This document provides background on the theories of Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Richard Wagner. It discusses the key elements of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Marx's approach to political economy including historical materialism and dialectical method, and Wagner's concept of Gesamtkunstwerk. The document aims to examine the legacies and impacts of these thinkers in light of Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigm shifts and Imre Lakatos' concept of research programs to determine if their work drove major changes or less significant developments. It outlines the structure of the analysis to follow.
Much of the geographical work of the past hundred yearsDavid Ditchett
The document discusses Charles Darwin's influence on the field of geography over the past 100 years. It notes that pre-Darwinian geography was more of an amateur pursuit without strong scientific foundations. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, as presented in On the Origin of Species, provided inspiration for the development of geography as a rigorous academic discipline. Many early pioneering geographers incorporated Darwinian ideas like adaptation, competition, and survival of the fittest into both physical and human geography. The document examines several influential geographers like Friedrich Ratzel and Halford Mackinder who helped professionalize geography and ensure its place in academia by applying evolutionary concepts to their work.
This document summarizes Joseph A. Bracken's essay on self-organizing systems and final causality. It discusses how 17th century thinkers like Galileo shifted away from teleological views of the natural world towards mechanistic views. It then discusses how Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was interpreted mechanistically. Some scientists like Polanyi and Sheldrake have challenged this view by proposing theories of "morphogenetic fields" and "formative causation" that reintroduce notions of teleology. Bracken seeks to provide a metaphysical framework from Whiteheadian philosophy to support these alternative conceptions.
From Theory of Evolution to a New Theory of CreationRemy Taupier
There has not been found even one transitional fossil giving credit to the Theory of Evolution. Mistakingly, The laws of Natural Selection can explain the adaptation of species but it has never been observed any transitional species. Adaptation is NOT evolution. The Theory of Evolution is only an hypothesis, an idea but nothing support this theory.
The document discusses the author's criticisms of Marxist notions of revolution and their focus on thought over practice. It argues revolution implies too many assumptions and ignores everyday prefigurative activities, while Marxism offers a restricted view of temporality. The author advocates for an evolutionary approach focused on insurrection through everyday actions rather than waiting for revolution, and emphasizes combining theory with practice through open learning.
P.Corning 2002 the re emergence of emergenceArchiLab 7
This document discusses the concept of emergence and its history. It notes that emergence has a long history in evolutionary theory dating back to the 19th century, though it fell out of favor with the rise of genetics and reductionism in the early 20th century. More recently, interest in emergence has re-emerged with the growth of complexity theory and new tools like chaos theory that allow scientists to model complex, dynamic systems. The document explores different interpretations and uses of emergence over time, but notes it has never had a unified theory and has been embraced by both reductionists and holists.
Conscious vs mechanical evolution: transcending biocentrist social ontologies Luke Barnesmoore o
This article expounds a new theory of humanity that problematizes the discrete, biomaterialist and materially rational individual of Modernity through sensitivity to the human potential for Conscious Evolution (evolution of the ‘invisible self’, which is to say the cultivation of reason, free will, intuition and the other ‘high epistemological faculties’ that allow humans to actualize the potential for self-mediation of the biological desires and animal (irrational) passions). After defining Conscious Evolution, comparing it with Mechanical Evolution and providing a brief overview of the epistemological processes involved in Conscious Evolution, we examine the ways in which Modernism axiomatically, logically and practically negates the potential for Conscious Evolution and self-mediation as well as the manifestations of this negation in Modernist epistemology and Modernist social systems like Economic Theology or ‘the police’ that, due to their biomaterialist understanding of humans as discrete, biological, materially rational individuals, aim to mediate biological desires and animal passions through external, forceful, hierarchical domination rather than the cultivation of Conscious Evolution and subsequent actualization of the potential for self-mediation. This critique of epistemological and social systems that seek to create order through external, forceful, hierarchical domination sets the stage for a follow up paper titled “Conscious Evolution, Social Development and Environmental Justice” that critiques contemporary Planning Theory and Practice and calls for planning of social systems from a theoretical perspective where seeking to cultivate Conscious Evolution and the actualization of the social order implicit in the self-mediation made potential by Conscious Evolution is possible (which is to say that (r)evolution of theory must precede (r)evolution of practice).
Anderson the beastwithin_ccr_copyfinalFábio Coltro
This document provides an overview and pre-print of an article titled "'The Beast Within': Race, Humanity, and Animality" by Kay Anderson. The article explores how concepts of animality have circulated in Western thought and been used to construct social differences and hierarchies. It examines how ideas like savagery and vulgarity, associated with proximity to nature, have informed the representation of racialized groups. While previous work has emphasized the psychoanalytic idea of repressing interior beasts through projecting them onto externalized others, the article aims to historicize the Western model of a divided human self between physical animal nature and cultural humanity. It provides theoretical context and then gives a case study of how notions of savagery and c
Much of the geographical work of the past hundred yearsDavid Ditchett
The document discusses Charles Darwin's influence on the field of geography over the past 100 years. It notes that pre-Darwinian geography was more of an amateur pursuit without strong scientific foundations. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, as presented in On the Origin of Species, provided inspiration for the development of geography as a rigorous academic discipline. Many early pioneering geographers incorporated Darwinian ideas like adaptation, competition, and survival of the fittest into both physical and human geography. The document examines several influential geographers like Friedrich Ratzel and Halford Mackinder who helped professionalize geography and ensure its place in academia by applying evolutionary concepts to their work.
This document summarizes Joseph A. Bracken's essay on self-organizing systems and final causality. It discusses how 17th century thinkers like Galileo shifted away from teleological views of the natural world towards mechanistic views. It then discusses how Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was interpreted mechanistically. Some scientists like Polanyi and Sheldrake have challenged this view by proposing theories of "morphogenetic fields" and "formative causation" that reintroduce notions of teleology. Bracken seeks to provide a metaphysical framework from Whiteheadian philosophy to support these alternative conceptions.
From Theory of Evolution to a New Theory of CreationRemy Taupier
There has not been found even one transitional fossil giving credit to the Theory of Evolution. Mistakingly, The laws of Natural Selection can explain the adaptation of species but it has never been observed any transitional species. Adaptation is NOT evolution. The Theory of Evolution is only an hypothesis, an idea but nothing support this theory.
The document discusses the author's criticisms of Marxist notions of revolution and their focus on thought over practice. It argues revolution implies too many assumptions and ignores everyday prefigurative activities, while Marxism offers a restricted view of temporality. The author advocates for an evolutionary approach focused on insurrection through everyday actions rather than waiting for revolution, and emphasizes combining theory with practice through open learning.
P.Corning 2002 the re emergence of emergenceArchiLab 7
This document discusses the concept of emergence and its history. It notes that emergence has a long history in evolutionary theory dating back to the 19th century, though it fell out of favor with the rise of genetics and reductionism in the early 20th century. More recently, interest in emergence has re-emerged with the growth of complexity theory and new tools like chaos theory that allow scientists to model complex, dynamic systems. The document explores different interpretations and uses of emergence over time, but notes it has never had a unified theory and has been embraced by both reductionists and holists.
Conscious vs mechanical evolution: transcending biocentrist social ontologies Luke Barnesmoore o
This article expounds a new theory of humanity that problematizes the discrete, biomaterialist and materially rational individual of Modernity through sensitivity to the human potential for Conscious Evolution (evolution of the ‘invisible self’, which is to say the cultivation of reason, free will, intuition and the other ‘high epistemological faculties’ that allow humans to actualize the potential for self-mediation of the biological desires and animal (irrational) passions). After defining Conscious Evolution, comparing it with Mechanical Evolution and providing a brief overview of the epistemological processes involved in Conscious Evolution, we examine the ways in which Modernism axiomatically, logically and practically negates the potential for Conscious Evolution and self-mediation as well as the manifestations of this negation in Modernist epistemology and Modernist social systems like Economic Theology or ‘the police’ that, due to their biomaterialist understanding of humans as discrete, biological, materially rational individuals, aim to mediate biological desires and animal passions through external, forceful, hierarchical domination rather than the cultivation of Conscious Evolution and subsequent actualization of the potential for self-mediation. This critique of epistemological and social systems that seek to create order through external, forceful, hierarchical domination sets the stage for a follow up paper titled “Conscious Evolution, Social Development and Environmental Justice” that critiques contemporary Planning Theory and Practice and calls for planning of social systems from a theoretical perspective where seeking to cultivate Conscious Evolution and the actualization of the social order implicit in the self-mediation made potential by Conscious Evolution is possible (which is to say that (r)evolution of theory must precede (r)evolution of practice).
Anderson the beastwithin_ccr_copyfinalFábio Coltro
This document provides an overview and pre-print of an article titled "'The Beast Within': Race, Humanity, and Animality" by Kay Anderson. The article explores how concepts of animality have circulated in Western thought and been used to construct social differences and hierarchies. It examines how ideas like savagery and vulgarity, associated with proximity to nature, have informed the representation of racialized groups. While previous work has emphasized the psychoanalytic idea of repressing interior beasts through projecting them onto externalized others, the article aims to historicize the Western model of a divided human self between physical animal nature and cultural humanity. It provides theoretical context and then gives a case study of how notions of savagery and c
This document summarizes the evolving perceptions of the human-nature relationship among historians and scientists from the 19th century to present. It discusses key figures like George Perkins Marsh, Frederick Jackson Turner, Walter Prescott Webb, and Carl Sauer who interpreted nature and humanity's impact on it in various ways. Over time, the relationship has been viewed as both separate and interconnected, with nature seen as both passive and active. The document traces how views have moved from seeing nature as static and human impacts as negative, to recognizing nature's dynamism and the reciprocity between human and natural systems.
Vitorino Ramos: on the implicit and on the artificialArchiLab 7
This document discusses emergent behavior and artificial life. It argues that complex behavior can arise from simple interactions between many parts, without a global controller. An artificial system that exhibits this type of self-organization and emergent behavior could be viewed as an artificial superorganism. The document also discusses how traditional reductionist approaches in biology and sociology have given way to recognizing intrinsic complexity and emergent properties arising from decentralized interactions between autonomous components.
This document discusses the concept of "somatic modes of attention" as a way to understand embodiment from a phenomenological perspective in anthropology. It defines somatic modes of attention as culturally elaborated ways of attending to and with one's own body, as well as the bodies of others, in social and perceptual experiences. This perspective views the body not as a static object but as an active subject that is the basis for perception and engagement with the world. The document argues that analyzing somatic modes of attention can provide insights into cultural understandings of the body, self, and social relations beyond just symbolic or representational approaches.
Marxism offers workers a clear understanding of society and their place within it. It provides a new world outlook and a future. The theories of Marxism give workers a framework to understand the complexities of capitalist society and class struggle. Dialectical materialism developed from the ideas of Marx, Engels, Hegel and others to provide a scientific understanding of society and evolution based on the principles of dialectics. Trotsky's ABC of Dialectical Materialism provides a concise explanation of Marxist philosophy and dialectical materialism.
Strategic action, self-mastery and emergenceKieran Cutting
This document discusses the limitations of classical scientific approaches that view time as linear and focus on predictive explanation and control. It argues that as science studies complex systems, this simple view of time breaks down. Emergence theory recognizes phenomena that are irreducible, non-hierarchical, and temporally ordered. The document also critiques how linear causality frameworks in science, the nation state, and neoliberal capitalism aim to subjugate nature and control populations. It advocates moving beyond these frameworks to understand phenomena as temporal, complex, and emergent through approaches like Bergsonian intuition.
The document discusses Darwin's theory of evolution and its relationship to motivation. It explains that Darwin observed that organisms better adapted to their environment were more likely to survive and pass on their traits, a process he called natural selection. This led psychologists after Darwin to study motivation from an evolutionary perspective, looking at how behaviors increased chances of survival. The theory helped establish psychology as a biological science and motivated the study of instincts and how they guided behavior in pursuit of survival and reproduction.
This document discusses the field of art education cognitive research (AECR). It provides historical context, noting influences from John Dewey's work on experience and cognition, as well as Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. AECR examines how art education relates to disciplines like neuroeducation and mind brain educational science. The document explores goals of inquiry within art education, such as how artmaking can produce knowledge, and debates around defining knowledge production. It also analyzes the epistemological paradigms commonly used in AECR, such as arts-based educational research.
Anthropology is the study of culture and human beings in relation to their origin, classification, and relationships. Sociology examines how people organize within groups and societies and how social research can inform policy. Psychology seeks to understand human behavior and what factors influence how individuals react. Theories across these social sciences try to explain how people and the world influence each other. Anthropological theories discussed include functionalism, structuralism, and cultural materialism. Sociological theories include Marxism, structural functionalism, and feminist theory. Psychological theories analyzed are psychoanalysis, human motivation, and human development.
Anthropology is the study of humanity and its various subfields including social/cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and biological/physical anthropology. It developed in the late 19th century as a field that brought together various areas of study including anatomy, linguistics, and ethnology through comparative analysis and was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. By the late 19th century, anthropological societies were being formed across Europe and many viewed anthropology as a way to study humans as a whole in relation to nature.
Theory of Social Change and Approach to InquiryKyle Guzik
1. The document discusses the author's theory of social change, which draws on the Hegelian dialectic model of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The author analyzes Auguste Comte's positivism as an example of this dialectical process at work.
2. While the author takes an objectivist, naturalistic epistemological approach, they acknowledge criticisms of scientism leveled at empiricism. The author argues their view is consistent with psychophysical reductionism and does not require mind-body dualism like religious views.
3. The author concludes different fields like anthropology, psychology, and physics can be viewed as having different levels of resolution within a reductionist methodology for understanding social change
The document discusses several key aspects of feminist thought and critiques of science:
1) It outlines feminist views that seek gender equality and recognize how gender ideologies impact social structures.
2) Ecofeminism views the oppression of women and nature as interconnected.
3) Object relations theory holds that differences in how male and female children develop gender identities impact their relationships to nature and science.
4) Feminist critiques call for more democratic and inclusive approaches to science that consider interdependence.
This document outlines the key concepts of dialectical materialism including dialectics, materialism, and Engels' three laws of dialectics. It defines dialectical materialism as the view that ideas and thoughts change due to the movement and existence of matter. Materialism holds that the world is material and phenomena consist of matter in motion according to natural laws. Engels' three laws of dialectics are described as the law of unity and conflict of opposes, the law of passage of quantitative to qualitative changes, and the law of negation of the negation. Examples are provided for each law.
What would Darwin do about classification? Would he be a cladist, or an evolutionary systematist, or something else? Why do scientists appeal to precursors like this?
Charles Darwin was a British biologist born in 1809 who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. His theory proposed that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors through a process where beneficial genetic mutations are naturally preserved because they aid survival. This process is known as natural selection. While ancient Greeks had proposed evolutionary ideas, Darwin introduced the mechanism of natural selection to explain how evolution occurs gradually through the preservation of advantageous variations over many generations, resulting in new species developing from earlier forms of life. However, modern biological discoveries have highlighted many biological systems that could not have evolved step-by-step through natural selection alone due to their irreducible complexity.
This summary provides an overview of the document in 3 sentences:
The document is a manifesto that remixes quotes and ideas from a variety of philosophical, scientific, and artistic sources to explore concepts related to reality, knowledge, time, dimensionality, and remix culture. It uses extensive quoting and recontextualizing of ideas to mimic how conceptual associations can be remixed through the rearrangement of found objects and ideas. The manifesto comments on the quotes included to relate them to postmodern theory, conceptual art, and the author's interest in using remix as a means to continue modern projects of reason and progress while avoiding nihilism.
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring had an impact in the Caribbean by bringing attention to the dangers of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT. These chemicals remain in the environment and accumulate in food chains, posing dangers. The document discusses 8 essays ranging from Rachel Carson's influence to alternatives to slash and burn agriculture in Trinidad and Tobago. Sustainable agriculture practices like agroforestry that incorporate livestock, grasses and fodder trees are presented as better options for the region's environment and farmers.
Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher who developed the theory of social Darwinism, arguing that societies evolve similarly to biological organisms through a process of complexification. He believed that societies progress from simple, militaristic forms to more advanced, industrial forms characterized by voluntary cooperation. Spencer saw individualism as key, believing that order in society is achieved through individuals pursuing their self-interest without central planning. While Spencer published his evolutionary ideas before Darwin, he later incorporated Darwin's theory of natural selection to argue that competition between individuals and societies drives social progress, with the fittest equipped to survive. His philosophy provided a justification for laissez-faire capitalism and opposition to state intervention.
This document summarizes a study that administered a survey to pre-service art educators to examine their ambiguity tolerance ideation (ATI) regarding controversial topics. The survey measured constructs like ATI, appropriateness of topics, and exposure to terms like disability, feminism, etc. It found no statistically significant differences between groups due to small sample sizes. It concluded that more questions, larger sample sizes, and opposing question phrasing would be needed to draw valid conclusions about pre-service art educators' ambiguity tolerance regarding controversial topics.
Innovation TVA is a management consulting firm that helps clients achieve revenue growth and business success. They provide business assessments, planning, funding support, and ongoing consulting and coaching. Their process involves 5 stages: 1) assessing the client's business model, 2) testing their business plan, 3) establishing a relationship agreement, 4) developing an operational plan, and 5) executing and measuring performance. Innovation TVA leverages its expertise in key sectors and relationships with partners and investors to help clients scale their business.
Anjali Mohandas is an experienced HR professional seeking a new opportunity. She has over 2 years of experience recruiting IT and non-IT professionals through tasks like staffing, interviewing, and training. Currently working as an HR Executive at CRS Technologies India Pvt Ltd, she handles recruitment, HR administration, and has designed various HR policies and forms. Anjali has strong communication, interpersonal, and problem-solving skills. She holds a Bachelor's degree in Computer Science and is proficient in English, Hindi, Marathi, and Malayalam.
This document summarizes the evolving perceptions of the human-nature relationship among historians and scientists from the 19th century to present. It discusses key figures like George Perkins Marsh, Frederick Jackson Turner, Walter Prescott Webb, and Carl Sauer who interpreted nature and humanity's impact on it in various ways. Over time, the relationship has been viewed as both separate and interconnected, with nature seen as both passive and active. The document traces how views have moved from seeing nature as static and human impacts as negative, to recognizing nature's dynamism and the reciprocity between human and natural systems.
Vitorino Ramos: on the implicit and on the artificialArchiLab 7
This document discusses emergent behavior and artificial life. It argues that complex behavior can arise from simple interactions between many parts, without a global controller. An artificial system that exhibits this type of self-organization and emergent behavior could be viewed as an artificial superorganism. The document also discusses how traditional reductionist approaches in biology and sociology have given way to recognizing intrinsic complexity and emergent properties arising from decentralized interactions between autonomous components.
This document discusses the concept of "somatic modes of attention" as a way to understand embodiment from a phenomenological perspective in anthropology. It defines somatic modes of attention as culturally elaborated ways of attending to and with one's own body, as well as the bodies of others, in social and perceptual experiences. This perspective views the body not as a static object but as an active subject that is the basis for perception and engagement with the world. The document argues that analyzing somatic modes of attention can provide insights into cultural understandings of the body, self, and social relations beyond just symbolic or representational approaches.
Marxism offers workers a clear understanding of society and their place within it. It provides a new world outlook and a future. The theories of Marxism give workers a framework to understand the complexities of capitalist society and class struggle. Dialectical materialism developed from the ideas of Marx, Engels, Hegel and others to provide a scientific understanding of society and evolution based on the principles of dialectics. Trotsky's ABC of Dialectical Materialism provides a concise explanation of Marxist philosophy and dialectical materialism.
Strategic action, self-mastery and emergenceKieran Cutting
This document discusses the limitations of classical scientific approaches that view time as linear and focus on predictive explanation and control. It argues that as science studies complex systems, this simple view of time breaks down. Emergence theory recognizes phenomena that are irreducible, non-hierarchical, and temporally ordered. The document also critiques how linear causality frameworks in science, the nation state, and neoliberal capitalism aim to subjugate nature and control populations. It advocates moving beyond these frameworks to understand phenomena as temporal, complex, and emergent through approaches like Bergsonian intuition.
The document discusses Darwin's theory of evolution and its relationship to motivation. It explains that Darwin observed that organisms better adapted to their environment were more likely to survive and pass on their traits, a process he called natural selection. This led psychologists after Darwin to study motivation from an evolutionary perspective, looking at how behaviors increased chances of survival. The theory helped establish psychology as a biological science and motivated the study of instincts and how they guided behavior in pursuit of survival and reproduction.
This document discusses the field of art education cognitive research (AECR). It provides historical context, noting influences from John Dewey's work on experience and cognition, as well as Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. AECR examines how art education relates to disciplines like neuroeducation and mind brain educational science. The document explores goals of inquiry within art education, such as how artmaking can produce knowledge, and debates around defining knowledge production. It also analyzes the epistemological paradigms commonly used in AECR, such as arts-based educational research.
Anthropology is the study of culture and human beings in relation to their origin, classification, and relationships. Sociology examines how people organize within groups and societies and how social research can inform policy. Psychology seeks to understand human behavior and what factors influence how individuals react. Theories across these social sciences try to explain how people and the world influence each other. Anthropological theories discussed include functionalism, structuralism, and cultural materialism. Sociological theories include Marxism, structural functionalism, and feminist theory. Psychological theories analyzed are psychoanalysis, human motivation, and human development.
Anthropology is the study of humanity and its various subfields including social/cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and biological/physical anthropology. It developed in the late 19th century as a field that brought together various areas of study including anatomy, linguistics, and ethnology through comparative analysis and was influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. By the late 19th century, anthropological societies were being formed across Europe and many viewed anthropology as a way to study humans as a whole in relation to nature.
Theory of Social Change and Approach to InquiryKyle Guzik
1. The document discusses the author's theory of social change, which draws on the Hegelian dialectic model of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The author analyzes Auguste Comte's positivism as an example of this dialectical process at work.
2. While the author takes an objectivist, naturalistic epistemological approach, they acknowledge criticisms of scientism leveled at empiricism. The author argues their view is consistent with psychophysical reductionism and does not require mind-body dualism like religious views.
3. The author concludes different fields like anthropology, psychology, and physics can be viewed as having different levels of resolution within a reductionist methodology for understanding social change
The document discusses several key aspects of feminist thought and critiques of science:
1) It outlines feminist views that seek gender equality and recognize how gender ideologies impact social structures.
2) Ecofeminism views the oppression of women and nature as interconnected.
3) Object relations theory holds that differences in how male and female children develop gender identities impact their relationships to nature and science.
4) Feminist critiques call for more democratic and inclusive approaches to science that consider interdependence.
This document outlines the key concepts of dialectical materialism including dialectics, materialism, and Engels' three laws of dialectics. It defines dialectical materialism as the view that ideas and thoughts change due to the movement and existence of matter. Materialism holds that the world is material and phenomena consist of matter in motion according to natural laws. Engels' three laws of dialectics are described as the law of unity and conflict of opposes, the law of passage of quantitative to qualitative changes, and the law of negation of the negation. Examples are provided for each law.
What would Darwin do about classification? Would he be a cladist, or an evolutionary systematist, or something else? Why do scientists appeal to precursors like this?
Charles Darwin was a British biologist born in 1809 who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. His theory proposed that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors through a process where beneficial genetic mutations are naturally preserved because they aid survival. This process is known as natural selection. While ancient Greeks had proposed evolutionary ideas, Darwin introduced the mechanism of natural selection to explain how evolution occurs gradually through the preservation of advantageous variations over many generations, resulting in new species developing from earlier forms of life. However, modern biological discoveries have highlighted many biological systems that could not have evolved step-by-step through natural selection alone due to their irreducible complexity.
This summary provides an overview of the document in 3 sentences:
The document is a manifesto that remixes quotes and ideas from a variety of philosophical, scientific, and artistic sources to explore concepts related to reality, knowledge, time, dimensionality, and remix culture. It uses extensive quoting and recontextualizing of ideas to mimic how conceptual associations can be remixed through the rearrangement of found objects and ideas. The manifesto comments on the quotes included to relate them to postmodern theory, conceptual art, and the author's interest in using remix as a means to continue modern projects of reason and progress while avoiding nihilism.
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring had an impact in the Caribbean by bringing attention to the dangers of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT. These chemicals remain in the environment and accumulate in food chains, posing dangers. The document discusses 8 essays ranging from Rachel Carson's influence to alternatives to slash and burn agriculture in Trinidad and Tobago. Sustainable agriculture practices like agroforestry that incorporate livestock, grasses and fodder trees are presented as better options for the region's environment and farmers.
Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher who developed the theory of social Darwinism, arguing that societies evolve similarly to biological organisms through a process of complexification. He believed that societies progress from simple, militaristic forms to more advanced, industrial forms characterized by voluntary cooperation. Spencer saw individualism as key, believing that order in society is achieved through individuals pursuing their self-interest without central planning. While Spencer published his evolutionary ideas before Darwin, he later incorporated Darwin's theory of natural selection to argue that competition between individuals and societies drives social progress, with the fittest equipped to survive. His philosophy provided a justification for laissez-faire capitalism and opposition to state intervention.
This document summarizes a study that administered a survey to pre-service art educators to examine their ambiguity tolerance ideation (ATI) regarding controversial topics. The survey measured constructs like ATI, appropriateness of topics, and exposure to terms like disability, feminism, etc. It found no statistically significant differences between groups due to small sample sizes. It concluded that more questions, larger sample sizes, and opposing question phrasing would be needed to draw valid conclusions about pre-service art educators' ambiguity tolerance regarding controversial topics.
Innovation TVA is a management consulting firm that helps clients achieve revenue growth and business success. They provide business assessments, planning, funding support, and ongoing consulting and coaching. Their process involves 5 stages: 1) assessing the client's business model, 2) testing their business plan, 3) establishing a relationship agreement, 4) developing an operational plan, and 5) executing and measuring performance. Innovation TVA leverages its expertise in key sectors and relationships with partners and investors to help clients scale their business.
Anjali Mohandas is an experienced HR professional seeking a new opportunity. She has over 2 years of experience recruiting IT and non-IT professionals through tasks like staffing, interviewing, and training. Currently working as an HR Executive at CRS Technologies India Pvt Ltd, she handles recruitment, HR administration, and has designed various HR policies and forms. Anjali has strong communication, interpersonal, and problem-solving skills. She holds a Bachelor's degree in Computer Science and is proficient in English, Hindi, Marathi, and Malayalam.
Three Literary Perspectives on Identity and Redemption in Time and HistoryJoe Scherrer
This document provides an in-depth analysis of the 1785 French novel Dangerous Liaisons by Choderlos de Laclos. It examines the aristocratic social context and the characters of the two main libertine protagonists, Madame de Merteuil and Vicomte de Valmont. It discusses how they view themselves as rational beings governed by Enlightenment principles and seek to exert control and dominance over others for social glory and pleasure. Their exploits are characterized as strategic battles and sieges waged through the manipulation and destruction of their victims' lives. The document also analyzes how Merteuil especially embodies Enlightenment ideals and rationality, and can be seen as rebelling against the subjugation of women through skillfully playing the men's
The SlideShare 101 is a quick start guide if you want to walk through the main features that the platform offers. This will keep getting updated as new features are launched.
The SlideShare 101 replaces the earlier "SlideShare Quick Tour".
This material helps a reader understand meaning of theory in social science, precursors for the development of theory in social science fields like anthropology. Moreover, social science students learn a lot from this material. Thus read and take a lessons?!
1) Charles Darwin had a profound influence on modern thought through his theory of evolution by natural selection, which was outlined in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species."
2) Darwin proposed that species evolve over time through a process of natural selection acting on random genetic variations, rather than species remaining fixed. This contradicted the prevailing view.
3) Darwin's theory challenged the view that species were independently created and that evolution proceeded in a linear, goal-oriented manner. It established evolution as a branching, non-teleological process driven by natural selection acting on inherited variation.
Lewis H. Morgan's book "Ancient Society" aimed to summarize mankind's progression from savagery through barbarism to civilization based on factual evidence about primitive communal societies. Morgan believed that human society evolved over time through inventions, discoveries, and the development of institutions like the family, private property, and government. He traced this evolution using evidence from ancient societies like those of Native Americans. Karl Marx greatly praised Morgan's work, believing it provided a materialist conception of history by showing how society developed through changes in production and social relations rather than being predetermined.
Karl Marx developed a deterministic theory of history in which human society and development are determined by material conditions and class struggle. According to Marx, social change occurs through economic conditions, not ideas or religion. Marx also believed that human nature is essentially shaped by socioeconomic forces. While influential, Marx's theory of human nature has been criticized for being too deterministic and not accounting for human agency or free will.
Harun Yahya Islam Demolition Of Evolutionzakir2012
This document provides a brief history and overview of the theory of evolution. It discusses:
1) Charles Darwin's initial observations that led him to propose natural selection and evolution, though he was aware of difficulties with his theory.
2) How Karl Marx saw Darwin's theory as providing justification for materialism and communism.
3) The development of neo-Darwinism in the 20th century in response to discoveries in genetics that challenged Darwin's original theory.
4) An alternative model called "punctuated equilibrium" that proposed evolution occurred in large jumps rather than gradual changes, though this remains unsupported by evidence.
The document questions the validity of evolution based on modern scientific findings and proposes evolution is an
This document provides an overview of a theoretical paper that develops a cross-cultural model for understanding the evolution of correlative systems in premodern history. It argues that correlative thought, while intensely studied in Chinese history, was also prominent in other ancient civilizations. The paper proposes that correlative cosmologies developed from primitive magical-ritual systems and grew more abstract over time through exegetical processes operating on layered textual traditions. It presents a model linking the growth of religious and philosophical ideas to shifts in literate technologies and textual traditions, which can be implemented in computer simulations.
Carolus Linnaeus developed the hierarchical system for classifying organisms that is still used today, assigning each a binomial Latin name. Thomas Malthus argued that populations can grow faster than resources. Charles Lyell collected evidence supporting James Hutton's theory of gradual geological change and influenced Darwin's work. Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants established the laws of heredity and supported Darwin's theory of natural selection. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles Darwin both proposed theories of evolution, though Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through variation and heredity became widely accepted.
Junior Thesis - Submitted for Publishing___Alex Amari
This document discusses how Social Darwinism influenced US immigration policy between 1880-1925. It summarizes how Herbert Spencer first articulated Social Darwinism, which applied concepts of "survival of the fittest" to human society. However, Social Darwinism differed fundamentally from Charles Darwin's scientific theory by rejecting randomness and attributing success to inherent traits. Still, Social Darwinism gained legitimacy by associating with Darwin's work. The document then discusses how Social Darwinism was used to justify increasingly restrictive immigration laws targeting certain ethnic groups, like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, based on ideas of racial superiority and fears that immigrants threatened American civilization and economic opportunities.
Using evidence from psychology, anthropology, sociology and other scientific disciplines, this book shows that there are at least three biological races (subspecies) of man Orientals (i.e., Mongoloids or Asians), Blacks (i.e., Negroids or Africans), and Whites (i.e., Caucasoids or Europeans).
There are recognizable profiles for the three major racial groups on brain size, intelligence, personality and temperament, sexual behavior, and rates of fertility, maturation and longevity.
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1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
Similar to A Preliminary Survey of Darwin Marx and Wagner in Light of Karl Popper Thomas Kuhn and Imre Lakatos (20)
A Preliminary Survey of Darwin Marx and Wagner in Light of Karl Popper Thomas Kuhn and Imre Lakatos
1. 1
A Preliminary Survey of the Legacies
of Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Richard Wagner
Examined in Light of Thomas Kuhn and Imre Lakatos
Introduction
In Darwin, Marx, and Wagner: Critique of a Heritage, historian Jacques
Barzun argues that 20th century thought had succumbed to a domineering
“mechanical materialism” (Barzun, 1941:12-13) due to the influence of these
three men. Barzun believed that their systems were ultimately derivative and
incoherent, but yet “each man’s work stands as a sort of Scripture, quotable for
almost all purposes on an infinity of subjects” (Barzun, 1941:324). Barzun’s
strident critique notwithstanding, it is difficult to argue about the influence of
Darwin, Marx, and Wagner on their respective fields and on society in general.
In contemplating their legacies, a question arises about the type of
impact the ideas of Darwin, Marx, and Wagner had. Was it as extreme as
Barzun declared? If so, one could say that their systems drove a paradigm
shift, ala the process articulated by philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn. Or, if
something less than this, perhaps philosopher of science Imre Lakatos’
separate but related concept of research programs might better describe the
type of change their ideas produced. The purpose of this paper is to examine
the legacies of Darwin, Marx, and Wagner in light of Kuhn’s paradigm shift
process and Lakatos’ research program model and seek to answer the following
question: Are the legacies of their work emblematic of a paradigm shift, a
research program, both, or neither?
2. 2
To shed light on this enquiry, this paper is structured as follows. First, I
provide essential background on the fundamental elements, general
development, and impact of Darwinism, Marxism, and Wagnerism. Second, I
describe Thomas Kuhn’s and Imre Lakatos’ processes of scientific development.
Next, I use the background and processes to conduct a qualitative analysis of
the research question. I then supply a critique that points out the paper’s
limitations and conclude with suggestions for further research and a short
summary.
Background
This section provides the “data” to inform the subsequent analysis. For
each figure’s system I lay out the key components, sketch its overall
development, and assess the general impact on their fields and in society over
the ensuing decades.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: The Fundamental Elements and Impact
Although the idea of evolution was far from new at the time Darwin
published his theory, his synthesis was a novel one. Especially the way in
which he buttressed his “one long argument” with massive amounts of
observational evidence. Darwin rested his theory on four key concepts that
together comprised an integrated viewpoint on the development and variety of
life on earth. These concepts are (1) evolution as such, (2) common descent, (3)
gradualism, and (4) natural selection.
3. 3
With regard to evolution as such, this concept is implicit in Darwin’s
theory. Even so, this assertion was not unique since several others before
Darwin had advanced ideas of evolution, including his grandfather Erasmus:
“Would it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time,
since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the
commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to
imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living
filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality,
with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new
propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and
associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to
improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those
improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end!”
(Darwin, E., 2009:505).
The younger Darwin’s view about evolution as such stood in contrast to the
prevailing idea of the “Great Chain of Being,” a form of static creationism
wherein species were originally generated in their present form from the
simplest to the most complex (Lovejoy, 2001:59).
As a result of his investigations, including his early work as a geologist
and his journey on the HMS Beagle, Darwin came to believe that all life on
earth evolved from one common ancestor, “Therefore I should infer from
analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth
have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first
breathed" (Darwin, 2006:303). Going forward in time, complex organisms
emerged from simpler ones. Similarly, common ancestry explains likenesses
between species.
Darwin applied the doctrine of gradualism to argue that evolution is a
slow process, taking place over great lengths of time and in innumerable small
4. 4
steps. Evolution “…can never take a great and sudden leap” (Darwin,
2006:122) and advances “by the short and sure, through slow steps” (Darwin,
2006:295). In this regard, he followed botanist Carolus Linnaeus who said,
“Natura non facitsaltus” (Linnaeus, 2005:37), and adapted the thinking of his
mentor Charles Lyell who advocated for a theory gradual geological change
called uniformitarianism (Nelson, 77:142).
Natural selection is the heart of Darwin’s theory; it acts as the
“automatic mechanism” that drives evolution. Natural selection has four main
components: variation, inheritance, high rate of population growth, and
differential survival and reproduction. Variation means that individuals within
populations exhibit variation in appearance and behavior. Inheritance is the
process by which traits are passed from parent to offspring. A high rate of
species population growth tends to produce more progeny each year than local
resources can sustain. High population growth leads to a struggle to survive
and substantial mortality. The result is that individuals possessing traits well
suited to the struggle for existence will produce more offspring than those less
able to deal with the struggle. The traits that confer an advantage to those
individuals who leave more offspring are called adaptations. Natural selection
operates by comparative advantage, not an absolute standard of design, “…as
natural selection acts by competition for resources, it adapts the inhabitants of
each country only in relation to the degree of perfection of their associates”
(Darwin, 2006:296).
5. 5
Following the publication of The Origin of Species, Darwin faced
immediate controversy, although the assistance of advocates such as biologist
Thomas Huxley and surgeon Joseph Hooker ensured the steady spread and
acceptance of evolution as a viable scientific theory. With the advent of the
modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930’s that integrated, among other
advances, Gregor Mendel’s genetic research, Darwin’s contribution became
firmly entrenched in the field of biology (Mayr, 1980:1-5). Today, evolutionary
thinking extends to many other academic disciplines such as computer
science, psychology, sociology, economics, linguistics, and archeology. Along
the way, politicians and policy makers used Darwin’s idea for dubious, even
nefarious, purposes such as population control and eugenics (Bergman et al,
2014:43-46). Finally, no discussion of Darwin’s impact is complete without
recognizing the ongoing friction between died-in-the-wool Darwinists and
certain people of fundamentalist religious faith, particularly in the United
States. This friction has existed from Darwin’s time up until today, and
ultimately derives from incompatible philosophical positions (scientism vs.
common-sense realism) on the most efficacious way to explain the origin and
development of life (Ruse, 2005:264-266).
Marx’s Approach to Political Economy: The Fundamental Elements and Impact
Marx’s relied on historical materialism and his dialectical method to
underpin his approach to political economy. Using these constructs as an
intellectual “base”, he created his economic “superstructure”: the forces and
relations of production and the labor theory of value. Marx employed his
6. 6
system to critique the existing capitalist economic structure of his time, finding
it inherently exploitative of workers and riven with contradictions. He found
that throughout history exploitation and contradictions gave rise to class
struggle. The end state, as Marx would have it, was proletariat revolution.
Eventually (for Marx preferably sooner), revolution would lead to the
replacement of the capitalist system with communism.
Marx’s derived his dialectical method from Hegel wherein history
proceeds according to a pattern of thesis-antithesis-synthesis. The thesis is the
original state of affairs in a society. Over time, an antithesis develops to
challenge the existing situation. This is followed by resolution of the conflict
between the thesis and antithesis which in turn resolves into a new thesis. The
dialectical method was the means by which Marx analyzed the evolution of
political economy over time. He also applied the dialectical method to his
general theory of history, now known as historical materialism.
Marx viewed human history in terms of “modes of production” or the
ways in which societies are organized to use technology to interact with nature.
He asserted that societies are determined by the material conditions that exist
at any given time that dictate the relationships people have with another to
fulfill basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, and security. From Marx’s
point of view, history is chiefly a function of these material (economic)
conditions. Marx summarized what he meant by this materialistic aspect of his
theory of history in the 1859 preface to Capital: A Contribution to the Critique of
Political Economy:
7. 7
“In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into
definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely
relations of production appropriate to a given stage in the
development of their material forces of production. The totality of
these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of
society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political
superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social
consciousness. The mode of production of material life conditions the
general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the
consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social
existence that determines their consciousness” (Marx, 1990:175).
Marx also distinguished between the forces of production and the relations
of production. The “forces of production” are the types of productive technology
society uses whereas the “relations of production” refers to the social
organization of production, or who owns the productive forces and how those
forces are controlled. For instance, in a capitalist society capitalists own and
control the productive resources while workers own only their labor and work
for capitalists. It is capitalists who own the product and sell it for a profit.
Initially, the relationship between new forces of production and new relations of
production benefits society. As time goes on, contradictions (thesis and
antithesis) arise that drive social change.
As a result of his analysis of history, Marx believed that social change
results from the struggle between classes for dominance, “The history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles” (Marx and Engels,
1988:55-56). According to this rubric, there are dominant and subservient
classes in any given historical period because class is determined by one’s
relationship to the means of production. In capitalist society, there are two
basic classes, capitalists, who own the means of production and workers who
8. 8
own only their labor. The ultimate goal of communism is a classless society
wherein the means of production are owned by workers and all people enjoy
equal wealth and power, “From each according to his ability, to each according
to his need” (Marx, 2010:243).
Another key component of Marx’s political economy construct is his labor
theory of value. Marx extended the efforts of classical economists Adam Smith,
David Ricardo, and Thomas Malthus to demonstrate that the value of goods
should be calculated in terms of the amount of socially necessary labor that
went into their production. Subtracting from the aggregate the quantity of
commodities (measured in labor) that make up wages, there remains a surplus
value that capitalists receive as profits. Marx viewed profit taking as
exploitation, when workers receive less than the total value of the goods
produced (Marx, 2010: 199-200).
Marx also pointed out several structural conflicts built into capitalism that
contributed to the denigration of workers even as capitalists accumulated
wealth. As the organic composition of capital changes, workers have less and
less purchasing power which in turn means that profits will fall over the long
run (Marx, 1990:317-338). Also, in a capitalist system, workers are alienated
from their work because they do not participate in the end-to-end production of
goods, they do not have a say in how the work is done, and they do not own the
means by which their work is performed. Finally, capitalism tends to destroy
community and replace it with a base “cash nexus.” Profit becomes the only
9. 9
motive and the individual exists as an atomized entity in a mass society
without emotional and social bonds (Marx and Engels, 1988:5-6).
Marx believed that these endemic contradictions would lead to the
collapse of capitalism through the increasing polarization of the capitalist and
worker classes. Because the dominant class would not give up power
voluntarily, Marx supported active revolution to seize power if necessary. Marx
and Engels The Communist Manifesto, first published in 1872, best expresses
this sentiment.
At the time of his death, Marx had attracted few followers. Indeed, only a
handful of people attended his funeral (Wheen, 2000:382). Within twenty-five
years of Marx’s death, his ideas had spread throughout Europe and begun to
attract committed supporters. By the mid-1980’s, nearly one-third of the
world’s population lived under communism1, and more still under some kind of
socialist system. Within academia, Marxist thought penetrated into fields as
varied as economics, aesthetics, ethics, anthropology, epistemology,
psychology, philosophy of science, political philosophy, the philosophy of
history, literature, and the arts. Examples include Marxist literary criticism,
Marxist aesthetics, and Marxist anthropology. From a political perspective,
Marx’s thinking gave rise to different strains of communism such as Leninism,
Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, libertarian Marxism, structuralist
Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism,
and Hegelian Marxism. Not least, the actual implementation of Marxism in its
1 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Communism
10. 10
various incarnations had profound effects on state political structures and the
day-to-day lives of millions. When viewed holistically over the past 150 years,
we can see clearly that Marx’s impact is not only intellectual, but also truly
“material” for the many millions who lived—and continue to live—under his
shadow.
Wagner’s Approach to Opera: The Fundamental Elements and Impact
At the heart of Wagner’s approach to opera was his belief that myth,
when portrayed through a comprehensive artistic presentation of music,
drama, poetry, and philosophy could elevate, revitalize, and redeem human
civilization (Cicora, 1999:86). With his idea of Gesamtkunstwerk, Wagner
undertook to create the “art of the future” (Wagner, 1993:35, 52, 88), and in so
doing, he rewrote the rules for opera. Wagner sought to portray timeless
themes about the human condition that resulted in an event that was more
than simply an evening of entertainment. He wanted to gather people together
for a life-changing, quasi-religious experience rooted in emotion and nature
(Vazsonyi, 2010:170-176). In order to achieve his vision, Wagner created new
operatic forms, musical language, theatrical presentations, and architectural
innovations and integrated them to produce a first of its kind spectacle that he
called music-drama.
From an operatic standpoint, Wagner eschewed the long-standing
distinctions between recitative, aria, and ensemble in favor of making the
drama primary and the music ancillary. The elimination of these traditional
distinctions allowed Wagner to change the role of the singers from virtuosos to
11. 11
bona fide characters who were carefully integrated into the performance. Before
Wagner, composers constructed operas from pre-existing formulas. Wagner
discarded this convention in order to create a more integrated work of art. As
Wagner states, “This opera form was never, of its very nature, a form
embracing the whole drama, but rather an arbitrary conglomerate of separate
smaller forms of song, whose fortuitous concatenation of arias, duos, trios and
so on, with choruses and so-called ensemble pieces, made out of the actual
edifice of opera” (Wagner, 1995:67).
Another innovation was Wagner’s extensive use of leitmotifs—short
musical phrases directly associated with a character, object, or idea—as
musical language (Burbidge and Sutton, 1979: 345-346). Leitmotifs became an
essential part of the drama’s text and served as audio signals for the audience,
a way to support action, and a means to express emotions through the music.
For Wagner, a leitmotif’s melody provided the literal meaning of what was
occurring in the drama while its harmony provided the emotional sense. In
addition, leitmotifs gave structural coherence as the drama unfolded and
themes were introduced. In this way, they connected characters, emotions, and
ideas into an organic whole.
With regard to the music itself, Wagner relied much more on tonic
chords and chromaticism rather than dominant chords. This technique allowed
him more compositional freedom to express emotions through the musical
subtext. For example, in Tristan und Isolde Wagner used chromaticism as a
motif, to express the “the infinite longing of romantic love and the yearning for
12. 12
its appeasement in death” (Burbidge and Stutton 237). Chromaticism was not
a new idea in opera, but previous to Wagner, composers used it to get from one
tonal setting to another. Wagner employed tonal or chromatic key modulation
as tools to enhance the drama occurring on stage and heighten the audience’s
engagement (Millington, 2001:253-258).
In addition to his operatic form and musical language, Wagner also
focused on creating stage realism to bring the audience closer to the drama
(Carnegy, 2006:40). When presented the opportunity to build a customized a
theater in Bayreuth, Wagner implemented many innovations to fulfill his vision
of music-drama. Among these advancements, he placed the orchestra down
and under the stage using a double proscenia so that, “The spectral music
sounding from the ‘mystic gulf,’ like vapors rising from the holy womb of Gaia
beneath the Pythia’s tripod, inspires him [the spectator] with that clairvoyance
in which the scenic picture melts into the truest effigy of life itself” (Wagner
quoted in Smith, 2007:31-32). As a practical matter, the physical performance
of the orchestral became less distracting, allowing the instrumental music to
integrate more effectively with the vocal music, drama, and visual effects on
stage. Wagner said that the conductor “should be hidden from him [the
spectator] with almost as much care as the ropes, pulley, struts and boards of
the sets, the sight of which from the wings is well known to destroy all illusion”
(Wagner, quoted in Carnegy, 2006:70). Wagner was also the first to darken the
auditorium during the performance, shut the doors during the performance,
13. 13
use the steam curtain (created by a row of jets along the line of stage
floodlights), and insist that applause was reserved for the end of an act.
One indication of Wagner’s influence is that there are no such -isms as
“Bachism” or “Mozartism” but there is Wagnerism. Just as Darwinism and
Marxism denote a distinct frame of reference with which to view the world, so
too does Wagner’s body of work extend beyond the purely musical to the
philosophical and ideological. Even during Wagner’s lifetime, groups of
enthusiasts—“Wagnerites”—gathered to partake of, analyze, and advance not
only his art, but his ideas about art (Sutton, 2002:1-5). Wagner’s synthesis of
myth, music, and drama appealed deeply to the Volkish sentiments extant in
Germanic culture of the late nineteenth century which in turn found darker
purchase in Nazi Germany. According to May:
“…his influence was so profound that it extended well beyond
music to leading figure in other disciplines. To give just a brief
sampling: Baudelaire and the later symbolists, Thomas Mann,
Marcel Proust, George Bernard Shaw, innumerable theater and
film directors…Think of the success of composers such as John
Williams, or James Horner, and Howard Shore with their tightly
integrated themes and prismatically arrayed orchestrations for
films of epic Wagnerian ambition. Think too of how resonant those
very films have been in the larger culture, responding to a shared
need for myth and psychology to rely on in our “disenchanted”
postmodern world” (May, 2004:10).
Wagner’s impact on other fields, such as cinema, is clearly seen as
composers adopted Wagner’s concept of leitmotifs to integrate the musical
score with the onscreen drama. Their use “leads directly to cinema music
where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so
as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily" (Adorno, 2009:36). In fact,
14. 14
some regard Wagner as a kind of “proto-film composer” due to the epically
expansive nature of his music-dramas, “If Wagner had lived in this century
he would have been the No.1 film composer” (Film critic Max Steiner quoted
in Burlingame, 2010). Wagnerian approaches abound in modern cinematic
soundtracks including those composed by John Williams (e.g. Star Wars,
Raiders of the Lost Ark), James Horner (e.g. Titanic, Avatar), and Hans Zimmer
(e.g. Crimson Tide, The Dark Knight). Some examples of Wagner’s music in film
include the funeral music from Gotterdammerung in “Excalibur,” the bridal
chorus from Lohengrin used in “Beetlejuice,” “Father of the Bride,” and
“Spiderman 2.” Perhaps one of the most famous instances of Wagner in film is
the “Ride of the Valkyries” in “Apocalypse Now.”
Wagner's influence on literature has been no less significant. As
Raymond Furness states:
“His protean abundance meant that he could inspire the use of the
literary motif in many a novel employing interior monologue; the yearnings of
the mythmakers increasingly took his music dramas as a fecund source; the
Symbolists saw him as a mystic hierophant; the Decadents found many a
frisson in his work” (Furness, 1992: 396).
Among authors influenced by Wagner, philosopher and poet Bryan Magee lists
D. H. Lawrence, Aubrey Beardsley, Romain Rolland, Gérard de Nerval, Rainer
Maria Rilke, Thomas Mann, and Marcel Proust (Magee, 1988, 53). Wagner
features in the works of James Joyce (e.g. Ulysses and Finnegan’s Wake) and
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, which contains lines from Tristan und Isolde and
Gotterdammerung.
15. 15
Without a doubt, the ideas of these three men has had a tremendous
impact on all manner of human endeavor including philosophy, science, art,
politics, and economics. Over the ensuing 150 years since their thinking first
emerged on the scene, countless millions have been affected, whether directly
or indirectly, or for good or for ill. Let’s now turn to two illustrious philosophers
of science to learn more about their theories of scientific development and how
their models might be used to frame the impact of Darwin, Marx, and Wagner.
Thomas Kuhn’s “Paradigm Shift”
Thomas Kuhn was an American physicist, historian, and philosopher of
science best known for his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).
In this book, Kuhn introduced the concept of the paradigm shift to describe
how scientific development occurs. Webster’s dictionary defines a paradigm as
a theory or a group of ideas about how something should be done, made, or
thought about. From a scientific perspective, a paradigm is a distinct set of
concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods,
postulates, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a
scientific field, or according to Kuhn, “universally recognized scientific
achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a
community of practitioners” (Kuhn, 1996:10). Kuhn cites Copernicus’s De
Revolutionibus or Newton’s Principia as instigators of paradigms shifts because
they were "sufficiently unprecedented to attract an enduring group of
adherents away from competing modes of scientific activity…[and] sufficiently
16. 16
open-ended to leave all sorts of problems for the redefined group of
practitioners to resolve." (Kuhn, 1996:10).
Kuhn described a six-step process (Figure 1), popularly known as the
“Kuhn Cycle” through which paradigm shifts emerge. These steps include
prescience, normal science, model drift, model crisis, model revolution, and
paradigm change.
Figure 1. The Kuhn Cycle
All new scientific endeavors begin in prescience, where researchers have
identified a problem, but do not yet have the wherewithal to solve it, there is no
prevailing school of thought, and there are disparate and competing theories.
In addition, there will be almost as many theories are there are workers in the
field.
Out of prescience emerges normal science. In this step, major progress
on central problems becomes possible. Normal science means that a research
community exists who share a common intellectual framework (a paradigm)
17. 17
and work to solve puzzles impinging on the paradigm (Kuhn, 1996:35-42).
Puzzles are generated by anomalies between what the paradigm predicts and
what is shown through experimentation. Normal science is characterized by
articulating the paradigm, precisely evaluating key paradigmatic facts, and
testing those new points where the paradigm is open to empirical evaluation
(Kuhn, 1996:25-28). Anomalies are resolved by updating the framework with
incremental changes based on new knowledge. Normal science forms the vast
bulk of scientific activity.
The model drift step occurs as the paradigm is mined for new knowledge,
and the research community digs so deep that it discovers new questions that
the paradigm cannot answer (Kuhn, 1996:52). As these anomalies appear, the
explanatory power of the model weakens. Anomalies that are resistant to
solution under the existing paradigm serve to inhibit further progress and
undermine support for it. Kuhn cites the discovery of oxygen (vice phlogiston),
x-rays (exposed screen not expected to glow) and the Leyden jar (to “store”
electricity in water) as examples of anomalies that challenged the normal
science of the day (Kuhn, 1996:54-61).
As unsolved anomalies accumulate and the paradigm is unable to
account for them the model crisis step ensues. Model crisis means that the
paradigm is ineffective in solving the field’s current problems, doubts arise
regarding core assumptions, and members of the research community begin to
question the paradigm itself. At this point, the field is characterized by "a
proliferation of compelling articulations, the willingness to try anything, the
18. 18
expression of explicit discontent, the recourse to philosophy and to debate over
fundamentals" (Kuhn, 1962:91).
Out of the struggle to construct a more capable intellectual framework,
new candidates emerge to supplant the old paradigm. This is the model
revolution step. The old paradigm co-exists with the new, emerging one. The
old paradigm is well established, and has many supporters despite many
anomalies while the new one is untested, perhaps incorporates new concepts
and new research techniques, and has few followers. The new paradigm is
“incommensurate” because it is irreconcilable with the previous one (Kuhn,
1962:148-150, 198-204). Each community uses its own assumptions to judge
the other’s paradigm, often talking past each other. Often, supporters of the old
paradigm are viewed as resistant to change and supporters of the new are
painted as scientifically irresponsible. For example this kind of contention
occurred between Darwin’s supporters and those who opposed his theory. Even
today, contention exists between proponents of evolution and those who
advocate creationism.
The paradigm change step begins once the new paradigm is agreed on by
a group of influential supporters. Here the field transitions from the old to the
new paradigm which becomes the dominant view in the field. This is the
“paradigm shift” of modern parlance. Kuhn’s classic example of a paradigm
shift is the change that occurred in physics after Newton published Principia
Mathematica and Opticks (Kuhn, 1996:12). Over time, the new paradigm
sufficiently replaces the old and becomes the field’s new normal science. The
19. 19
Kuhn Cycle begins again as the quest for new knowledge about the world
continues.
Imre Lakatos’ “Research Program”
In response to Kuhn’s notion of paradigmatic progress in science, Imre
Lakatos, a philosopher of mathematics and science, put forth the idea that
science moves forward via “research programs” (Lakatos, 1978:47-48). A
research program is a sequence of advancements within a domain of inquiry
wherein each successor theory marks an improvement over its predecessor.
The move from one theory to its successor within a research program is called
a "problem shift." Problem shifts may be "progressive" in two ways: theoretically
or empirically. Theoretically progressive problem shifts enable researchers to
predict more than a predecessor theory. A problem shift is empirically
progressive if in addition to predicting new observable evidence, actual
observation confirms this new prediction. In order for a research program as a
whole to be progressive, each problem shift must be at least theoretically
progressive, and at least intermittently empirically progressive (Lakatos,
1978:48-49). In other words, in a progressive program, a move from an old
theory to a new one must enable researchers to predict more, and at least
sometimes these predictions must be confirmed. If not the research program is
said to be "degenerating" (Lakatos, 1978:34). Scientists should stay with a
progressive research program and abandon a degenerating program.
Lakatos distinguished between two parts of a scientific theory: its “hard
core” which contains its basic assumptions and its “protective belt,” a
20. 20
surrounding defensive set of hypotheses. The protective belt serves to deflect
propositions that refute core assumptions. In designing new theories to replace
old, researchers adhere to a constellation of beliefs which Lakatos calls a
“heuristic” (Lakatos, 1978:47-52). Heuristics can be positive or negative.
Negative heuristics are claims that must be adhered to as a part of the
research program and serve to cordon off the "hard core" which cannot change
from one theory to the next. Revising these beliefs is off limits. Positive
heuristics take into account the hard core while also suggesting how the basic
assumptions can be revised. Positive heuristics help to reshape these
assumptions in light of evidence that could refute the hard core.
As a research program progresses, scientists will attempt to refute or
falsify the accepted theory. When refuting evidence is encountered, the
scientist does not consider the program as defunct. Rather, s/he will alter the
assumptions of the protective belt using positive heuristics such that the "hard
core is retained. As long as such moves enable scientists to predict more new
phenomena (i.e. it is theoretically progressive), and at least some of those
predictions get confirmed by observation (i.e., it is from time to time empirically
progressive), the research program remains viable. When modifications to the
theory only protect the hard core from refutation, but do not predict new
phenomena or none of the new predictions get confirmed by observation, then
the program is degenerating and the program should be abandoned. Figure 2
depicts visually the research program model.
21. 21
Figure 2. Research Program Model.
Analysis
Having presented the fundamental elements and impact of Darwinism,
Marxism, and Wagnerism, I now describe the method by which I will analyze
them in light of Kuhn’s paradigm shift and Lakatos’ research program. The
method is as follows:
- For each topic, qualitatively evaluate each in light of the Kuhnian and
Lakatosian framework at three phases in time: initial promulgation, mid-term
development, and current status.
- Assess the components of each topic as to whether or not it “fits” into a
particular step of the Kuhn Cycle or a research program.
- Use the results to gauge whether or not the topics conform to the Kuhn
Cycle, a research program, both, or none.
22. 22
I will use a straightforward two by two matrix to annotate fit as illustrated
below (Figure 3). See Appendix 1 for the complete set of matrices.
Evolution
as Such
Common
Descent
Gradualism Natural
Selection
Totality
of Theory
Pre-science X X X X X
Normal science
Model drift
Model crisis
Model revolution
Paradigm shift
Figure 3. Matrix for Darwinism in Light of Kuhn—Initial Promulgation Phase.
For each phase of a particular systems’ development, I use the background
data to make an assessment of where each element of Darwin’s, Marx’s, and
Wagner’s systems fit in the Kuhn Cycle and the research program model. The
results of this assessment then inform my discussion of how to categorize the
impact of each.
It is important to make clear that both Kuhn and Lakatos formulated
their concepts to evaluate progress in the hard sciences, such as physics and
chemistry. Of the three topics under scrutiny in this paper, only Darwin’s
theory is best characterized as a classically scientific endeavor, albeit as an
applied science. Although Marxism is purported to be scientific in construction
and application, it is not science as understood in terms of Kuhn’s and
Lakatos’ concepts. Finally, as an artistic endeavor, Wagnerism falls the farthest
23. 23
afield. Given the original intent of Kuhn and Lakatos, Darwinism, Marxism,
and Wagnerism do not strictly qualify to be evaluated using the Kuhn Cycle or
as a research program. Nonetheless, we can apply Kuhn and Lakatos in a
wider sense as general processes of change rather than in their stricter
scientifically oriented meanings. This approach allows for a broader analytical
perspective and—most importantly—the potential for interesting insights into
the type of change wrought by these three constructs.
Discussion
Darwin’s evolutionary paradigm comes the closest to conforming to the
steps of the Kuhn cycle. Given the state of science at the time Darwin
published his ideas, which was more observational than it was experimental,
all of the fundamental elements that made up Darwin’s theory, as well as his
theory as a whole, can be neatly classified as prescience. For example, even
though Darwin (along with biologist Alfred Wallace) was the first to describe the
mechanism of natural selection and provide analogical and observational
evidence, his assertions were met with great skepticism from a variety of
quarters. It would take many years of follow-on work, including the integration
of Mendelian genetics with Darwin’s theory, before biologists accepted natural
selection as a scientific reality. The modern evolutionary synthesis that
occurred in the 1930’s further solidified Darwinism as normal science. As far
as the rest of the steps in the Kuhn Cycle, a case can be made that Darwinism
is at least in a state of model drift due to lingering questions that the theory
cannot answer and because of scientific avenues (e.g. punctuated, epigenetics,
24. 24
and evolutionary development) that could help provide answers for them
(Pigliucci and Muller, 2010:12-15). Some biologists would say that Darwinism
is a failed project that should be abandoned, and thus in a state of model crisis
(Craig, 2010:117-123).
When viewed through the lens of a research program, Darwin’s theory
aligns more cleanly. The fundamental elements of the theory: evolution as
such, common descent, gradualism, and natural selection form the hard core
of the program. Over time, the research program has been advanced (e.g. the
integration of Mendelian genetics, the modern evolutionary synthesis,
computational biology) and defended (e.g. against intelligent design advocates).
As the field deals with alternative explanations for evolution (e.g. multilevel
selection), a problem shift could occur, wherein previously accepted
assumptions could be abandoned (e.g. selection on the basis of individuals only
replaced by multi-level selection). Whether or not such a problem shift
materializes, the evolutionary research program as a whole appears “fit” to
continue.
With regard to Darwinism itself being a paradigm shift within science, I
believe the analysis shows that overall it is not. Rather, it is the outcome of
normal scientific discovery and development more akin to a research program,
albeit with one exception. Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection, when
combined with gradualism, removed the need an external agent (i.e. God) to
direct the evolutionary process. This outcome served to place biology on firmly
naturalistic, rather than theistic, ground. The incommensurate move from
25. 25
“theistic science” to “materialist science” revolutionized the study of biology and
ensconced it safely within the confines of science qua science—a paradigm
shift.
To be sure, Marx formulated an original paradigm for political economy.
As to whether his paradigm resulted in a paradigm shift, the results of the
analysis demonstrate that it was not. At least initially, Marx’s ideas were more
akin to prescience and were not widely known. As others consolidated his
writings, various strains of Marxist thinking emerged. Many used their own
interpretations of Marx to foment change or even revolution, as occurred in
Russia, China, Cuba, and Vietnam. To its adherents, Marxism became “normal
science,” but to assert that it was dominant across the board in politics and
academia, for example, is an overstretch. Marxism has always had ample
competition in the marketplace of ideas, not the least of which is capitalism. In
addition, since the fall of the Soviet Union, Marxism has fallen on hard times,
or in Kuhnian terms “model crisis.” Whether or not Marxism will undergo an
internal paradigm shift of its own remains to be seen.
Like Darwinism, Marxism seems to align more closely with the research
program model. The hard core of Marx’s fundamental ideas remain intact, and
numerous extensions and variations have developed over the years. Those who
advocate for Marxism are indeed vigorous in its defense, even if they do not
always agree on the particulars (e.g. Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotksy, Stalin
and Mao Tse Tung). Also, over the decades, a large community of researchers
and practitioners has advanced Marxist thought, maintaining its “protective
26. 26
belt.” Finally, when considering whether or not a problem shift has occurred
within Marxism, one can point to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the
Warsaw pact and the subsequent adoption of market-oriented economies,
similar adoptions in other formerly communist countries such as Albania and
Ethopia, and the integration of market-oriented policies in China and Vietnam.
The question is whether this problem shift is degenerative in nature. If so,
according to the Lakatos model, Marxism should be abandoned.
In a similar vein as Darwin and Marx, Wagner synthesized a new
operatic paradigm. From the outset, his innovations polarized the musical
community, some of whom enthusiastically embraced it (e.g. composers Gustav
Mahler, Anton Bruckner, and Hugo Wolf), while others reacted against it (e.g.
composers Felix Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, and Claude Debussy). In
short order, Wagner’s Gesamptkunstwerk approach gained a large coterie of
followers (Wagnerites). To be sure, Wagner’s invention of music drama has had
a tremendous influence on music and other artistic domains. Over time, his
ideas found their way into the literary, artistic, and cinematic arenas. That
said, it is difficult to align Wagnerism with the Kuhn Cycle, primarily because
of the artistic nature of his ideas. Also, although Wagner does loom large,
particularly in the musical arena, there are many other operatic and musical
alternatives both for musicians and audiences. Therefore, I think it is incorrect
to say that Wagner’s music-drama paradigm fomented a broad-based paradigm
shift in music.
27. 27
At best, Wagner’s music drama invention resembles a research program.
The hard core of his ideas remain intact, due in no small part to the emphasis
placed on them at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus. With regard to protective belt,
Wagner still has supporters who study (and defend) his work, but it is fair to
say that this community is specialized and not pervasively influential. From the
standpoint of positive development, the fundamental elements of his approach
have been adopted and extended within music as well as in other areas. When
it comes to the notion of a “problem shift” within Wagnerism, because Wagner
set the bar so high with his invention of music drama, especially in Der Ring
des Niebelungen, it remains the singular, epic, and unsurpassed embodiment
of “the art of the future.” Therefore, I do not think that a Lakatosian-like
problem shift will ever occur when it comes to the hard core of Wagner’s
Gesamptkunstewerk construct.
Critique
There are several ways to improve this paper. First, because it is a
preliminary survey, the background data, the analytical lens, and the analysis
itself lacks depth. It is difficult to distill the essence of three intellectually
substantial theories and two sophisticated epistemological models in a short
paper. Numerous books and articles have been written on each of these topics,
so I am quite sure that I have left something out, either due to space
restrictions, or more accurately, due to my ignorance. As a result, the veracity
of my findings is vulnerable to more sophisticated, learned appraisals. Next,
the analytical models I used were designed to describe scientific progress
28. 28
rather than social or artistic development. Of the three figures, only Darwin’s
theory reasonably fit into Kuhn’s and Lakatos’ models, but still imperfectly. As
such, I generalized the models in order to carry the analysis through. For
instance, I glossed over Kuhn’s notion of incommensurability (the mutual
exclusive relationship of old paradigms to new) and how Lakatos’ model
incorporated Karl Popper’s falsification criteria. This begs the question as to
whether these models were appropriate to use at all. For example, Kuhn’s
paradigm shift concept has great intuitive appeal. Behind this appeal lies a
sophisticated theory of scientific development that few ever explore, much less
understand. What is apparent to me is that Kuhn’s ideas have been
misappropriated and applied willy-nilly across many fields such as business,
sociology, and politics. It’s one thing to popularize an appealing academic
construct, it’s quite another to throw out its entire logical apparatus in the
process. Although not my intent, applying Kuhn or even Lakatos in this way
evacuates their theories of their original meaning and results in something
akin to intellectual caricature. Finally, despite the fact that I attempted to
conduct a reasonable qualitative analysis, the limited background, the model
selection, the analysis itself, and the findings are the product of an imperfect
research design and over-generalized data. In addition, the analytical models
were distorted from their original purpose. It follows, then, that the results of
this survey are necessarily imperfect. In sum, the challenges of applying the
Kuhn Cycle and research program model to applied science and non-scientific
29. 29
fields, while somewhat interesting, is not the most compelling way to describe
the impact of Darwinism, Marxism, and Wagnerism on human history.
Conclusion
As to whether this paper answered the original research question, the
answer is at best equivocal, as might be expected from a preliminary survey. To
come to a more definite conclusion, a motivated researcher (1) could widen and
deepen the background to ensure major concepts, events, and opinions are
covered, (2) refine the analytical method to assure better qualitative reliability
and validity, and (3) generate more credible findings. Also, researchers could
restructure the analytical approach, effectively abandoning Kuhn and Lakatos
in favor of a more appropriate qualitative or historical research framework.
Despite this paper’s shortcomings, the preliminary survey shows that the
work, development, and impact of Darwin, Marx, and Wagner aligns more
closely with a research program than a paradigm shift, but only at a superficial
level. The one partial exception was the paradigm shift that followed after
Darwin set the course to separate biology from theistic influences and ground
the field empirically as a bona fide scientific endeavor. Marx’s synthesis
incorporated extensions and modifications of previous thought (Smith, Ricardo,
Hegel) in the manner of a research program. He combined them all in a novel
way and produced a seemingly airtight rationale for class-based social
revolution. As his ideas spread, they were attacked and defended. Many people
were indoctrinated to the various strains of his thought that developed over
time, and millions of individual paradigms were shifted, but Marxism never
30. 30
came to dominate the field of political economy. Wagner’s invention of
Gsamptkunstwerk changed the idea of what opera could be, and his
contribution is a true inflection point in the history of music. In addition, his
influence extends well beyond the musical arena. Although Wagner’s approach
remains an important musical genre, it fails to rise to the level of a paradigm
shift. To be sure, all three men had monumental intellects and were
outstanding synthesizers. Each of their contributions was a new paradigm
constructed in the form of a theory or invention, but none resulted in a
wholesale paradigm shift. Instead they developed more akin to a scientific
research program. Therefore I do not recommend the use of the term paradigm
shift when referring to the impact of Darwin’s, Marx’s, or Wagner’s systems. In
addition, although each system aligns better with Lakatos’ work in a general
way, only Darwin’s theory of evolution, since it is a science, best fits under the
rubric of a research program.
31. 31
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