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1. Academic Essay
Writing
by Peter Lloyd

2. Contents
Part One
Introduction to academic essay writing
1.1.: The different categories of writing in secondary and tertiary education
1.2: What defines an academic essay
1.3: Have a clear idea how you will answer the question
1.4: Bibliography and referencing
1.5: Brief descriptions of other types of writing for students
Part Two
Essay writing for assignments
2.1: Writing Better Sentences
2.2: How to improve your essay
2.3: Sources and further reading…
Appendix
A brief explanation of clauses, phrases, conjunctions and prepositions

3. Academic Essay Writing © Peter Lloyd 2022

4. Part One: Introduction to academic essay writing
1.1: The different categories of writing in secondary and tertiary education
Persuasive exposition, Discussion essay, Procedural text,
Recount writing and Narrative writing
1.2: What defines an academic essay
1.2.1 Firstly, understand the terms argument, analysis and critical review
1.2.2 The purpose of academic writing.
1.2.3 The structure of academic essays. Includes a brief explanation of how the
introduction, body and conclusion work in persuasive expositions,
discussion essays and procedural texts. Paragraphing and sentences.
1.2.4 The importance of form, style, and tone
1.2.5 Know what will cause you to lose marks in academic essays.
1.2.6 How valid is anecdotal evidence or accounts of “lived experience’?
1.3: Have a clear idea how you will answer the question
1.3.1 Essay questions which use instruction words
1.3.2 Essay questions which use implied instructions
1.3.2 Essay assignments which use a direct question
1.4: Bibliography and referencing
1.4.1 Creating bibliographies
1.4.2 Referencing: Using quotes, paraphrasing and summarising
1.5: Brief descriptions of other types of writing for students
Exam questions; Report writing; Business writing: Research Writing
Writing about literature, poetry and drama
1

5. 1.1: The different categories of writing in secondary and tertiary education
Definitions of persuasive expositions, discussion essays, procedural texts,
recount essays and narrative essays.
Persuasive Persuasive essays are written to persuade
readers to support a particular point of view.
This type of essay is also known as an
exposition.
This chapter mainly
focuses on how to
produce a good
persuasive exposition.
Discussion Discussion essays outline arguments both
for and against a particular topic
Guidelines are offered in
this chapter so you can
write an effective
discussion essay.
Procedural A procedural text teaches the reader how to
do something. Examples include a set of
instructions to operate machinery; how to
use technology; recipes, D.I.Y. projects; rules
for games and sports
Guidelines are offered in
this chapter so you can
write an effective
procedural text.
Please Note: Recount and Narrative writing lie in the realm of creative writing and are
outside the scope of this paper, but we briefly discuss them below.
Recount This type of writing describes a series of
events; usually in the time order they
occurred.
Includes journals, letters,
articles and can be factual
or imaginary
Narrative Narrative writing tells stories and their
purpose is to entertain.
Includes novels, short
stories, poems etc.
2

6. 1.2: What defines an academic essay
An academic essay is a particular form of writing which presents an argument by
developing a point, or a set of closely related points, with reasoning and evidence.
The supporting points are linked together in a logical sequence. Formal language is used and
relevant examples and supporting evidence from academic texts or credible
sources are included.
1.2.1 Firstly, understand the terms argument, analysis and critical review
Argument
In academic terms this doesn’t mean a squabble but indicates a set of reasoned propositions
which prove a point or persuade the reader or listener to a point of view. Argumentation is
the process of developing or presenting an argument, or in other words, the reasoning
involved.
Analysis
The act of separating the concepts and contents of a text to explain how these interrelate,
connect and possibly influence each other.
Critical review
In academic writing, to critically review does not necessarily mean to comment in a negative
manner. In an academic context, it means to evaluate the strengths weaknesses, applications
and limitations of an argument.
1.2.2 The purpose of academic writing.
When asked for an opinion, the vast majority of people respond emotionally or intuitively
and then look for reasons to back up their assertion. This approach can be riddled with error
and perceptual biases. To avoid this, the academic approach stresses objectivity, clear
thinking and precision. The ideas expressed need to be relevant, complete and accurate. The
person who is marking your essay is interested in your opinion of the source material based
on objective evaluation and the way you present your argument. Your own personal
experience or viewpoint on the topic may or may not be of interest.
3

7. 1.2.3 The structure of academic essays.
An academic essay contains three separate sections:
• An introduction: In which you indicate what you understand the question to be; what
your objectives are; which aspects of the subject you will deal with and what you will
explain or argue.
• A body: Where you build up your explanation/argument with ideas, opinions and
facts, and support key points with examples, evidence and statements from
authorities on the subject.
• A conclusion: Which sums up your argument and shows that you have answered the
question.
What follows is a brief explanation of how the introduction, body and conclusion work slightly
differently in persuasive expositions, discussion essays and procedural texts.
In an exposition the introduction includes the writer’s thesis statement and a brief preview of
the main arguments which support his view. The body explains each of the supporting
arguments in more detail. The conclusion states the writer’s position and briefly sums up the
main arguments and explains how they support the writer’s view
In a discussion essay, the introduction states what the topic is, explains that opinions differ
and introduces the groups for and against. The body has separate paragraphs which describe
the arguments for the topic and the arguments against the topic and why the opposing groups
think the way they do. The conclusion sums up the arguments and usually explain why the
writer favours one side over the other.
A procedural text has a title which describes exactly what is being explained. The introduction
will describe the equipment or ingredients or rules of the game as appropriate. The body will
give precise, sequential step by step instructions which
describe the actions being performed. These steps can be numbered, or you can use dot
points. No conclusion is required for a procedural text.
4

8. 600-700 words is a commonly proscribed word count for short essays and reports.
Allowing a paragraph each for the intro and the conclusion this would leave four
paragraphs in the body. In a 11-point font with double spacing, that would take up about
two pages A4 pages. See http://wordstopages.com/ for page/word counts.
The paragraphs should be organised in a sequence which demonstrates sound reasoning.
Regard each paragraph as a stepping stone to the conclusion of your essay. The connections
between the paragraphs need to make sense.
Each paragraph should present a single idea which supports the thesis statement. As a rule of
thumb, a paragraph would consist of approximately 100 words divided into approximately 6-
8 sentences averaging about 15 words each. The first sentence, called the topic sentence,
should introduce the main idea and the other sentences support that idea with evidence and
examples. Sentence length can vary but a sentence over two lines long is probably too long.
Ask your tutor to suggest examples of well written essays and analyse them in terms of what
we have discussed here. Use them as a template for your own.
1.2.4 Consider form, style, and tone. This will gain you marks.
The aim is to create a piece of work that is coherent, sticks to the point and has a logical
structure. Stylistically your essay should sound like you write with facility and elegance, even
if it actually cost you “blood, tears, toil and sweat”. You should aim for an economic style.
Avoid words that you would hesitate to use in conversation. Don’t be afraid to demonstrate
your command of vocabulary or specialist words, but mainly use plain English. It should sound
natural to you. Address the reader as if they are an intelligent young person. The tone should
be appropriate for an academic essay. As Amanda Patterson says in “Writers Write” the
writing should be “clear, concise, confident, and courteous….be sophisticated, but not
pretentious”
5

9. 1.2.5 Know what will cause you to lose marks in academic essays.
Avoid anything in this list: slang; abbreviations; anecdotes; jokey remarks; pop culture
references; colloquialisms and vernacular; chattiness; exclamation marks; overuse of
adjectives; almost any use of adverbs; overlong sentences; needless words; clichés;
terms which can be construed as sexist e.g. actress for actor; workman for worker; policeman
for police officer etc. Save all these devices for your Creative Writing class.
You will lose marks for poor spelling, poor punctuation, poor grammar and badly designed
presentation and layout. You will be penalized for quoting texts without acknowledgement.
You will be disqualified for plagiarism and passing off another person’s work as your own.
1.2.6 How valid is anecdotal evidence or accounts of ‘lived experience’?
Appeals to “lived experiences” are exercises in bad statistical reasoning. To see why, let’s
suppose that I made the argument that smoking causes cancer, and that I backed this up with
a mountain of scientific data and peer-reviewed studies. Now suppose that someone
responded to all of this with the following: “But my grandpa Bob smoked cigarettes all of his
life and never developed cancer! So, smoking doesn’t cause cancer after all!” Would you be
convinced by this reply? I hope not. Smoking is a contributory cause of cancer: those who
smoke have a much higher likelihood of developing certain cancers than those who don’t
because the act of smoking contributes something toward that outcome, even though that
outcome doesn’t always happen. So, just because some smokers don’t develop cancer
doesn’t mean that smoking plays no role in causing cancer.
- Tim Hsiao “Lived Experiences Aren’t Special” Quillette May 24, 2021
For more on academic essay writing check these sites:
https://www.matrix.edu.au/essential-guide-english-techniques/the-literary-techniques-
toolkit/
https://www.dartmouth.edu/~engl5vr/guidelines.htm
6

10. 1.3: Have a clear idea how you will answer the question
Please note that the term “the question” refers to the title of the essay. It may be stated in
terms of a question or an instruction. “The topic” refers to the subject of the essay. The “thesis
statement” is your answer to the question. The question may also indicate whether you are
expected to write a persuasive exposition, a discussion essay, or a procedural text.
1.3.1 Essay questions which use instruction words
An instruction word will often be used in the question to describe the task that you are
expected to undertake and which you will be assessed on. In the table below, the instruction
word is shown in the left-hand column. The most important thing in essay writing is to
answer the question. You can write a brilliant essay but unless you address the question you
will not receive a passing grade.
Instruction
Word
How you will be expected to answer the question
Analyse
Discussion
Take things apart to show how the parts make up the whole.
Assess
Exposition
Make a value judgement about the matter discussed. Address both
positive and negative aspects. Cite the judgements of known
authorities. If invited, give you own opinion.
Classify
Exposition /Discussion
Sort items into correct classes.
Comment on
Discussion
Analyse and assess
Compare and
contrast
Discussion
Show what is similar (compare) and what is different (contrast)
about the matter for discussion.
Critically discuss
Exposition
Spell out your judgement as to the value or truth of something.
explain what your criteria are and demonstrate how the criteria
apply in this case.
Define
Discussion
State the meaning or interpretation of something. Specify the limits
within which something must fall to be that sort of thing.
7 Contents Page

11. Detail Procedural
Provide a description emphasizing the component parts.
Discuss Discussion
Engage critically with the subject. Give reasons for and against.
Draw a conclusion
Evaluate Exposition
Assess the worth of an idea. Justify your conclusion.
Examine Discussion
Present in depth and investigate the implications.
Illustrate Discussion
Provide examples or instances that illuminate the points under
discussion. Possibly using graphics.
Interpret Discussion
Clarify or explain. Give an account of the data, drawing conclusions from
the evidence given or show how things relate.
Justify Exposition
Provide the evidence and the arguments which support the conclusion
given. Argue the case
Outline/Sketch Discussion
Give a clear summary/overview without going into too much detail.
Prove Exposition/Discussion
Provide irrefutable evidence for a proposal
Refute Exposition/Discussion
Provide the evidence and the arguments against the position given and
show how a different conclusion follows
Relate Discussion
Show the connection between.
Review Discussion/Exposition
Summarise and assess
State Discussion
Spell out the main points
8

12. Instruction
word
How you will be expected to answer the question
Summarise Discussion
Select the main features and describe them in your own words
To what extent Exposition
Discuss how true a statement is, or in what ways it is true
Trace Exposition/Discussion
Show how a particular idea or event was caused by or evolved from
earlier ones
Instruction words may be ambiguous. If you are really stuck, ask your teacher to
exactly what form they wish your essay to take.
1.3.2 Questions which use implied instructions
Some assignments may not use an instruction word in the title. It may just be implied
as in the following examples:
How did ... and … differ in their…………….….?
This implies “contrast “and can be answered by in the form of a discussion essay.
What were the key events of …………………..?
Implies “outline” or ‘describe”. It’s asking for your opinion, so it’s an exposition.
1.3.3 Writing assignments which use a direct question
Direct questions are concerned with taking a position and backing it up with cogent
argument. They can be seen as questions where you are expected to give a
yes or no answer and justify your answer as in the following examples:
Does the…achieve………?
Exposition
Should …..ever be……because …?
Exposition
Are all ……. equally…… ?
Exposition
Is…….…an important piece of work?
Exposition
9

13. Or you may be asked to spell out clearly what something is or how something is done as in
the following examples:
What are the critical elements of ……?
Exposition
How should………………….?
Procedural or Exposition
What is the function of ……………….?
Procedural
How do you write a critical essay?
Procedural
Give a direct answer to a direct question. You should quickly have an idea how the
introduction and conclusion will be written. Strive for relevance and eliminate whatever
distracts from the question and your response.
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/can-title-be-question-does-it-need-
punctuation-268410
Topics without a question
Occasionally you may be asked to write a given number of words on a particular topic with
no other direction. Formulate 8-10 questions you would ask about the subject. Select the
question that interests you the most as the title for your essay. If possible, consult the
person who will be marking your assignment for their opinion on the suitability of your
choice.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10

14. 1.4: Bibliography and Referencing
1.4.1 Creating a bibliography
At the end of your essay, attach a list of all material which you have consulted in preparing
your work. The list may contain items which you have chosen not to quote from or which you
have decided were not helpful. Nevertheless, these items have formed part of your
preparation and should all be included. Your list forms your bibliography. It is possible that
your bibliography may contain just one item, the primary text, if that is honestly all you have
used.
The bibliography is organised according to the authors' last names which are arranged in
alphabetical order. In a bibliography each component of an individual entry is punctuated by
a full stop. Bibliographical entries may vary in complexity. In general, use the following
ordering systems as your guide in presenting material. Please note that the punctuation
counts.
Books are listed like this
• Name of author/s, editor/s or institution responsible for the book.
• Full Title of the Book : Including Sub-title.
• Volume number or total number of volumes in a multi-volume work.
• Edition, if not the first.
• City of publication
• Publisher,
• Date of publication.
as in the following examples:
Levine, Joseph M. The Battle of the Books : History and Literature in the Augustan
Age. Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1991.
Boswell, James. The Life of Samuel Johnson. Edited by George Birkbeck Hill and L.F. Powell. 2
vols. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1934.
Soltes, Ori Z., ed. Georgia: Art and Civilization through the Ages.
London: Philip Wilson, 1999.
11

15. Serials include magazines, newspapers, annuals (such as reports, yearbooks, and directories),
journals, memoirs, proceedings, transactions of societies, and monographic series. They are
listed like this:
• Name of author/s.
• "Title of the article."
• Title of Serial
• Volume number,
• No. issue number
• (date)
• page range of whole article.
as in the following examples:
Gold, Ann Godzins. "Grains of Truth: Shifting Hierarchies of Food and Grace in Three
Rajasthani Tales." History of Religions 38, no. 2 (1998): 150-171.
Masterton, Mark. Review of The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in
Ancient Rome, edited by Martha C. Nussbaum and Juha Sihvola. American Journal of
Philology 124, no. 3 (2003): 477-81.
Chapters from edited books
• Name of author
• "Title of the chapter."
• Full Title of the Book : Including Sub-title.
• Name of editor
• page range of whole article
• City of publication
• Publisher
• Date of publication
as in the following example:
Holloway, John. "Dickens and the Symbol," in Dickens 1970, edited by Michael Slater, 50-63.
London: Chapman Hall, 1970.
12

16. The information above was culled from The University of Tasmania library website:
https://utas.libguides.com/c.php?g=498348&p=3412899
This document also shows how to enter the following into a bibliography:
• Web sites
• Journal article from electronic source
• Statute accessed from a web site
• Legislation-Statutes:
• Reprint Editions and Modern Editions
• Theses
You can download a PDF from the Swinburne library at:
www.swinburne.edu.au/library/referencing/harvard-style-guide/
This document will show you how to enter following into a bibliography
• Translations
• E Books (with numbered pages)
• E Books (with no page numbers)
• Newspaper, magazine and journal articles without an author
• Industry and market reports from a library database
• Streamed TV program accessed through the EDU TV database
• Australian Standards Online
• Learning material in Blackboard or Canvas
• DVD – feature film
• Webpage with an author
• Webpage without an author
• Conference paper available on the conference’s publicly accessible website
• YouTube video.
• Tables, graphs and images from a webpage.
• Article from a newspaper’s official website
• Article from an open access online journal
• Blog entry
• Books with multiple authors
13

17. 1.4.2 Referencing: Using quotes, paraphrasing and summarising
In academic writing you will find that you have to include parts of another person’s work in
your essay. This is called referencing. Quoting is when you take a word for word copy of that
work and place it in your own. Paraphrasing is interpreting the text in one’s own words
without changing the meaning. The original text and the paraphrase are about the same
length. It is usually done for the sake of simplicity. Summarising is done when only the main
ideas of the writer are to be identified, or when only an overview of the whole work is
required so it is shorter than the original text. The correct way to punctuate a quote using the
Harvard referencing system can be found on p.15. Paraphrases and summaries are
punctuated differently to quotes, this is also detailed on p.15.
When you reference other people's work in your writing, you should include correct citations
to avoid committing plagiarism, avoid breaking copyright law and allow your readers to find
and read your sources of information.
Citation Styles
To make the references consistent and easy to read across different papers there are
predefined styles stating how to set them out - these are called citation styles. Regardless of
what subject you're writing for, you should use the style your college and tutor recommend,
and you must not mix-and-match. Different subjects prefer to each use different styles. These
are the most popular:
• APA. APA is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis is placed on the author
and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
• MLA. MLA is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the USA. It
is arguably the most well used of all of the citation styles.
• Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA,
Harvard referencing is the most well used referencing style in the UK and Australia
and is encouraged for use with the humanities.
• Cambridge for Art History
• Vancouver. This system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.
• Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very similar, just like
Harvard and APA. These are widely used for history and economics.
14

18. Examples of Harvard Referencing
Example 1.
This quote “Most of an octopus' neurons are not in a brain but in its arms, and these limbs
can act semi-autonomously” was from an article on the website of The Age.
This is how the article was listed in the bibliography:
Strom, M 2017, ‘Do octopuses dream of electric squid? One philosopher's love of the
cephalopods’, The Age, 1 April, viewed 9 August 2017,
<http://www.theage.com.au/technology/sci-tech/do-octopuses-dream-of-electric-squid-
one-philosophers-love-of-the-cephalopods-20170329-gv8r9l.html>.
This is how the quoted passage would appear in the text of the essay. The direct quote
appears in quotation marks followed by the author’s name in brackets.
Octopi are physiologically very different to humans and especially in regard to its senses:
“Most of an octopus' neurons are not in a brain but in its arms, and these limbs can act semi-
autonomously” (Strom 2017).
Even when the direct quote is paraphrased, it requires a citation.
The nervous system of an octopus is very different, with most of its neurons in its eight
tentacles (Strom 2017); this suggests its sense of perception – and thus, self – must be very
different to our own.
Example 2.
This quote “The universe has no mind, no feelings and no personality, so it doesn’t do
things in order to hurt or please you” appears in a book by Richard Dawkins.
This is how the book was listed in the bibliography:
Dawkins, R 2012, The magic of reality, Black Swan, London.
Below you will see how the quoted passage would appear in the essay. The direct quote
appears in quotation marks followed by the author’s name in brackets, publication date and
page number
“The universe has no mind, no feelings and no personality, so it doesn’t do things in order to
hurt or please you” (Dawkins 2012, p. 226), which leaves us having to examine other reasons
for why events happen.
This is how the paraphrased version appears in the text of the essay.
The universe cannot do good or bad things to humans because it is not a sentient force
(Dawkins 2012, p. 226),
15

19. 1.5 : Other types of writing for students
In this chapter we deal specifically with academic writing for assignments. Here is a brief
introduction to other types of writing that students will encounter.
• Exam Essays
Download and print out the last two years exam papers for each subject you are doing. These
will serve you like a good and faithful servant. Make a list of all the essay questions, work out
if are they direct questions, or do they use or imply instruction words, and if so, which ones.
Use the exams as practice, particularly in the six weeks before the exam. Past papers for
students sitting VCAA exams can be downloaded from here:
https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/exams/examsassessreports.aspx#H2N1042B
• Report Writing
A similar set of skills to academic writing but with some different requirements
I recommend Report Writing by Michelle Reid (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)
• Business Writing
So much learning material is available on writing memorandums, reports, proposals, emails,
and plans. Consult your teachers about the best sources for your purpose.
• Writing about literature, poetry and drama
Bloom’s how to write about literature series, published by Chelsea House includes volumes
on many major writers. Find a full list here.
http://www.infobasepublishing.com/eBookSeries.aspx?PrintISBN=0791099814
• Research Writing
You will need to access the past research reports and essays of your specialist association to
learn the concepts, conventions and strict guidelines applied to research papers. This site
explains some sound general principals.
https://ctl.yale.edu/teaching/ideas-teaching/teaching-students-write-good-papers
.
16 Contents Page

20. Part Two: Essay writing for assignments
2.1 How to Write Better Sentences
2.1.1 Using sentence starters
2.1.2 Using signal words
2.1.3 Using reporting verbs
2.1.4 Composing coherent sentences
2.2 How to improve your essay
2.2.1 Using the active voice
2.2.2 Using quotations
2.2.3 Using nominalisations
2.2.4 Avoiding weasel words
2.2.5 Using a 14-step essay writing plan
2.3: Sources and further reading
17

21. 2.1: How to Write Better Sentences
2.1.1 How sentence starters are used in an academic essay
2.1.2 Sentence starters for introductions, paragraphs and conclusions
2.1.3 How signal words are used in an academic essay
2.1.4 Signal words to link sentences, phrases and clauses
2.1.5 Using reporting verbs to indicate that a text is being quoted or paraphrased
2.1.6 Composing coherent sentences which fit together and where the reasoning is clear.
2.1.1 How sentence starters are used in an academic essay
The listing below shows where and how sentence starters can function. In the following
pages, you will find tables of suggested sentence starters for each purpose.
Use sentence starters in the intro or in a topic sentence which starts a paragraph.
➢ To Introduce ideas
Use sentence starters in a topic sentence or within a paragraph
➢ To present commonly accepted or widely known ideas
➢ To add ideas
➢ To present historical or foundational ideas
➢ To present other peoples’ ideas
➢ To present uncommon ideas
➢ To reintroduce ideas discussed previously
Use sentence starters within a paragraph.
➢ To compare
➢ To contrast
➢ To show relationship or outcome
➢ To present examples
➢ To indicate a premise.
Use sentence starters within or at the end of a paragraph, or in the conclusion.
➢ To indicate a conclusion
➢ To present inconclusive ideas
➢ To indicate that you are not totally certain of the facts
➢ To sum up your essay
18

22. 2.1.2 Sentence starters for introductions, paragraphs and conclusions
When you use the sentence starters in the lists below, your vocabulary will sound correct and
the movement between sentences and between paragraphs will be smoother. Of course, you
don’t have to start every sentence with one of the phrases suggested here. Many alternatives
are suggested so that you don’t have to repeat yourself.
Use these sentence starters in the introduction or in a topic sentence
To Introduce ideas
This essay discusses. . . In this essay. . . We will be discussing . . .
The issue focused on . . . The central theme . . . The key aspect discussed. . .
Emphasised are . . . Views on . . . range from. . . A common misconception
The definition of . . . will be
given . . .
. . . is explained and
illustrated with examples.
. . . is demonstrated . . .
. . . is defined . . . . . . is explained . . . . . . is explored . . .
. . . is described . . . . . . is evaluated . . . . . . is analysed . . .
. . . are presented . . . . . . are identified . . . . . . is examined . . .
. . . is briefly outlined . . . . . . is included . . . . . . is justified . . .
Use these sentence starters in a topic sentence or within a paragraph
To present commonly accepted or widespread ideas
Many/Numerous . . . The majority/Most . . . Almost all . . .
Commonly/ Usually, Significant . . . . . . is prevalent . . .
To add ideas
Also, . . . Equally important . . . On the question of . . .
Furthermore, Moreover, As well as . . .
Next . . . Another essential point . . . Additionally,
More importantly, In the same way . . . Another . . .
Then, In addition, Besides . . .
With regard to . . . One reason . . . Further . . .
Turning now to . . . So far this essay. . . Let us now discuss . . .
19

23. To present historical or foundational ideas
In the past, Historically, Traditionally,
Customarily, Beforehand, Originally,
Prior to this, Earlier, Formerly,
Previously, Over time, At the time of . . .
Conventionally, Foundational to this is . . . In earlier . . .
Initially, / At first, Until now . . . Recently,
To present other peoples’ ideas
Based on the findings of . . .
it can be argued . . .
With regard to . . .
. . . argued. . .
. . found supporting
evidence that . . .
According to. . . As explained by . . . A report by . . .
As identified/seen by . . . Based on the ideas of . . . . . . found that . . .
. . . states that . . . . . . goes on to state . . . . . . maintained that . . .
. . . defined . . . as . . . . . . pointed out that . . . . . . suggested . . .
. . . explored the idea . . . . . . hypothesised that . . . . . . speculated that . . .
. . . asserts that . . . . . . claims that . . . . . . proposed that . . .
. . . wrote that . . . . . . reported that . . . . . . showed that . . .
. . . defined . . . as . . . . . . pointed out that . . . . . . suggested . . .
. . . emphasises . . . . . . highlights . . . . . . also mentioned . . .
. . . confirmed that . . . . . . agreed that . . . . . . concluded that . . .
Similarly, . . . stated that . . . However, . . . stated that . . . . . ., for example, . . .
. . . challenges the idea . . . . . . disputes . . . . . . contrasts . . .
. . . argues . . . . . . relates . . . . . . expressed the opinion
. . . demonstrated . . . identified . . . . . . acknowledged that . . .
To present uncommon ideas
Seldom . . ./ Rarely . . . A few/Few/ Not many . . . . . . is uncommon/ unusual
To reintroduce an idea discussed previously
As discussed above, … As previously stated, … As was mentioned in the . . .
As explained earlier, … As indicated previously … Returning briefly to the . . .
20

24. Use these sentence starters mostly within a paragraph
To compare
Similarly, In comparison, Moreover,
In the same way . . . Complementary to this, Likewise,
To contrast (To contradict or offer an opposing argument)
Conversely, At the same time, All the same.,
Though/although . . . Notwithstanding . . . Then again,
However, This is in contrast to . . . In contrast (to),
Even if . . . Nevertheless, / Nonetheless, That aside,
On the contrary, On the other hand, Despite this, /in spite of . . .
Whereas . . . Be that as it may, Unlike
To show relationship or outcome
Therefore . . . As a result, For that reason,
Due to . . . That is why . . . Because (of) . . .
. . . causes . . . . . leads to . . . . . . affects . . .
The outcome is . . . The result . . . The effect is . . .
Consequently, Subsequently, Accordingly,
As a result, These factors contribute to After examining . . .
The relationship . . . The link . . . The convergence . . .
The correlation . . . The connection . . . While . . .
. . . impacts on . . . . . . influences . . . . . . interacts with . . .
If . . . , then . . . When . . . , (then) . . . Unless . . .
So that . . . Whenever . . . Without . . .
Otherwise, Only when . . . With this in mind . . .
To present examples
For example, As an example, For instance, . . . exemplifies . . .
. . . such as . . . . . . as demonstrated by. . . . . . as can be seen in . . .
You might consider . . . To illustrate, Specifically,
21

25. To introduce a premise. A premise is a proposition to support an argument
Because . . ./ As . . ./ Since . . . In as much as . . . Given that . . .
Due to the fact . . . As shown by . . . As indicated by . . .
Owing to . . . Considering that . . . Assuming that . . .
A final reason . . . It can be seen that . . . Supposing that . . .
Use these sentence starters mostly within or at the end of a paragraph
To indicate a conclusion. A conclusion is a proposition supported by premises
So . . ./ Thus . . ./ Hence . . . The evidence
suggests/shows …
Considering ... it can be
concluded that ...
Therefore, Consequently, Accordingly. . .
As a result, (From which) it follows that . . . We can conclude that . . .
This suggests that . . . It may be inferred from . . . We have seen that . . .
To present inconclusive ideas
Perhaps . . . . . . may be . . . . . . might be . . .
There is limited evidence for . . . . . is debated . . . . . . is possibly . . .
. . . could . . . . .. may include . . . . . . seems like . . .
To indicate that you are not totally certain of the facts (Hedging)
Generally speaking, In general, While most of us . . .
It is believed that . . . In principle, Also, . . . may not . . .
Seemingly, It is widely accepted that . . . Reportedly,
Use these sentence starters in the conclusion of your essay
To conclude your essay
In summary, To review . . . In conclusion,
In brief, To summarise, To sum up,
To conclude, Thus, We recommend . . .
It has been shown that . . . In short, The significance of . . .
All in all, Overall, Finally,
. . . the literature identifies reviewed the key aspects It has been explained that
22

26. 2.1.3 How signal words are used in an academic essay
Signal words are sometimes called linking words or transition words. Use signal
words and phrases to connect two words, phrases, clauses or sentences to make the text
easier to read and more coherent. Signal words can indicate what is coming up in the text.
Importantly, they will improve the connections and transitions between paragraphs. They are
frequently used at the start of a subordinate clause, and in some circumstances can be used
as sentence starters. Signal words and sentence starters are mostly interchangeable. You will
also see the same word used in different contexts. Below is a list of how signal words can be
categorised.
• To add ideas: Continuation Signals
• To compare: Comparison Signals
• To contrast: Opposing Argument Signals
• To show relationship or outcome: Cause, Condition, or Result Signals
• To present examples: Illustration Signals
• To indicate a conclusion: Conclusion Signals
• To use when not totally certain of the facts: Uncertainty Signals
indicating that an idea is not exact, or the author wishes to qualify a statement,
or is hedging
• Sequence Signals (Indicate that there is an order to these ideas.)
• Emphasis Signals (Indicate that what follows is important.)
• Time Signals (Indicate when)
• Spatial Signals (Indicate where)
To add ideas: Continuation Signals
besides which, moreover, another . . .
what is more, furthermore, and
likewise, also in addition,
by the way, not to mention . . . finally,
23

27. To compare: Comparison Signals
just like just as like
or analogous to similar to
too also more than
equally much as compared with
most yet again in the same way that . . .
To contrast: Opposing Argument Signals
although/ though even though in spite of/ despite
conversely, different from the opposite
otherwise rather than instead of
nevertheless however, while . . .
in contrast on the contrary on the other hand,
but still / even then yet/ and yet . . .
alternatively, similar to . . . but different from
unlike it may be the case that . . . notwithstanding
less than either neither
To indicate outcome or relationship:
Cause and effect, relationship and condition signals
resulting from leads to since . . .it follows that . . .
arising from in effect thus/ so
on account of depends on unless
in the event of for fear that in case
so that/ to ensure that without in order that/to
until while this is the case as long as
unless given that without
. . . demonstrates . . . . . . predicts . . . . . . supports . . .
. . . informs . . . . . emphasises . . . is dependent on . . .
. . . presupposes that . . . provided that on the condition that
. . . except when . . . . . relies on. . . . . . under those circumstances
24

28. To present examples: Illustration Signals
for example, such as much like
for instance, in the same way as similar to
specifically to illustrate to clarify
in this case proof of this to demonstrate
To indicate a conclusion: Conclusion Signals
This closes the topic and may have special importance.
as a result consequently and finally,
from this we see in conclusion in summary
hence in this case therefore
it must be that which means that implies that
it may be the case that for one thing. last of all
Uncertainty Signals (Indicates that an idea is not exact,
or the author wishes to qualify a statement, or is hedging)
almost some except reputed
if should seems like
looks like alleged was reported
maybe nearly purported
could might sort of
probably as a rule more often than not
mainly on the whole it may be that
Sequence Signals ( Indicates that there is an order to these ideas.)
firstly, secondly, thirdly A, B, C, in the first place,
first of all, before then
next until
since later after
25

29. Emphasis Signals (Indicates that what follows is important.)
a major development especially important of course
a significant factor especially relevant pay particular attention to
a primary concern especially valuable remember that
a key feature important to note it should be noted
a major event relevant substantial issue
a vital force valuable the main value
a central issue it all boils down to the basic concept
a distinctive quality most of all the crux of the matter
above all most noteworthy the chief outcome
by the way more than anything else the principal
obviously importantly indeed
undoubtedly absolutely emphasises
clearly definitely never
especially without a doubt In particular
Time Signals (Indicates when)
once immediately now
lately already little by little
at the same time, final after a while
when during once
last now previously
while always on time
26

30. Spatial Signals (Indicates where)
in on/ upon under
inside outside over
in front of behind below/beneath
above beyond by
alongside next to adjacent
close to nearby/near closer
beside between farther/further away
here there elsewhere
left middle right
north south east
west opposite across
into out of around
toward away from parallel
against at the front at the back
in the centre at the side among
Signal words and punctuation.
When you use a signal word or phrase at the start of a sentence, follow it with comma.
When you use a signal word or phrase in the middle of a sentence, both precede and follow
it with comma. Words like but, for, or, so and yet are preceded by a comma. For the words
and and or, this is only necessary in long sentences
For more detailed advice on punctuation and signal words, go to :-
http://www.englishessaywritingtips.com/2012/08/transition-words-punctuation/
27

31. 2.1.3 Using reporting Verbs
Reporting verbs are verbs which indicate that a text is being quoted or paraphrased. They are needed
to connect the in-text citation to the information which you are citing. As in these three examples
where the reporting verb is “emphasise”.
1. Smith (2020) emphasises, in his study of biodynamic farming, that….
2. As Smith (2020) emphasises in his study of biodynamic farming, . . .
3. In his study of biodynamic farming, Smith (2020) emphasises that . . .
Because reporting verbs are used a lot in academic writing you will need alternative words so that
there is not constant repetition of the same word. See the list below.
Accuse: hold accountable, allege, blame, criticise
Add: develop, contribute, expand
Agree: grant, comply, admit, concede, echo, accept, acknowledge, endorse, support, concur
Believe: assume, presuppose, subscribe to, feel, hold, profess, argue, believe, claim, insist, maintain
Conclude: discover, find, infer, discern, terminate, complete, wrap up
Disagree: differ, diverge from, question, query, doubt, disapprove, challenge, cast doubt on,
contradict, dismiss, disprove, dispute, oppose, refute, reject, object to, deny, counter, rebuff
Discuss: examine, explore, study, analyse, go into , scrutinize, review, consider, deliberate
Emphasise: reiterate, accentuate, highlight, underscore, stress
Examine: research, analyse, assess, evaluate, investigate, review, compare, contrast, scrutinise
Explain: justify, demonstrate, identify, illustrate, articulate, clarify, define
Guess: presume, speculate, suppose, suspect, surmise
Include: incorporate, encompass, take into consideration, comprise, embrace
Persuade: induce, convince, influence, prompt
Require: depend upon, stipulate, lack
See: witness, recognise, view, notice, observe, watch
State: affirm, articulate, set forth, comment, note, remark, describe, express, outline, present, add,
declare, inform, mention, report, assert, warn, exhort, argue
Suggest: advocate, submit that, put forward, imply, intimate, hypothesise, posit, postulate,
propose, theorise, advise, affirm, recommend, urge
Think: determine, assume, consider, reflect, contend, reason, understand, realise,
28

32. 2.1.4 Composing coherent sentences
Synonyms, Pronouns, Sentence patterns, Repeating a key term
Writing is considered coherent when sentences, ideas, and details fit together smoothly and
the reasoning is clear. You can use the methods listed here to construct coherent sentences.
Note that good writers use a combination of these methods.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning. On page 28, you will find
synonyms for reporting verbs. Synonyms add variety to your word choices. This helps the
reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed. As an example, the two sentences below
are made coherent by using a synonym in the second sentence.
“Official histories are often claimed to be factual and explain what actually happened. The
truth is that these authorised versions are merely a public relations exercise.
Pronouns
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, we, they, and them are useful pronouns for referring back
to something previously mentioned. For example, the following two sentences are made
coherent by using pronouns. “When talented young footballers do not develop as
expected, they are often considered to be failures until another team gives them a second
chance. Those that work out better the second time around often turn out to be the best
players”. When using pronouns, make sure it is clear what you are referring to.
Sentence Patterns
Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep
ideas tied together as in this example: “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your
country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country”.
Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase
Repetition of a key term helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track. In the
example below, two sentences are made coherent by repeating a key phrase.
“The problem with modern jazz is that it is not easily understood by most people. Modern
Jazz is sometimes deliberately discordant, and may leave the listener wondering what
exactly it is that they are hearing”.
29

33. 2.2: How to improve your essay
2.2.1 Using the active voice
2.2.2 Using quotations
2.2.3 Using nominalisations
2.2.4 Avoiding Weasel Words
2.2.1 Using the Active voice
The active voice is preferable because it is more direct. For example:
Active voice The teacher is informing the class that the assignment is due
Passive voice The class is being informed that the assignment is due today.
Active voice Erica performed the Mozart selection flawlessly.
Passive voice The Mozart selection was performed flawlessly by Erica.
Use the active voice most of the time. Passive voice is most often used in scientific essays
Passive voice The water was heated to boiling point. (preferable)
Active voice I heated the water to boiling point.
The passive voice is also useful when you want to place the emphasis on the object rather
the subject of the sentence.
Passive voice Alice was admired by John. (Emphasis on Alice)
Active voice John admired Alice. (Emphasis on John)
30 Contents Page

34. 2.2.2 Using quotations
A quote is when you include some of another person’s work. This is not to be confused with
a quotation, which is a phrase or short piece of writing taken from a work of literature,
poetry, drama or a historical context. For instance:
“You must have a cigarette. A cigarette is the perfect type of a perfect pleasure.
It is exquisite, and it leaves one unsatisfied. What more can one want?”
― Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray
A maximum of two quotations in essays under a thousand words is recommended. Find good
examples of how other writers have used them and learn from them.
2.2.3 Using Nominalisations
Nominalisations are verbs turned into nouns. They sound more formal and are suited to
academic writing. as in the following examples.
The virus was spreading rapidly and the authorities were becoming concerned.
The rapid spread of the virus caused concern among the authorities.
Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the immediate cause of the Second World
War breaking out in Europe.
The immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 was
the German invasion of Poland.
For more on nominalisations see:
www.theenglishbureau.com/blog/nominalisation-formal-essays/
31

35. 2.2.4 Avoiding Weasel Words
In an academic essay, weasel words or phrases will weaken your argument. When you include
any of these words or phrases it makes you sound unsure of yourself. It can also sound like
you are giving yourself an easy way out.
A bit May
Almost Might
As much as Moderately
Basically Most
Believe Often
Can Possibly
Clearly Probably
Could Quite
Could be Rather
Critics say . . . Relatively
Every Some argue that…
Experts say or Research shows . . .
(unless you can quote the source)
Somehow
Somewhat
Fairly Suddenly
I would say that../ It has been said that.. That being said……
In a sense The user or The person
Just Usually
Leading or cutting edge Very
Like or Likely Virtually
Many Well, ….
Recommended text: Watson's Dictionary of Weasel Words, Contemporary Clichés, Cant &
Management Jargon, Bendable Learnings and Worst Words by Don Watson.
32

36. 2.2.5: Using a 14-step writing plan for an assignment
Please note that to write requires that you think more deeply and about more complex
matters than you normally would. A clear sign that you are on the right track with your writing
is that your viewpoint on the topic changes. That is because you are structuring an argument
instead of defending a perceptual bias. In other words, writing and doing the associated
reading will make you smarter.
1 Clearly understand the question and what the criteria are for assessment.
2 Start a project notebook. Write out the provisional outline.
3 Search for and select research material
4 Start research and taking notes
5 Draft the revised outline
6 Write out the first draft.
7 Rewrite the first draft
8 Get some feedback
9 Complete the second draft. Use the checklist.
10 Complete the references and citations
11 Complete the bibliography
12 Complete your third and final draft.
13 Do a final edit and proofread so you have a completed essay
14 Hand it in.
Step 1: Clearly understand what the question is and what the assessment criteria are.
It is most important to focus on what the question is and what the criteria are for assessment.
This will keep you focused on what you need to glean from your research material and will
also enable you to eliminate what you don’t need.
33

37. Step 2: Start a project notebook. Write out the provisional outline
Before you charge off to the library, buy a new A4 notebook for this assignment. Use only
one side of the paper when writing in this notebook. Keep it neat, you can write drafts on
rough paper. Practising your handwriting will pay off when you do a written exam. Do a
rough draft of a provisional outline (sometimes called an essay plan). This consists of your
thesis statement which should be one or two sentences; a list of possible main points; some
questions you have formulated and an indication of what research you will be doing. When
you are happy with the rough draft, write out a neat copy on the first page of your project
notebook.
See p.7 for the definition of “thesis statement “.
Step 3: Search for and select research material
You may have a list of recommended reading, but also scour the catalogues at your college
and public libraries. Introductory books and specialist dictionaries for particular subjects are
very useful. You may also require some sources that contradict your thesis statement, so you
can comment on them in your essay.
Use Google Scholar; citing Wikipedia is usually not accepted, but you may find references
there for further reading such as academic journal articles, books and academic websites.
These may in turn provide you with a list of other resources relevant to your assignment.
Become adept at skimming pages and using indexes to find the information you are seeking.
Ask the staff at your library. You will be required to use reliable, authoritative sources to back
up your arguments. When using information from websites, check its reliability. Check these
sites for guidance on how to do this.
Evaluating the reliability of sources - YouTube
Scholarly sources checklist - Research & Learning Online (monash.edu)
You will probably need ten books or articles per thousand words of essay. Write your list of
reference sources on the back page of your notebook. This list can be added to as you
progress with your research and note taking, and can form the basis of your bibliography.
34

38. Step 4: Start researching and taking notes in your project notebook.
Before you start taking notes, dedicate the next four pages in your note book to writing the
revised outline. You can do this revision as you are doing your research and note taking. Head
the first blank page “Revised Outline page1”. Skip a page, remember we use only one side of
the paper, and head the next page “Revised Outline page 2”. Skip a page then head the next
page “Notes on (what the essay topic is)”. You are now ready to start research and taking
notes. For an essay of 600 words you would need about eight to ten pages of written notes.
Don’t highlight or underline parts of a text. There is no evidence that these techniques are
effective. What does work is to read for understanding. Read a paragraph. Look away from
your research material and say to yourself what the paragraph meant to you. Then write
down in the “Notes on…” section what you have learned, or any questions that have arisen in
your mind. Read the paragraph again and make any changes to your notes that you deem
necessary. The aim is to extract the gist of what is written. Take more notes than you will
need for your essay. You can include material for the sake of “context”, but don’t get
distracted.
You will need to quote or paraphrase sections of your research to support your arguments.
It is vital that you cite the source and page number. All papers on Google Scholar provide a
link for citing material.
Using a style manual
Style manuals are essential to check spelling, grammar, punctuation, syntax
and word usage. The following manuals are recommended.
Style Manual for authors, editors and printers
Published by John Wiley and Sons. Prepared by Snooks and Co for the
Australian Department of Finance and Administration
https://authorservices.wiley.com/asset/Wiley-AMA-Style-Manual.pdf
The Chicago Manual of Style Published by The University of Chicago Press
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
Bryan A. Garner: The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo23196803.html
35

39. Step 5: Draft the revised outline in your project notebook
This should use the structure of the essay but in the form of lists and jottings as well as formal
sentences. At this point just get as much relevant information as you can under the most
appropriate headings. Be as certain as you can that your material is from credible sources,
but don’t worry about crafting your essay just yet.
• The introduction
Rewrite both what you understand the question to be and your thesis statement.
Indicate how you intend to support the thesis statement.
List any words in the essay that may need to be defined. There has to be some
fundamental agreement about what words actually mean at the beginning of any
conversation.
• Paragraph # 1
Write out your first supporting argument
List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information
• Paragraph # 2
Write out your second supporting argument
List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information
• Paragraph # 3
Write out your third supporting argument
List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information
• . Paragraph # 4
Opposing argument(s)
List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information
• . The conclusion
Sum up your main argument and supporting arguments. Show that you have answered the
question or arrived at a point of view. The first sentences should restate the thesis. The middle
sentences summarize the essay’s subpoints. The final sentences can leave the reader with an
36

40. interesting thought. Do not make the last sentence of your essay a question.
https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/468862/Writing_introduction
s_and_conclusions_for_essays_Update_051112.pdf (recommended)
Step 6: Write out the first draft in Word basing it on the revised outline
The first draft should be written in Word and be double spaced. Now is the time to check out
the requirements for formatting re: font size, margins etc. The first draft should have 25%
more words than the final draft. The introduction and conclusion should take up about a
quarter of your word count and the introduction should be longer than the conclusion.
First Draft of 600 word essay. Word counts are approximate.
Introduction : 90 words
Paragraph # 1 : 125 words
Paragraph # 2 : 125 words
Paragraph # 3 : 125 words
Paragraph # 4; 125 words
Conclusion : 60 words
6a Paragraph construction
If you can’t think up 100 words to say about your idea, it’s not a very good idea, or you
need to think more about it and/or do more reading. If your paragraph rambles on for 300
words or more, it has more than one idea in it and should be broken up.
A paragraph should present a single idea. This is expressed in the first sentence which is called
the topic sentence. The middle sentences contain the evidence, examples and information.
The final sentence of the paragraph should summarise the topic and lead smoothly into the
next section.
37

41. 6b Sentence construction
Each sentence should have a noun, a verb and a main idea. Avoid presenting these elements
in the same order in every sentence (vary your syntax) and mix up shorter and longer
sentences. This will help you to avoid a “plodding style”.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Set the draft aside for a day or two and come back to it with a fresh mind
Step 7: Rewrite the first draft. Reduce the paragraph length to around 100 words
7a Rewrite the sentences in Paragraph #1
Copy the first sentence and then underneath compose three alternative versions so you have
four versions.
Original first sentence of Paragraph #1
First sentence of Paragraph #1 alternative version 1
First sentence of Paragraph #1 alternative version 2
First sentence of Paragraph #1 alternative version 3
Repeat this process with each of the sentences in Paragraph #1.
When rewriting the sentences, check the lists below and see if you need to include sentence
starters, signal words or reporting verbs.
See p.19 - 22 for sentence starters, which are appropriate opening words or phrases
when you want your sentence to do one of the following:
To introduce ideas; To present commonly accepted or widely known ideas; To add ideas;
To present historical or foundational ideas; To present other peoples’ ideas; To present
uncommon ideas; To reintroduce ideas discussed previously: To compare: To contrast
To show relationship or outcome; To present examples; To indicate a premise;
To indicate a conclusion; To present inconclusive ideas; To indicate that you are not totally
certain of the facts (hedging); To sum up your essay
38

42. See pp. 23-27 for signal words. Signal words connect two words, phrases, clauses or
sentences together when you wish to indicate one of the following:
More to come A change of direction A sequence
Time Illustration Emphasis
Cause, condition, result Where Comparison & contrast
Conclusion Inexact ideas -
See p.28 for reporting verbs. Reporting verbs are used when you quote or paraphrase and
you wish to find words that mean the following:
accuse allege blame, criticise add agree
believe conclude disagree discuss emphasise
examine explain guess include persuade
see show state suggest think
Then select the best version of each sentence.
Use https://www.gingersoftware.com/punctuation-checker#.XkUE7WgzaM8 to check the
punctuation. Copy and paste these to form a new paragraph. Check that the sentences are in
the best order or if that can be improved. Then rewrite the paragraph.
7b Repeat the process with paragraphs #2, #3 and #4. Are the paragraphs in the correct order,
or does your essay make more sense when you rearrange them?
7c Rewrite the introduction and conclusion.
Start the introduction with a short sentence. The first sentences should introduce the topic
of the essay, create interest, and provide any necessary background information. The next
part Indicates what you understand the question to be and which aspects of the topic you will
be dealing with. Then introduce your thesis statement and the supporting arguments. First
impressions count, so keep the introduction “crisp” and to the point. List any words in the
essay that may need to be defined. It is important to have a strong conclusion, since this is
the last chance you have to make an impression on your reader. The goal of your conclusion
is to sum up everything you’ve written. Specifically, your conclusion should accomplish
39

43. three major goals: Restate your thesis statement, summarize the subpoints of your essay, and
leave the reader with an interesting final impression. Do not include any new material.
https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/468862/Writing_introduction
s_and_conclusions_for_essays_Update_051112.pdf (recommended)
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/58/
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/60/
Use the websites listed above to find sample introductions and conclusions which you can
use as a template for your own.
Step 8: Get some feedback. Ask a friend/parent/colleague to read the rewrite of the first
draft and comment. Make any suggested changes you think appropriate.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Step 9: Complete the second draft.
Check your essay against these lists and correct where necessary.
9a Check the paragraphs
• Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and one main idea?
• Do all paragraphs maintain a clear focus on the topic?
• Is each paragraph cohesive?
• Are the transitions between paragraphs smooth and clear?
9b Check the sentences
• Have you employed sentence starters? See pp. 19–22
• Have you employed signal words? See p.23-27
• Have you employed hedging? See p.21 and Uncertainty Signals on p.25
• Have you employed reporting verbs? See p.28
• Have you employed nominalisations? See p.31
• Is there a mix of sentence lengths and structures?
• Does each sentence contain a noun, a verb and a complete idea?
• Have you varied the syntax?
• Have you used repetition of a key term or phrase; or repeated or parallel sentence
patterns? See p.29
40

44. 9c Check the words
• Have you used vocabulary suitable for argument & critical thinking?
See my book Vocabulary for Students or The Supplement
• Have pronouns and synonyms been used for variety?
• Is the use of tenses appropriate and consistent?
• Do you use verbs, adjectives and nouns which are specific to the topic?
9d Have you applied critical thinking? Have you analysed as well as described?
See my book The Principles of Clear Thinking for details of the B.A.R.R.I.E.R.S. system
or The Supplement
9e Check the essay. Schedule each of these checks at a separate time so you can
give each one your full attention. This pays dividends.
• Are all main ideas supported? Does this supporting evidence come from the ideas of
other authors, factual information, statistics, logical argumentation?
• Have you used direct quotes and referenced them? See p 14
• Has paraphrasing/summarising been used and is this referenced? See p.14-15
• Does the conclusion flow logically from the introduction and body?
• Have you mainly used the active voice? See p.30
• Have you used any quotations? See p.31
• Is the tone and style appropriate? See p.5
• Is there anything in your essay that will cause you to lose marks? See p.6
9e Rewrite the essay to complete your second draft.
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41

45. Step 10: Check references and citations. See p.14
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Step 11: Write the bibliography. See page 11
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Step 12: Complete your third and final draft.
Rewrite the sentences and paragraphs (as in Step 7. See p.38)
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Step 13: Do the final edit and proofread.
This is an important part of the writing process and you should make sure that you allow
enough time for it. Schedule it in two or three days before submission.
13a Final edit: Check these elements one at a time.
• Argument and content
• Structure
• Agreement between introduction and conclusion
• Cohesion (The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly)
• Style and clarity of expression.
• References and citations
• Formatting and layout. Make sure this conforms to what is specified.
13b Final proofread: For a link to online Style Manuals see p 35
Go through your essay; first check the spelling and grammar, then the word choice and
syntax, and finally the punctuation. Make any corrections necessary.
Please note, if English is not your first language, focus on the following grammatical points:
Subject /verb agreement, word form, singular/plural and determiners.
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46. Step 14: Handing in your essay
It’s better to do it badly than not at all. So, even if your essay is not finished or not very
good; hand it in anyway. It will at least get you a mark instead of a zero. When your
assignment is marked and returned to you, rewrite the parts that need rewriting. If you are
marked low, rewrite the essay as per the teacher’s advice and ask if you can resubmit it and
have it remarked.
For some reason, students are particularly sensitive about how their essays are marked, so
try to take the emotionalism out of it. Stay objective (and awesome). Remember, you are a
student and you are here to learn the skills.
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47. 2.4: Sources and further reading
I made extensive use of the following books and websites.
Writing
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/01/ recommended
https://services.unimelb.edu.au/academicskills/academic-resources-portal
https://student.unsw.edu.au/glossary-task-words
Manalo, E., Wont-Toi, G., & Bartlett-Trafford, J. (2009).
The business of writing: Written communication skills for business students
(3rd ed.). Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand. Updated
Brendan Hennesy (2008). Writing an Essay (5th ed.) Oxford: How to Books
Nigel Warburton (2007) The Basics of Essay Writing Routledge
Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue (2007) Introduction to Academic Writing(3rded.)Longman
Checking reliability of sources
https://www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/scholarly-sources-checklist
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTIz_00-xww&feature=youtu.be
Bibliography
https://utas.libguides.com/c.php?g=498348&p=3412899
www.swinburne.edu.au/library/referencing/harvard-style-guide/
Style Guides
https://authorservices.wiley.com/asset/Wiley-AMA-Style-Manual.pdf
www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/
Past Exam Papers
https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/exams/examsassessreports.aspx#H2N1042B
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48. Appendix
A brief explanation of clauses, phrases, conjunctions and prepositions
We offer the following definitions of clauses, phrases, conjunctions and prepositions, if you
are unsure of what they are. This is particularly relevant when we discuss sentence starters
and signal words in 2.1.2 and 2.1.3.
Clauses
An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. It will
contain at least a verb and a noun or pronoun.
Example: Alison ate all the pizza.
A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone and make sense, even though it
contains a verb and a noun or pronoun. It is not a complete sentence; it needs to be joined
to an independent clause.
Example: although she was not hungry
Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is a word such as although, because, if, or until. It is used to
introduce a dependent clause, and link it to an independent clause to make a complete
sentence. Note the comma when a dependent clause precedes an independent clause.
Examples: Alison ate all the pizza although she was not hungry.
or: Although she was not hungry, Alison ate all the pizza
The coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or and yet. You can remember them using
the acronym FANBOY. They are used to join up two elements of equal grammatical rank and syntactic
importance. In other words, they can link two verbs, two nouns, two adjectives, two phrases, or two
independent clauses.
The conjunctive adverbs can be used to join two independent clauses. They include
however, moreover, namely, nevertheless, meanwhile, subsequently, and furthermore.
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49. A correlative conjunction is when a word is paired with another word to connect two parts
of a sentence. Commonly used word pairings include: either … or; both … and; plus not only
… but also.
Examples: She had to choose, was it either the pizza or the cream cake?
She chose both the pizza and the cream cake.
She ate not only the pizza and the cream cake, but also a large Toblerone.
Phrases
A phrase is a group of words which make sense, but does not contain a verb. It can act as a
noun, as an adjective, as an adverb or as a preposition.
A noun phrase is two or more words that act as a noun.
Examples: a small elephant; an elegant car; the red balloon
An adjectival phrase is a group of words which act as an adjective.
Examples: very fashionable; extremely enthusiastic; over familiar
An adverbial phrase
Examples: as quickly as possible; very quietly
Note: Coordinating Conjunctions are used to connect two phrases.
Example: as quickly as possible and very quietly
Prepositions
A preposition is a connecting word which shows the relationship between a noun and other
words in the sentence. Prepositions help to express the relationships of time; place or
direction; state or condition, agency or means; manner; purpose and reason: and quantity or
measure.
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50. The most frequently used prepositions are: in, on, at, with, by, to, for, from, of.
There are many prepositions. Among others in common usage are:
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, before, behind, between, beyond,
but, concerning, despite, down, during, except, following, for, including, into, like, near, off,
on, onto, out, over, past, plus, since, throughout, towards, under, until, up, upon, up to, within,
without
A phrasal preposition serves the same purpose as a preposition. Examples include:
Along with, as well as, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, on top
of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, instead of, out of,
in regard to, in case of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, on the side of
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus the noun which is the subject of the
sentence. They are commonly used to answer the questions: when? where? and how?
Examples of prepositional phrases
Answering the question “When?”
- in five minutes; before class; after midnight; on Tuesday
Answering the question “Where? “
- in the glove compartment; behind the cowshed; to the lighthouse; across the great divide
Answering the question “How? “
- with great difficulty; by prayer and abstinence;
For the sake of economy and style, don’t overuse either prepositions or prepositional phrases.
Example: They applauded with enthusiasm.
Substitute an adverb for the prepositional phrase: They applauded enthusiastically.
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51. A preposition of time shows the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts
of a sentence. The most commonly used prepositions of time are:
in, on, at, by, for, from, from…to…., since, ago, before, after, until
For a precise time use at. For longer periods use in. For days and dates use on.
Examples
Be here at 9 am. It will be ready in a week We open on Monday
I’ll be here for three days Finish it by tomorrow She slept during your speech
A preposition of place or direction provides a sense of location or direction The most
commonly used prepositions of place and direction are:
In, on, at, by, to, from, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of,
behind, above, over, under, below, along, around, close to, next to, inside, near, on, onto,
past
Examples
She is at work It arrived from England They walked past the station
I live by the river It’s on the table I strolled along the riverbank
A preposition of state or condition shows the relationship between someone or something and
how they appear to be. Commonly used prepositions of state or condition include:
at, in, on, under
Examples
She was at her peak. We were in a good mood He was on the defensive
He was under pressure. my house is under construction She is on probation
A preposition of agent or means indicates the connection between an action and who
performed the action (agent), or what the action was performed with (means). The most
commonly used prepositions of agent or instrument are by, with and from.
Examples
Produced by George Martin I travelled by tram
I opened the door with a skeleton key. Achieving success results from hard work
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52. A preposition of manner connects a verb with a noun to show in what way something was
done. The most commonly used prepositions of manner are:
by, with, in, from, like, as, as if, on
Examples
He lost weight by jogging She dressed with style He left in an awful mood
She sang like a bird He acted as if he knew Eddy won on sheer talent
A preposition of purpose and reason showsthe purpose of an action,or the cause of something
happening. The most commonly used prepositions of purpose and reason are: for and to.
The following phrasal prepositions are almost interchangeable: due to, because of, on account
of, by reason of, by virtue of, in the light of, on behalf of, thanks to, courtesy of. These phrasal
prepositions have a more specialised function: for the benefit of, in favour of, in honour of
Examples
I was dismissed for insubordination He is waiting to see you Run for your life
I’m alive thanks to my parents Postponed due to rain I stayed because of her
A preposition of quantity or measure shows
The most commonly used prepositions of quantity or measure are: at, by and for.
Examples
Interest rates are at 15% He descended at 86 kph He talked for hours
She won by fifty points We bought them by the kilo She bought if for five dollars
A preposition of possession expresses a relationship of ownership and possession
The most commonly used prepositions of possession are: of, with and to
Of is used with worlds, countries, cities, people, possessive pronouns like mine, yours, his, hers
With is used with physical characteristics, accents, objects/materials/animals.
Examples
Champion of the world The Book of James A friend of mine
She spoke with a Welsh accent The man with a bad wig I belong to Glasgow
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53. • You may wonder why there is so much about prepositions in this section of the book.
This is because prepositions play a crucial part in effective English expression, and they
may be a particular problem for people whose first language is not English.
Importantly, a knowledge of what prepositions are and how they work will benefit you
as you learn about sentence starters and signal words.
• One single preposition may be used to express several different types of relationship.
For instance, the preposition “at” is found in prepositions of time, place, state,
quantity and rate.
• Prepositions are often interchangeable. For instance, “he sat on the chair” and “he sat
in the chair”; although the latter may suggest a greater degree of comfort.
• Prepositions and adverbs are often interchangeable. This is useful because it is easy
to overuse both prepositions and adverbs in sentences, and by substituting one for
the other you can avoid this problem.
• Prepositions are often combined with verbs to create phrasal verbs, for instance:
” look up to someone” or “look after someone.”
• A good guide to grammar and punctuation will be useful.
I recommend: The Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation by John Seely.
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