Jerusalem has a long history dating back to Abraham. It has been ruled by many different groups including the Canaanites, Israelites, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Muslims, and others. Key events include King David establishing Jerusalem as the capital of Israel in 1000 BC, the destruction of the first temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC, the rebuilding of the second temple by the Persians in 516 BC, and the destruction of the second temple by the Romans in 70 AD.

1. A history of Jerusalem
From the days of Abraham to the present
Rafael (Rafi) Plotnik - Mechanical Eng.
History fan - Licensed tour guide in Israel
rafiplotnik@gmail.com
1

2. Where is
Israel located2
Death
Sea
Tel-Aviv
Jerusalem
West
Bank
Golan
Hight
Gaza
Strip
Lake of
Galilee
Jordan
River

3. Jerusalem is the holiest place for the Jewish people.
In the center of it stands the Moria Mount where
the foundation stone is located.
The world was created from the foundation stone
according the Jewish belief.
3

4. Abraham Era
considered to be
around 1800 BC.
Genesis Chapter 22
God Tested Abraham and
ordered him to offer his son
Isaac as a sacrifice on Moria
mount.4

5. in the Bible–The name Jerusalem
Genesis Chapter 22 verse 14
• And (after the binding of Isaac) Abraham
called the name of that place Adonai-jireh
(God will see); as it is said to this day: 'In the
mount where the LORD is seen.‘
• Shalem was the Canaanite name of Jerusalem,
and means “whole” and “peace”.
Jireh + Shalem = Jerusalem
5

6. The name Jerusalem
According the Execration texts (1800 BC) and El-
Amarna scripts (1360 BC) Jerusalem was called
U’RU – SHALEM = The city of Shalem
The Bible (Genesis 14, verse 18) mentions
Melchizedek the king of Jerusalem in Abraham
era.
6

7. Gehenna
Valley
Tyropoeon
Valley
Valley of
Josaphat
Jaffa Gate
Damascus
Gate
Gethsemane
The wailing
wall - Kotel
Geography
Of Jerusalem7

8. Jerusalem in the Canaanite period
Pool of
Siloam
Gihon
Spring
The Temple Mount
was empty
Jebus
City of
David
underground
tunnel
8

9. 9
Jerusalem in the Canaanite period
Castel that
protected the
Gihon spring
Canaanite underground
tunnel led from city to
spring castell
Shiloam pool
(reservoir)

10. Jerusalem in the Canaanite period
• Water source of Jerusalem was the Gihon
Spring. The Canaanites built a fortress around
the spring and an underground tunnel leading
from the city to the fort. Surplus water of the
spring used for irrigation of orchards in the
Kidron Valley and to fill the Siloam Pool.
• King David conquered Jerusalem in 1000 BC
and founded “the City of David” as a Capital
City for his kingdom10

11. Jerusalem during King Solomon period 970BC
Book of Samuel b ch5
City of
David
King Solomon Attach
the Mount Moriah to
the City of David, and
built the first temple
and his palace
on the mountain
11

12. Jerusalem during King
Hezekiah period 705 BC
• Sennacherib the
Assyrian Invaded
Judea In 720BC.
• King Hezekiah
prepared Jerusalem
for a siege.
• He stored food, Built
a wall around the
Western hill and dug
an underground
aqueduct.
• Sennacherib put a
Siege on Jerusalem
in 705 BC but failed
to conquer it.
Mount Zion
Western Hill
The wall that King
Hezekiah built
underground
aqueduct –
Shiloam tunnel
12

13. City of
David
today
13
City of
David
Pool of
Siloam
Gihon
Spring
http://www.jerusalem-
love.co.il/?page_id=10745
Temple
Mount

14. 14
The Northern wall in the Jewish
Quarter
Northern Tower
Remnant from the
Northern part of
Hezekia wall and
Tower were found in
the Jewish Quarter in
old Jerusalem

15. Hezekiah's Tunnel
Siloam Inscription
Cross section of Hezekiah’s Tunnel
15

16. Destruction of the Temple
• In 586BC Judea was conquered by
the Babylonians (Nebuchadnezzar
II) The temple was destroyed and
the Jews were Exiled to Babylon.
16

17. In 536BC the Persians
conquered the World and let
the Jews return to Canaan.
The Second Temple was built
in 516 BC
Jerusalem in the Time of
Ezra and Nehemiah 444BC
Persian Era
Persian
Empire
17

18. Cyrus Cylinder
• Cyrus; the king of Persia established the Persian
Empire in 539 BC. He announced the return
of the Persian worship of the God Murdoch (the
original worship before the changes introduced
by Nabonaid). He allowed the people exiled by
the Babylonians to return to their
home countries.
http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_macgregor_2600_years_of_history_in_one_o
bject.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder
18

19. The Hellenistic era 333 – 63 BC
• In 333BC Alexander the Great conquered the
World.
• The Seleucid dynasty took control on Judea after
the death of Alexander.
19

20. Hasmonean Kingdom
• In 167BC the Jews
(Maccabees) rebelled and
founded an independent
Hasmonean Kingdom, which
survived up to 63BC.
• This 100 years period was
the Golden Age of the Israeli
kingdom since the times of
King Solomon20

21. Jerusalem in the
Hasmonean Era
The Bridge
Kiponos Gate
Wilson Gate
Aquaduct From Beit
Lehem to the Temple
Hasmonean
Aquaduct
Probatica pool
Beit Hasda Pool
Rebuilt
Hezekiah’s walls
Renovated the Temple
21

22. Roman Period 63BC – 325AC
• Pompey; the Roman army
leader conquered Israel in 63BC
• In 37BC HEROD became the
Roman governor of Israel.
• Herod was the greatest Builder
in the Israeli history of the old
time.
Pompey
Prof. Ehud Nezer with the Sarcophagus of
Herod found in Herodum22

23. Caesarea
Theater
Hippodrome
Reef Palace
Port
23

24. Mezadah
Winter Palace built by Herod near
the Dead Sea
Jerusalem
Mezadah
Herodium
Caesarea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masada
http://www.parks.org.il/ParksAndReserves/
masada/Documents/masadaEN.pdf
24

25. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodium
http://www.parks.org.il/ParksAndReserves/hero
dium/Documents/herodium-en.pdf
25

26. Jerusalem in the
Time of Herod
hHerodian Road
hHerod’s Palace
Mamila pool
Upper
Aquaduct
New Wall
Commercial
Quarter
New Temple
“David Tower”
Drainage tunnel
under Herodian road
26

27. Tower Of David
Compound Near
Jaffa Gate
Fasael Tower
Miriam Tower
Hypokos Tower
27
Late Turkish
Mosque Minaret

28. 28
View from Olive mount - today
View from Olive mount – before destruction of the Temple in 70 AD

29. N
29

30. Hulda
Gate
Herodian
Road
Robison Arc
Barkley Gate
Wilson Arc
Charles
Warren
Gate
Antonia
Castle
Ophel
Stairs
“Cotel”
30

31. 31
Calvary or
Golgotha
Antonia
Castle
Cenacle
House of
High Priest
Gethsemane The Holy
week of
the Christ
in
JerusalemVia
Dolorosa

32. Holly week of Jesus in Jerusalem
Jesus arrived in Jerusalem on Sunday in the spring of 33 CE, a week
before Passover. He was housed in a Beit Anya. During the week he
arrived to the temple and preached against the corruption of the
Jewish priests. On Thursday he went to have dinner at Mount Zion,
in Cenacle. After “last supper”, he went down to Gethsemane where
he mourned for his bitter fate to the cross. Late at night, the Judah
the traitor betrayed gave him away to the High Priest (Kayafa) cops.
Jesus was brought to the high priest who sentenced him to death
for blasphemy. On Friday morning, Jesus was brought to the fortress
of Antonia where Roman governor Pontus Pilate stayed. The
governor sent him a crucifixion. Jesus was stripped, beaten, and
started to carry the cross to Golgotha Hill outside the city through
the Via Dolorosa. At noon, he was crucified, died in the afternoon,
and was temporarily buried in Joseph's the Ramatian gravale cave.
On Sunday, Miriam the mother and Miriam the Magdalene came to
bury him and he resurrected and left.32

33. The Big Revolt against Rome
In 68AC the Jews rebelled against the Romans. They fortified
their towns and reinforced their army.
The Roman army leader Vespasianus suppressed the revolt. In
summer of 70AC, Jerusalem was conquered by Titus (his son)
and the Temple was demolished.
33

34. The Temple treasure were taken and
represented in a triumph parade in Rome
34

35. There is an assumption that the
Coliseum in Rome was financed with
the treasure taken from the Temple
35

36. Pax Romana in Jerusalem
• in 130AC, Hadrian built Jerusalem as a Roman city called Elya
Capitolina and imposed religious Edicts against Judaism
• A Temple to Jupiter was built on the Temple Mount.
• The name of Judea was changed into Palestine.
36

37. Beit She'an built by Hadrian
37

38. The second revolt against Rome.
bar Kokhba RevoltSimon
• Started in 133AC as a
response to the Hadrian
religious edicts .
• After 3 years of war the
revolt suppressed and
Judea and Jerusalem
were abandoned and
the Jews moved to live
in the Galilee and Golan
Heights
Galilee
Golan
Heights
38

39. AC, the Roman Empire adopted Christianity and324In
Byzantiumchanged its name to
The Byzantine Emperors built Churches in Jerusalem.
Helena, the Emperor Constantine’s mother, built the Holy
Sepulcher on the Golgota and the Church of Nativity in
Bethlehem in 327AC,
Nativity church in Bethlehem Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem
39

40. • The Byzantines left the Temple Mount
desolate to show that Jesus' prophecy of the
destruction of Jerusalem was fulfilled.
• In the Byzantine period, Jerusalem was
developed and many churches and
monasteries were built.
• Helena found the cross of Jesus on the
Gulgota hill.
40

41. was found on the
floor of a church in
Madaba in 1884
Madaba
mosaic map
Describes the map of
Palestine and Jerusalem
in 6th century AC
41
http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Madaba_Map

42. Damaskus Gate
Cardo
Holy Sepulcher
Hagia Maria
Hagia Maria of Zion Mt
Cenacle
Santa Anna
Beit Hasda Pool
Holy Stephen
Siloam Church
Church of St. Peter in
Gallicantu42
Map of Jerusalem in Byzantine era Jerusalem map in Madaba mosaic

43. East-Parisian invasion to Middle
• The Neo-Persian Empire which was ruled by the
Sasanian Dynasty from 224 AC to 651 AC
conquered land of Israel between 614-628 AC.
• The Persians destroyed the almost all Byzantine
Churches with the help of the Jews.
43
• The Byzantines returned 14
years later and tried to
rebuild Jerusalem.
• The Moslems arrived 12
years later and started a
new era

44. Islamic era 640AC and up to date
570AC – Muhamad was Born in Mecca
610AC – Started to preach
620AC – Escaped from Mecca to Medina (Hagera)
632AC – Died
638AC – Jerusalem and large part of the Byzantine Empires
were conquered by Omar
44

45. Al-Aqsa Mosque = the mosque of the far end
was built in 711AC
The Dome of the Rock Mosque was built in 691AC.
• Jerusalem in the Koran: Be blessed the one who
gave a ride to his servant (Muhammad), at night,
from the holly Mosque (in Mecca?) to the
Mosque which is in the far end (Jerusalem?).
Jerusalem during the Islamic Era
45

46. Jerusalem during the Umayyad dynasty
• Jerusalem is not mentioned in the Koran at all.
• In 660 AD, the Umayyad dynasty came to
power over the Muslim empire. The dynasty
moved the governing center from Mecca to
Damascus. The kings of the dynasty wanted to
set up a new pilgrimage site instead of Mecca
and chose Jerusalem. They erected the Al-
Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock on
the Temple Mount. They built government
buildings around the Temple Mount.
46

47. Temple Mount during the Moslem era
47
El-Akza Mosque
Tomb of the Rock
5 Governing
buildings

48. ROBERT OF
FLANDERS
ROBERT OF
NORMADY
Raymond de
Saint-Gilles,
ADEMR OF
POEY
TANKARD &
BOHEMON
GOTFREY OF BOUILLON
BALDWIN OF BOULOGNE
Urbanus II
COUNCIL OF
CLERMONT
1095
Emperor Alexios
KOMNEN0S OF
BYZANTION
FIRST BATTLE
IN NICAEA
2nd BATTLE IN
DORYLAEUM
BOLDWIN
CONQUER
ADESA AND
REMAIN THERE
BOHEMON
REMAIND IN
ANTAKIA
JERUSALEM IS
CONQUERED
ON JULY 4, 1099
First Crusade 1099
48

49. The first Jerusalem kingdom
1099 – 1187 BC
• The crusader
founded a
strong
organized
kingdom
• Jerusalem was
the Capital
City
The first Jerusalem
kingdom 1099 - 1187
49

50. Domini
Temple
Temple
Solomonis
Castle of
the King
Holy
Sepulcher
Muristan
Hagia
Maria of
Zion Mt
Santa Anna
Beit Hasda
Pool
• The king castle was in
David Tower
compound
• Al-Aqsa Mosque
converted to a
church - Temple
Solomonis
• A cross was built on
the top of the tomb
of the rock
Jerusalem, the
crusaders
capital city
50

51. Saladin defeats the crusaders
• Saladin united all the Arabian
kingdoms in the middle east
• In 1187 (4th of July) – Saladin defeated
the Crusaders in Battle of Hattin
51
Jerusalem
Hattin

52. Second Jerusalem
Kingdom
• In 1191 The crusaders
returned and founded
the Second Jerusalem
kingdom.
• They did not conquer
Jerusalem
• Acco was the Capital City.
The second Jerusalem
kingdom 1191 – 1291 BC
ACCO
Jerusalem
52

53. • Saladin founded the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt and
Syria. He defeated the Crusaders in 1187 AD. After
his death, the kingdom split between his heirs and
weakened.
• The Ayyubids used to buy Christian children in the
Caucasus and raise them as Muslims, trained them to
be soldiers and government officials. These children
were called Mamluks.
• In 1250, the Seventh Crusade arrived to conquer
Egypt. Ayubb, the Egyptian king died during the war
and his place was taken over the the Mamluks
officers who defended Egypt.
• The Mamluks beat the Mongols that invaded Land of
Israel in 1260 in a battle that took place in Izrael Vally53

54. Battle of Ein
Jalut 1260 AD
54

55. –the Mamluks1291
Moslems from Egypt
They destroyed the
Crusaders castles, converted
the Christian Churches into
Mosques.
Jerusalem became a City for
rich Mamluk retired leaders
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MamlukMamluk
Territory

56. The Ottomans (turkey) conquered land of Israel and
the middle east in 1516
Suleiman the Magnificent rebuilt the walls of
Jerusalem in 1538. Those walls still exist today.
The Ottomans Era 1516 - 1919
56

57. Jews retuned to
Jerusalem and built
the Jewish quarter in
18th – 20th century
The Old City was
divided into four
quarters
Jaffa Gate
Damascus
Gate
Christian
Armenian
Muslems
Jewish
Jerusalem in 19th 20th Century
57

58. • At the end of the 19th century the Jewish population in Israel was
about 25,000 people.
• The Jews in Israel were orthodox, they were Torah scholars, learning
Torah all day, supported by Jewish European communities, which sent
donations to maintain the “beit Midrash” and the “Talmid Haham”
that devoted their lives to Torah learning.
• Jews lived in Israel mostly in the Four Holy Cities: Hebron, Jerusalem,
Tiberia and Zfat. There were Jews in mixed and Arabic towns like
Jaffa, Ramlla, Acco.
Jews in Israel at the End of the
19th Century
58

59. Arabians in Israel at the End of the
19th century
• At the end of the 19th century there were about
200,000 Arabs in Israel, most of them in Gaza,
Hebron, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Schehm, Lud,
Ramlla, Haifa, Tiberias, Acco, Zefat and in
hundreds small villages.
• The Turkish governor was set in Jerusalem.
• Palestine was a part of the Damascus Turkish
district.
• The Suez canal was founded in 1868, and the
Britain conquered Egypt in 1882.59

60. Jews Migration to Israel
• The first migration of Jews to Israel was In 1882,
after the anti Semitic pogroms in south of
Russia (Ukraine). 25,000 Jews migrated to Israel,
most of them orthodox. They settled in
Hebron, Jerusalem, Tiberias and Zefat.
• The second wave of 25,000 Jews arrived in 1904
because of anti-Semitic prosecution. Most of
them were orthodox but some were young,
broke, educated, holding socialistic ideology.
One of them was David Ben-Gurion.
60

61. World Zionist Organization - WZO
Founded in Basel, Swiss in 1897. Its
objective was: the creation of a Jewish
homeland in Palestine. The WZO act like
a virtual Jewish Government with foreign
office, operative office and a bank (called
Anglo-Palestine Bank). The WZO had two
lines of activities:
• Political activity: sought for an
international recognition in Palestine
as an homeland for Jews.
• Operational activity: Buying lands and
developing Jewish agriculture,
industry and education in Israel.
The WZO was financed by donations
collected from Jews all over the world.
“Dreyfus Affair” in 1894

62. Jews Developing Israel
During the years 1883 – 1920, Edmond de Rothschild,
a rich Jew from France, built 20 agricultural plantations
all over Israel in which he settled Jews who migrated
from Europe.
He invested in equipment, land developing, plants,
vineyards, and wineries.
In 1910 Tel Aviv was founded 2 Km north of Jaffa.
62

63. Ottoman Empire 1914
Ottoman Empire
17th century

64. • From 1516 to WW1 the Middle East was ruled by the
Ottomans. Land of Israel was part of Damascus and
Beirut counties. All the inhabitants of the region
were Ottoman subjects. Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon,
Palestine did not exist.
• During WW1 in 1916, the British and French formed
an agreement to divide the Ottoman Empire erea
among their allied - the Sykes Picot Agreement.
• Arab countries, as we know them today: Jordan, Iraq,
Syria, Lebanon, Israel were established only after
1922 as French and British colonies (Mandates).64

65. World War I in the Middle East
• Turkey was German ally, and attacked the Suez
Canal in 1915.
• The Ottoman failed to capture the Suez Canal,
and the British occupied the land of Israel in
1919
65

66. Sykes–Picot Agreement 1916
Partition of Middle East
During WW1 (1914 –
1919) the french,
British, and Russian
agreed on zones of
influence and control in
the middle east by the
Sykes–Picot Agreement
in 1916
66

67. Sykes–Picot Agreement 1916
Partition of Ottoman Empire
A
B

68. Belfour declaration
• Foreign Office,
November 2nd, 1917.
Dear Lord Rothschild,
I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's
Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish
Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by,
the Cabinet:
"His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in
Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their
best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being
clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice
the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in
Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any
other country".
I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the
knowledge of the Zionist Federation.
Yours sincerely
Arthur James Balfour
68 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Declaration

69. Causes for the Balfour Declaration
• Balfour, the Colonial Secretary, and the Prime
Minister were Christians who believed in the
return of the Jewish people to the Holly Land.
• The British believed that Jews have great
influence in U.S. and therefore they should
support them
• Jewish interests joined with British interests.
Britain prefer friendly Zionist entity in Israel,
close to the Suez Canal and close to sources of
oil.
69

70. Arabs help Britain in WW1
• During WW1 the Bedouin Arabs of the Saudi
Peninsula revolted against the Ottoman. Britain
encouraged the revolt (Lawrence of Arabia) led
by Sherif Husein Ben Ali.
• Britain exchanged diplomatic letters (McMahon
letters) causing the Arabians to believe they will
get a state if they helped Britain.
• The Bedouin fought a guerilla war against the
Ottomans keeping their army busy in guarding
Medina and the Hejaz railway.
70

71. Founding of the Jordanian and
Iraqi states
At the end of the war in 1922, Britain published the first “white
paper” about the Middle East in which they gave the land east
of the Jordan river to the Arabs. They helped the Arabs found
their states in the west: Jordan and Iraq.
The Jews who
expected to get a state
on both sides of the
Jordan river were
disappointed
71

72. The San Remo Conference
• In 1920, in a conference in San Remo Italy, the
allied states decided to distribute the Middle
East between France and England in
accordance with the Sykes-Picot Agreement.
• The Balfour Declaration was part of the
agreements reached in the San Remo
Conference and got an international
recognition.
• The Arabs denied the San Remo decisions.
72

73. The British Mandate
• In 1922, Britain got an official Mandate for
the Land of Israel from the League of Nations.
• The Balfour Declaration was part of the
Mandate script and It became an international
document and not just a British document.
• The Arabs denied the British colonization in
Palestine.
• The Jews welcomed Britain to the Middle East.
73

74. Great Arab Revolt 1936 – 1939
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Arab_Revolt
• The purpose of the uprising was to drive out
the British and the Jews from Israel. The revolt
started with a trading strike.
• Arab gunmen attacked British army
concentrations and Jewish communities.
• The British suppressed the rebellion with
brutal military action. Jews mainstream
leadership supported the British government
and asked for protection against Arab rioters.
74

75. Mosul–Haifa oil pipeline
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosul%E2%80%93Haifa_oil_pipeline
• The pipeline was
built by Britain in
1932- 1935.
• A refinery and
deep water port
were built in
Haifa
75

76. Jewish Migration after WW2
• After the World War II, Jewish refugees began to flow
to Israel. British, under Arab pressure, prevented the
entry of Jews to Israel.
• In 1945-1948 conflict developed between the Jews
on one side and the British and the Arabs other side
on the question of immigration of Jews to Israel.
• In 1946 the Jewish proposed division of the Land of
Israel (Two states solution).
• In 1947, the British announced their desire to end
their control in Israel.
76

77. • In Nov 29th 1947, The
United Nation decided on a
partition plain of Palestine
(Two states solution).
Jerusalem was defined as an
international zone.
• The Jews accepted the
partition plain. The Arabs
denied it. A war started.
1948- The Jewish
Independence war
77

78. • West Jerusalem became
the capital city of the
Israeli state.
• The Arabs hold the old
city. Jerusalem was
divided between the
state of Israel and the
Jordanian kingdom.
1948 – Israeli
independence
war
78

79. Jewish independent war
• In May 14th 1947 the Jews declared the Jewish
independent state in Israel.
• In May 15th four Arabian armies invaded Israel
(Egypt, Siria, Jordan, Iraq).
• In Jerusalem, the Jewish quarter in the old
Jerusalem was taken by the Jordanian army on
May 28th 1948
79

80. May 15
1948
Israel
declares
state.
Arab
armies
invade
Israel

81. Borders
after 1948
war
Green
Line
700,000
Arab
refugees
left Israel
to
Neighbors
countries
Partition
plan on
UN
Two
states
solution

82. • In June 1967, Egypt,
Jordan and Syria declared
war on Israel.
• The war ended after 6
days and the map of the
middle east was totally
changed
• Jerusalem was united
under Israeli flag and
stayed united until this
day
Six Days War
June 1967
82

84. 1973 war

85. Victory – Peace with Egypt March 1979
85

86. Temple Mount today
Temple Mount before 70BC

87. the situation today
Israel left Gaza in 2005, leaving the area under
Palestinian control. In 2007, elections were held in
Gaza and Hamas seized power. Hamas seeks to
conquer the territories of Israel and restore control of
the Land of Israel to the Arabs. The Gaza evacuation
was a test case of the Palestinian will for peace. Gaza
has become a focal point for launching rockets at
Israel.
People of Israel wants to evacuate the West Bank and
contain the two-state solution. The Palestinians do
not see the two states solution as the end of the
conflict and declare that after they establish a state in
West Bank and Gaza they will continue fighting to
bring back all refugees, who fled Israel in 1948, back
into Israel.
Israel cannot accept a situation in which the West
Bank will become hostile territory like in Gaza and is
forced to continue controlling the West Bank.

88. A history of Jerusalem
From the days of Abraham to the present
Rafael (Rafi) Plotnik - Mechanical Eng.
History fan - Licensed tour guide in Israel
rafiplotnik@gmail.com
88