The document discusses different approaches to research including qualitative and quantitative approaches. It provides details on qualitative research which involves collecting extensive narrative data and coding data. Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data to explain or predict phenomena and data analysis is mainly statistical. Several types of quantitative research are described in detail: descriptive research which determines the current status on a subject; correlational research which determines relationships between variables; causal comparative research which attempts to determine cause-effect relationships; and experimental research which manipulates independent variables to test hypotheses. Threats to research such as demand characteristics, experimenter bias, and history effects are also covered.

1. PRESENTATION
Assalam-o-Aliakum
Respected Madam
Class fellows
Presenter
Fazal Hayat

2. APPROACHES TO INQUIRY
Qualitative Approaches
Quantitative Approaches

3. QUALITATIVE APPROACH
In qualitative research we study many variables.
It give answer of what, why, how.
In qualitative research we do not want to
control or intervene anything,
But to study the phenomena as they are or were
in naturalistic setting

4. QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Qualitative research involves
The collection of extensive narrative data
 Data analysis includes the coding of data
and production of verbal synthesis.
It is a holistic and process oriented.

5. QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES
The collection of numerical data in
order to explain, predict and or control
the phenomena of interest.
Data analysis is mainly statistical.
In quantitative research hypothesis are
tested.

6. QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES
It is more focused and process oriented.
In this research we study one or small
number of variables in order to describe the
current relationship/condition.
It wants to control or intervene the
variables

7. QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
 Causal comparative Research
Experimental Research

8. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Involves collecting data in order--
To test hypothesis or
Answer the questions concerning the current
status of the subject of the study. A descriptive
study determines and report the way things are?

9. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive data are typically collected through
a questionnaire survey, interview or
observation.
In descriptive research we developed
instrument for specific studies.


10. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Instruments development requires
time and skills
For example: How does secondary
school teacher spend their time in
classroom.

11. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Attempts to determine whether and, to what
degree, a relationship exist between two or
more quantifiable variables.
The purpose of correlational research study
may be establish relationship (or lack of it) or
to use a relationship to make prediction. The
correlational research never establish a cause-
effect relationship, only a relationship.

12. The existence of high relationship permits
prediction. The degree of relationship between
two variables are generally expressed as
correlation co-efficient which is a number
between 0.00 – 1.00.

13. Two variables that are not related will produced a
co-efficient near to .00 and the two variables that are
highly related will produced a co-efficient near to
1.00.
For making any decision the degree of
relationship is necessary
For Example:
The relation between intelligence and self-esteem.

14. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
This type of research is based on
cause-effect relationship.
In causal comparative study the
independent variable or “cause” is not
manipulated it has all ready occurred.

15. Due to lack of manipulation and control
cause effect relationship established are the
best tenuous and tentative, causal
comparative studies are less expensive and
take less time to conduct
 For Example:
 The effect of Gender on algebra
achievement

16. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Cause-effect relationship
Independent variable manipulated.
Effect observed on dependent variable.
Manipulation differentiate it from other.

17. Can truly establish cause-effect relationship
• conditions are controlled
• so that 1 or more independent variables
• can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
• about a dependent variable.
Allows
• evaluation of causal relationships among
variables
• while all other variables are eliminated or
controlled.

18. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Dependent Variable
• Criterion by which the results of the experiment are
judged.
• Variable that is expected to be dependent on the
manipulation of the independent variable
Independent Variable
• Any variable that can be manipulated, or altered,
independently of any other variable
• Hypothesized to be the causal influence

19. Experimental Treatments
• Alternative manipulations of the independent
variable being investigated
Experimental Group
• Group of subjects exposed to the experimental
treatment
Control Group
• Group of subjects exposed to the control
condition
• Not exposed to the experimental treatment

20. SYMBOLISM FOR DIAGRAMMING
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 X = exposure of a group to an experimental treatment
 O = observation or measurement of the dependent
variable
 If multiple observations or measurements are taken,
 subscripts indicate temporal order – i.e., O1, O2, etc.
 R = random assignment of test units;
 individuals selected as subjects for the experiment
 are randomly assigned to the experimental groups

21. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Do not adequately control for the problems
associated with loss of external or internal validity
Cannot be classified as true experiments
Often used in exploratory research
Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs
• One-Shot Design
• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
• Static Group Design

22. ONE-SHOT DESIGN
 After-only design
 A single measure is recorded after the treatment is administered
 Study lacks any comparison or control of extraneous influences
 No measure of test units not exposed to the experimental
treatment
 May be the only viable choice in taste tests
 Diagrammed as: X O1

23. ONE-GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST
DESIGN
Subjects in the experimental group are measured
before and after the treatment is administered.
No control group
Offers comparison of the same individuals before
and after the treatment (e.g., training)
If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is extended,
may suffer maturation
Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing
effects
Diagrammed as O1 X O2

24. STATIC GROUP DESIGN
 After-only design with control group
 Experimental group is measured after being exposed to the
experimental treatment
 Control group is measured without having been exposed to the
experimental treatment
 No pre-measure is taken
 Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups were equal on
variables of interest prior to the treatment
 Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1
Control Group O2

25. PRETEST-POSTTEST
CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
Diagrammed as
Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
• Control Group: R O3 O4
Effect of the experimental
treatment equals
(O2 – O1) -- (O4 – O3)

26. POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN
 After-Only with Control
 True experimental design
 Experimental group tested after treatment exposure
 Control group tested at same time without exposure to experimental treatment
 Includes random assignment to groups
 Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups
 Do not run the risk of a testing effect
 Use in situations when cannot pretest

27. Diagrammed as
• Experimental Group: X O1
• Control Group: O2
Effect of the experimental treatment
equals
(O2 – O1)

28. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN
 True experimental design
 Combines pretest-posttest with control group design
and the posttest-only with control group design
 Provides means for controlling the interactive testing
effect and other sources of extraneous variation
 Does include random assignment

29. Diagrammed as
• Experimental Group 1: R O1 X O2
• Control Group 1: R O3 O4
• Experimental Group 2: R X O5
• Control Group 2: R O6
Effect of independent variable (O2 – O4) & (O5 – O6)
Effect of pretesting (O4 – O6)
Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 – O5)
Effect of random assignment (O1 – O3)

30. THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
Constant error is error that occurs in the
same experimental condition every time the
basic experiment is repeated – a systematic bias
Example:
• Experimental groups always administered the
treatment in the morning
• Control groups always in the afternoon
• Introduces an uncontrolled extraneous variable –
time of day
• Hence, systematic or constant error

31. SOURCES OF CONSTANT ERROR
Demand Characteristics
• Experimental design procedures or situational aspects of
the experiment that provide unintentional hints to subjects
about the experimenter’s hypothesis
• If occurs, participants likely to act in a manner consistent
with the experimental treatment.
• Most prominent demand characteristic is the person actually
administering the experimental treatments.
Experimenter Bias
• Effect on the subjects’ behavior caused by an experimenter’s
presence, actions, or comments.
Guinea Pig Effect
• Effect on experimental results caused by subjects changing
normal behavior or attitudes to cooperate with experimenter.

32. FACTORS AFFECTING
INTERNAL VALIDITY
History Effect
• Specific events in the external environment between the 1st
& 2nd measurements that are beyond the experimenter’s
control
• Common history effect occurs when competitors change
their marketing strategies during a test marketing
experiment
Cohort Effect
• Change in the dependent variable that occurs because
members of one experimental group experienced different
historical situations than members of other experimental
groups

33. Maturation Effect
• Effect on experimental results caused by
experimental subjects maturing or changing over
time
• During a daylong experiment, subjects may grow
hungry, tired, or bored
Testing Effect
• In before-and-after studies, pretesting may
sensitize subjects when taking a test for the 2nd
time.
• May cause subjects to act differently than they
would have if no pretest measures were taken

34. Instrumentation Effect
• Caused by a change in the wording of questions, in
interviewers, or in other procedures used to measure
the dependent variable.
Selection Effect
• Sampling bias that results from differential selection
of respondents for the comparison groups.
Mortality or Sample Attrition
• Results from the withdrawal of some subjects from
the experiment before it is completed
• Effects randomization
• Especially troublesome if some withdraw from one
treatment group and not from the others (or at least
at different rates)

35. CONTROLLING
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Blinding
• Technique used to control subjects’ knowledge of whether
or not they have been given the experimental treatment.
• Taste tests, placebos (chemically inert pills), etc.
Constancy of Conditions
• Subjects in experimental & control groups are exposed to
identical situations except for differing conditions of the
independent variable.

36. Order of Presentation
• If experimental method requires that the same
subjects be exposed to 2 or more experimental
treatments, error may occur due to order in which
the treatments are presented
• Counterbalancing
• ½ the subjects exposed to Treatment A first, then to
Treatment B.
• Other ½ exposed to Treatment B first, then to Treatment
A.
• Eliminates the effects of order of presentation

37. THANKS