir Am. J. Enol. Vitic.
55, 3, 207–217.
Leeuwen, C. Van, Tregoat, O., et al., 2009. Vine water status is a key factor in grape ripening and vintage
quality for red Bordeaux wine. How can it be assessed for vineyard management purposes? J. Int. des
Sci. la Vigne du Vin 43, 3, 121–134.
Lovisolo, C., Perrone, I., et al., 2010. Drought-induced changes in development and function of grapevine (Vitis
spp.) organs and in their hydraulic and non-hydraulic interactions at the whole-plant level: A
physiological and molecular update Funct. Plant Biol. 37, 2, 98–116.
McCutchan, H. & Shackel, K.A., 2019. Stem-water Potential as a Sensitive Indicator of Water Stress in Prune
Trees (Prunus domestica L. cv. French) J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117, 4, 607–611.
Monagas, M., Gómez-Cordovés, C., et al., 2006. Evolution of the phenolic content of red wines from Vitis
vinifera L. during ageing in bottle Food Chem. 95, 3, 405–412.
Morgenthal, A., 2004. The wine lands of South Africa - In-depth information & detailed topographical maps.
(3rd ed.). Wines of South Africa.
Nadal, M. & Arola, L., 1995. Effects of limited irrigation on the composition of must and wine of Cabernet
Sauvignon under semi-arid conditions Vitis 34, 3, 151–154.
Nel, A.P., 2018. Tannins and anthocyanins: From their origin to wine analysis - A review South African J. Enol.
Vitic. 39, 1, 1–20.
Ojeda, H., Andary, C., et al., 2002. Influence of pre- and postveraison water deficit on synthesis and
concentration of skin phenolic compounds during berry growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz Am. J.
Enol. Vitic. 53, 4, 261–267.
Ollé, D., Guiraud, J.L., et al., 2011. Effect of pre- and post-veraison water deficit on proanthocyanidin and
anthocyanin accumulation during Shiraz berry development Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17, 1, 90–100.
Peel, M.C., Finlayson, B.L., et al., 2007. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11, 5, 1633–1644.
Phogat, V., Skewes, M.A., et al., 2017. Evaluation of crop coefficients, water productivity, and water balance
components for wine grapes irrigated at different deficit levels by a sub-surface drip Agric. Water
Manag. 180, 22–34.
R. Guidetti, R. Beghi, L.B., 2010. Evaluation of grape quality parameters by a simple vis/nir system Trans.
ASABE 53, 2, 477–484.
Roby, G., Harbertson, J.F., et al., 2004. Berry size and vine water deficits as factors in winegrape composition:
Anthocyanins and tannins Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 10, 2, 100–107.
Rogiers, S.Y., Greer, D.H., et al., 2012. Stomatal response of an anisohydric grapevine cultivar to evaporative
demand, available soil moisture and abscisic acid Tree Physiol. 32, 3, 249–261.
Santesteban, L.G., 2019. Precision viticulture and advanced analytics. A short review Food Chem. 279, April
2018, 58–62.
SAWIS, 2014. Production areas defined in terms of the wine of origin scheme 1–4.
Teixeira, A., Eiras-Dias, J., et al., 2013. Berry phenolics of grapevine under challenging environments Int. J.
Mol. Sci. 14, 9, 18711–18739.
Vilanova, M., Santalla, M., et al., 2009. Environmental and genetic variation of phenolic compounds in grapes
(vitis vinifera) from northwest Spain J. Agric. Sci. 147, 6, 683–697.
Williams, L.E., 2012. Leaf water potentials of sunlit and/or shaded grapevine leaves are sensitive alternatives
to stem water potential J. Int. des Sci. la Vigne du Vin 46, 3, 207–219.
Yu, R., Brillante, L., et al., 2020. Spatial Variability of Soil and Plant Water Status and Their Cascading Effects
on Grapevine Physiology Are Linked to Berry and Wine Chemistry Front. Plant Sci. 11, June.
Zhao, J., Zhang, W., et al., 2010. Improved K-Means cluster algorithm in telecommunications enterprises
customer segmentation Proc. 2010 IEEE Int. Conf. Inf. Theory Inf. Secur. ICITIS 2010 167–169.
Zúñiga, M., Ortega-Farías, S., et al., 2018. Effects of three irrigation strategies on gas exchange relationships,
plant water status, yield components and water productivity on grafted carménère grapevines Front.
Plant Sci. 9, July 1–13.
26. 24
Myers BJ 1988 ´Water stress integral. A link between short-term stress and long-term growth. Tree Physiol 4:
315–323.
R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical
Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL http://www.R-project.org/
Rouse, J.W., Jr.; Haas, R.H.; Schell, J.A.; Deering, D.W. (1974). Monitoring Vegetation Systems in the Great
Plains with ERTS. NASA Spec. Publ. 351, 309–317.