EBSCO Enology & Viticulture

Food Industry Watch
EBSCO Food Industry Watch • Copyright © 2011
EBSCO Publishing Inc. • 800-653-2726 • www.ebscohost.com
Viticulture & Enology
Practices within the Billion Dollar Industry
January 2011
Watch List
• Each of the 50 states now has at least one winery.
There were more than 5,400 bonded wineries in
the United States at the end of 2006—more than
double the number in 1999 (Insel, 2008).
• The retail value of wine produced in the United
States in 2005 was $23.8 billion. About 90 per-
cent of the volume of wine produced in the
United States comes from California (Insel, 2008).
• Researchers at Cornell University are studying the
precision application of botrytis sprays (Landers
& Wilcox, 2009). See:http://www.nysaes.cornell.
edu/pubs/vitcon/pdf2008/17.pdf
Key Takeaways
• Enology is the science that deals with wine and
wine making. Grapes are the highest value fruit
crop in the US ($35 billion), and direct employ-
ment by the grape and wine industry has grown
by nearly a third since 2001. The three largest
grape/wine-producing regions in the US are Cali-
fornia, Washington, and New York.
• Grape growers should obtain a soil analysis prior to
planting.The run-off from the common practice of
nitrogen (N) supplementation of grape musts can
affect local waterways and water tables.
• The process of winemaking begins with harvest-
ing and de-stemming the grapes, and continues
with: Crushing and primary fermentation, cold and
heat stabilization, secondary fermentation and bulk
aging, malolactic fermentation, laboratory testing,
blending and fining, preservation, filtration and
bottling.
• The most interesting genetically modified (GMO)
yeasts are glycerol and malolactic yeast. The
most important GMOs in the future will be those
capable of releasing terpenoids (organic chemi-
cals used for aromatics).
• Bacterial wine spoilage from Brettanomyces/
Dekkera yeasts or bioamines can be managed by
manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur diox-
ide.
• Thedemandforlower-alcoholwineshasincreased
in the last decade. There are various techniques
for lowering alcohol content, including ethanol
extraction from the wine and reduction of sugar
content of the musts.
Related Reports
• Horticulture
• Weed Management

Food Industry Watch
Executive Summary
Viticulture refers to the cultivation or culture of
grapes and encompasses vineyard development,
maintenance, and productivity; soil management;
pest management; irrigation and harvest methods.
Grape growers should obtain a soil analysis prior
to planting, to discover which amendments are
needed. The run-off from the common practice of
nitrogen (N) supplementation of grape musts can
affect local waterways and water tables. Nitrogen
amounts can be reduced without affecting vine
performance; this also decreases production costs.
Foliar fertilizers are effective in providing equal or
better vine nutrition and fruit composition than
soil fertilizers. They’re more expensive, but could
result in increased yield or fruit quality.
Efficient grapevine irrigation is crucial, and grow-
ers should mulch for water retention, use organic
matter appropriately, and use erosion prevention
techniques.
Viticulturalists need to select appropriate varieties
and rootstocks, select appropriate training systems
for the site and variety of rootstock; estimate and
modify yield through hand pruning; and increase air
flow and spray penetration into the canopy.
A solid integrated pest management program
should include: Exposing fruit to reduce disease;
selecting reduced-risk pesticides or bio-control
agents; spraying fungicide pre-bloom and post-
bloom; and rotating agrichemicals to prevent
resistance. Pesticide sprayer settings must be
tailored to the canopy development stage and
equipment and practices chosen to reduce spray
drift. There is increasing interest in biological con-
trol agents (BCAs) to suppress botrytis bunch rot
in grapes.
The winemaker decides when to harvest grapes
based on the level of brix, titratable acidity, and pH
of the grapes. Manual harvesting is preferred in the
US.
Enology is the science that deals with wine and
wine making. Grapes are the highest value fruit crop
in the US ($35 billion), and direct employment by the
grape and wine industry has grown by nearly a third
since 2001. The three largest grape/wine-producing
regions in the US are California, Washington, and
New York.
The process of winemaking begins with harvest-
ing and de-stemming the grapes, and continues
with: Crushing and primary fermentation, cold and
heat stabilization, secondary fermentation and bulk
aging, malolactic fermentation, laboratory testing,
blending and fining, preservation, filtration and bot-
tling.
Grape quality is affected by variety, weather, soil
minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning
method. There are perceptible sensory differences
in wines produced with biodynamically grown and
organically grown grapes.
The most interesting genetically modified yeasts
produce enhanced levels of glycerol and malolac-
tic yeast; both are generally recognized as safe, or
GRAS by the FDA. The most important GMOs in the
future will be those capable of releasing terpenoids
(organic chemicals used for aromatics).
Bacterial wine spoilage from Brettanomyces/
Dekkera yeasts or bioamines can be managed by
manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur dioxide.
The demand for lower-alcohol wines has increased
in the last decade. There are various techniques for
lowering alcohol content, including ethanol extrac-
tion from the wine and reduction of sugar content
of the musts.
2

Food Industry Watch
3
Business Options & Best Practices
Viticulture
Viticulture is defined as the cultivation or culture
of grapes. It encompasses vineyard development,
maintenance and productivity, soil management,
pest management, irrigation and harvest. The main
issues in viticulture currently include (VineBalance,
2010):
• Managing pests and nutrients
• Maximizing terroir
• Grape breeding
• Improving yield and fruit quality
• Anthocyanins, tannins and phenolics
• Soil management to reduce erosion, runoff and
leaching and improve soil health
• Integrated pest management (IPM) techniques
for insect, disease and weed control
• Nutrient management, especially
nitrogen fertilization
• Pesticide storage and handling and modern
spray technologies
• Vineyard floor management including cover
crops and water use
• Canopy management techniques to enhance
fruit quality and reduce disease pressure
Sustainable Viticulture
Sustainable viticulture is a long term approach to
managing wine grapes which optimizes
wine grape quality and productivity by using a com-
bination of biological, cultural and chemical tools
in ways that minimize economic, environmental,
and health risks (Ohmart, 2010). Most people agree
that the sustainable viticulture movement in the US
began with sustainable agriculture, which grew out
of organic farming practices and the ‘green revolu-
tion’ of the 1950s and the earth movement of the
1970s (Vinewise, 2004). Sustainable viticulture, as
in sustainable agriculture, is economically viable,
socially supportive and ecologically sound. Grow-
ers must make a multitude of choices regarding the
practices they use to manage vine growth, weeds,
diseases, insects, and soil fertility (Vine Balance,
2009).
Soils & Nutrients
As with any kind of agriculture, growers should always
obtain a soil analysis prior to planting/growing grapes,
so they know which (and how many) amendments
(nutrients, organic matter, compaction, drainage, pH)
they will need. Other issues include (Vine Balance,
2009):
• Soil and water conservation structures (diversion
ditches, buffer strips)
• Tile drainage
• Efficient nitrogen use and timing of
nutrient applications
• Safe and secure storage of fertilizers
Nitrogen supplementation of grape musts has
become common practice because surveys have
shown that much of the grape musts used are sub-
optimal for yeast nutrients, especially nitrogen, and
nitrogen deficiencies are linked to slow and stuck
fermentations and sulphidic off-flavor formation
(Vilanova, et. al., 2007).
However, run-off from nitrogen (N) application can
affect local waterways. One Australian study showed
that nitrogen fertilizer amounts could be reduced
without affecting vine performance, which would
decrease production costs and reduce the risk of
N leaching out of the soil profile to water tables
or waterways. Application rates of 40–50 kg N/ha
appeared to be sufficient to achieve optimal vegeta-
tive growth and desired berry juice N concentrations
(Barlow, et. al., 2009).
In a recent Ontario, Canada grape study, foliar fertil-
izers were found to be effective in providing equal or

Food Industry Watch
4
better vine nutrition and fruit composition than the
control where fertilizer was applied to the soil, in the
traditionalway.Applicationsofcombinedfishfertilizer,
seaweed extract, and Monty’s Evergreen performed
the best. The cost of the foliar program exceeded that
of the soil applied program by $230/ha, but this could
be compensated for by increases in yield or improve-
ments in fruit quality (Wiens & Reynolds, 2008).
Vineyard Floor & Water Management/Irriga-
tion
Growers should mulch for water retention, use
organic matter appropriately, and use erosion pre-
vention techniques. Other issues involved include
(VineBalance, 2010):
• Using seeded cover crops and maintaining per-
manent cover between rows
• Hilling up vines to prevent winter injury
• Investigating non-chemical and post-emergent
weed management techniques
• Use weed mapping technology to highlight prob-
lem areas and species
Efficient grapevine irrigation is also very important,
as it influences wine quality and even plant survival
in regions affected by seasonal drought. But grow-
ers should control irrigation in order to optimize
source-to-sink balance and avoid excessive vigor.
The results of one study of two grapevine varieties
(Moscatel and Castelão) showed that the amount of
water applied can be decreased by 50% (i.e., deficit
irrigation [DI] and partial root drying [PRD]) with
no negative effects on production and even some
gains of quality (in the case of PRD) (Chaves, et. al.,
2007). The partial root zone drying (PRD) irrigation
technique has been shown not to affect grape berry
ripening and composition greatly (Bindon, et. al.,
2008).
Canopy Management
Canopy management is an important aspect of viti-
culture because it affects grape yields, quality, vigor,
and the prevention of grape diseases. Problems such
asunevengraperipening,sunburn,andfrostdamage
can be addressed by skillful canopy management.
The canopy is often trained on trellis systems to
guide its growth and make it accessible for harvest.
So in addition to selecting appropriate varieties and
rootstocks, growers also need to select appropriate
trellis systems for the site and variety/rootstock; esti-
mate and modify grape yield by pruning, as well as
shoot and cluster thinning; and increase air flow and
spray penetration into the canopy through leaf trim-
ming and hedging (Vine Balance, 2009).
Integrated Pest Management
A good IPM program would include the follow-
ing procedures:
• Fruit exposure for reduced disease pressure
• Scouting for insects and diseases
• Utilizing thresholds for efficient pest manage-
ment
• Selecting reduced-risk pesticides
• Spot treatment of pests
• Critical fungicide spray timing (pre-bloom
and post-bloom)
• Rotating agrochemicals to prevent resistance
Pesticide Management
If pesticides are used, make sure to store them safely
and securely; tailor spray settings to canopy develop-
ment state and choose equipment and practices that
reduce spray drift and increase deposition (Vine Bal-
ance, 2009).
BioControl
There is increasing interest in the use of biological
control agents (BCAs) and plant resistance stimulants
to suppress botrytis bunch rot in grapes, caused by
Botrytis cinerea. Numerous different filamentous
fungi, bacteria and yeasts have been selected as
potential BCAs for control of grey mould. But bio-
suppression of B. cinerea in vineyards, using BCAs

Food Industry Watch
5
and resistance stimulants, has been inconsistent
compared to controlled glasshouse or laboratory
conditions. “Research to improve field efficacy has
focused on formulation improvement, the use of BCA
mixtures and combinational approaches involving
BCAs and plant resistance stimulants with comple-
mentary modes of action”(Elmer & Reglinski, 2006).
Pruning
Hand versus machine pruning can have an effect on
phenolic composition and wine quality. In at least
one study, machine-pruned berries were lighter and
had higher concentrations of anthocyanins, tannins
and total phenolics (which affect taste, color and
mouth feel in wines). However, machine wines had
the lowest quality scores. In this study, high berry
anthocyanins, total phenolics and tannin concen-
tration measures were not good indicators of wine
quality scores. Changes in vineyard treatments and,
in particular, vintage influences, produce incremen-
tal, but potentially important, changes to berry size,
berry composition and wine quality. This study is
unique in its focus on the commercial reality of pro-
ducing wines to a specific style and quality, while
bringing scientific rigor to investigating the relation-
ships between berries and wine quality in a specific
vineyard across a number of vintages (Holt, et. al.,
2008).
Harvesting
Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by
hand. The winemaker decides when to harvest
grapes based on the level of sugar (called Brix), acid
(TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid
equivalents), and pH of the grapes. Other consider-
ations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor,
and tannin development (seed color and taste).
Mechanical harvesting saves time and requires a
minimum investment of manpower per harvested
ton; but it can include leaf stems and leaves, moldy
grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small
animals and bird nests. Mechanical harvesting is
seldom used for premium winemaking in the US for
this reason, and manual harvesting is usually the pre-
ferred method. It requires the use of knowledgeable
labor to not only pick the healthy clusters of grapes
but also to handle them gently and leave behind
the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or
other defects, in order to prevent inferior quality fruit
from contaminating a tank of wine (Robinson, 2003).
Enology
Enology is the science that deals with wine and
wine making. Whereas viticulturists study all aspects
of grape production after preparatory work in the
biological sciences (plant biology, plant pathology,
plant physiology, entomology, meteorology and soil
science), enologists study wine and fermented bever-
age technology, after preparation in the fundamental
sciences related to fermentation (chemistry, math,
physics, biochemistry, microbiology, molecular and
cellular biology) (University of California - Davis, 2010).
Economics of Winemaking
Approximately 900,000 acres in the US are devoted
to grape growing—mostly for wine—for a total
crop value of $35 billion. Grapes are the highest
value fruit crop in the US, and more than one mil-
lion workers owe their livelihood to the US wine
and grape industry. If all the suppliers are included
(bottle, tank, label, and barrel makers, distributors,
retailers, and servers), this is a $33 billion industry.
Direct employment by the industry has grown by
nearly a third since 2001 (Insel, 2008).
The three largest grape/wine-producing regions in
the US are California, Washington, and New York.
Each state has a university that offers Viticulture and
Enology programs both at the undergraduate and
graduate levels: University of California-Davis, Wash-
ington State University and Cornell University.

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6
Process
The process of winemaking begins with harvesting
and de-stemming the grapes, and involves the fol-
lowing steps (Robinson, 2003):
1. Crushing and primary fermentation: The skins
are left in contact with the juice for red wines,
while most white wines are processed without
de-stemming or crushing and are transferred
directly from picking bins to the press. Yeast is
already present on the grapes (giving them a
powdery appearance), and fermentation can be
done with this natural yeast, but can produce
unpredictable results. As a result, cultured yeast
is often added to the must. During primary fer-
mentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in
the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide
gas and alcohol. Pigeage refers to the French term
for the traditional stomping of grapes in open fer-
mentation tanks.
2. Cold and heat stabilization: Cold stabilization is
a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate
crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine.
During heat stabilization, unstable proteins are
removed by absorption onto bentonite, prevent-
ing them from precipitating in the bottled wine.
3. Secondary fermentation and bulk aging: The
secondary fermentation and aging process takes
place in either air-locked large stainless steel ves-
sels or oak barrels and takes 3-6 months.
4. Malolactic fermentation (for red wines and
sometimes white): During or after the alcoholic
fermentation, specific strains of bacteria convert
malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fer-
mentation is often initiated by inoculation with
desired bacteria. It can improve the taste of wine.
5. Laboratory testing: Tests on Brix (sugar, salt, acid
andtannincontent),pH,titratableacidity,residual
sugar, free or available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile
acidity, and percent alcohol are run periodically.
6. Blending and fining: Wine can be mixed before
bottling to achieve the desired taste. Fining agents,
(e.g., gelatin, egg whites, bull’s blood, bone char
and skim milk powder) are used during winemak-
ing to remove tannins, reduce astringency, and
remove microscopic particles that could cloud the
wines.
7. Preservation: Sulfur dioxide (to prevent or stop
malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage, and
help protect against the damaging effects of
oxygen) and potassium sorbate (to control of
fungal growth, including yeast, especially for
sweet wines) are sometimes used as preservatives
8. Filtration: Used for clarification and microbial sta-
bilization of the wine.
9. Bottling: Sulfite is added for preservation and to
prevent unwanted fermentation; bottles are sealed
with a cork (synthetic or real) or screw cap, which
are increasingly popular. A capsule is added to the
top of the bottle, which is then heated for a tight
seal.
Current Issues in Enology
Grape Quality
Grape quality, which determines the quality of the
wine more than any other factor, is affected by
variety, weather during the growing season, soil
minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning
method. Winemakers and viticulturists now focus on
the concept of achieving “physiological” ripeness in
the grapes or more complete ripeness of tannins and
other phenolic compounds in the grapes that con-
tribute to the color, flavor, and aroma of wine.
One study showed that there were perceptible
sensory differences in wines produced with bio-
dynamically grown and organically grown Merlot
grapes. In the study, wine grapes were raised biody-
namically or organically on a commercial vineyard
with wines produced from 2001 to 2004. The 2003

Food Industry Watch
7
organically grown wine was preferred, and the 2004
organically grown wine was higher in musty/earthy
aroma and flavor, astringency and bitterness, and
had a longer finish compared to the same vintage of
biodynamically grown wine. Results indicate percep-
tible sensory differences between the 2003 and 2004
biodynamically and organically grown wines (Ross,
et. al., 2009).
Genetically Modified Yeasts
Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often
visible as the powdery appearance of the grapes. Fer-
mentation can be conducted with this natural yeast,
but since this can give unpredictable results depend-
ing on the exact types of yeast that are present,
cultured yeast is often added to the must. A Slovenian
study found that the most important and interesting
genetically modified yeasts, in the opinion of enolo-
gists, are those with enhanced production of glycerol
and malolactic yeast, the last already approved as
GRAS by the United States FDA. The most important
GMOs in the future will be yeasts capable of releas-
ing terpenoids, but also very important are malolactic
yeasts and yeasts producing higher concentrations of
glycerol and lower concentrations of acetic acid (Pla-
huta & Raspor, 2008).
Microbiology & Spoilage Faults
The microbiology of wine is very complex, so it is dif-
ficult to pinpoint the exact problem when spoilage
does occur. Nonetheless, large-scale investigations
on controlling wine spoilage have been conducted
for many years in an attempt to improve wine qual-
ity, and great progress has been made in the past
decade.
Consequences of bacterial wine spoilage include
mousy taint, bitterness, geranium notes, volatile
acidity, oily and slimy-texture, and overt buttery
characters. Management of wine spoilage bacteria
can be as simple as manipulating wine acidity or
adding sulfur dioxide. However, to control the more
recalcitrant bacteria, several other technologies can
beexploredincludingpulsedelectricfields,ultrahigh
pressure, ultrasound or UV irradiation, and natural
products, including bacteriocins and lysozyme (Bar-
towsky, 2008).
Strategies for control, monitoring, and risk manage-
ment with specific regard for brettanomyces/dekkera
yeasts are needed, since only small steps have been
takenandtherearestillmanyfactorstoberesearched.
Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts have been respon-
sible for turbidity or haziness and lack of color in wine
and have become more prominent during the past
decade partially due to winemaking trends such as
the use of filtration and SO2, poor cellar hygiene, and
improper sanitization of barrels (Oelofse, Pretorius &
Du Toit, 2008).
Wine also contains biogenic amines (nitrogenous
compounds found in various fermented foods)
which pose some toxicological risks to humans. In
recent years, researchers have found that biogenic
amines are mainly produced by lactic acid bacte-
ria (LAB) in wine. Knowledge of the metabolism
of wine LAB will help to understand the impact
of malolactic fermentation on wine quality and
allow better control of malolactic fermentation
during winemaking. There is currently no regula-
tion of biogenic amines levels in wines in the US,
the EU or other countries. Faster, more sensitive,
and easier analytical methods need to be devel-
oped to detect biogenic amines in wines as well as
food. Factors that affect biogenic amines amounts
in wine include: Technological factors and the fer-
mentation conditions, (i.e., temperature, pH value
changes, oxygen access, or sodium chloride con-
tent of wine), and the malolactic fermentation. It
is nearly impossible to produce wines without any
biogenic amines that maintain all their sensory
properties; but it is possible to produce wines with
low levels of biogenic amines by controlling critical
technological factors (Anli & Bayram, 2009).

Food Industry Watch
8
Low-alcohol Wines
Though the response from consumers and wine
professionals has been mixed (Meillon, et. al., 2010),
the demand for wines with lower alcohol content
has increased in the last decade. There are various
techniques for lowering alcohol content, including
ethanol extraction from the wine and reduction of
sugar content of the musts. One study showed that
removing 2% ethanol by stripping or by distillation
during fermentation are promising alternatives for
reducing the alcohol content of wine without alter-
ing the sensory quality of the product (Aguera, et. al.,
2010).
Only a small part of the complexity of the grape-
growing and winemaking process is scientifically
well understood, but new technologies and meth-
ods, such as systems biology have emerged as a way
to assess the entire vine growing and wine making
process from a more holistic perspective (Rossouw
& Bauer, 2009).
Related Organizations
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
American Society for Enology and Viticulture
California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance
Cornell University Viticulture and Enology Program
University of California – Davis: Viticulture and
Enology Program
University of California – Davis: The National
Grape Registry
Washington State University Viticulture and
Enology Program
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