More than eighty-five to ninety percentage of the diabetic patients are affected with diabetic retinopathy (DR) which is an eye disorder that leads to blindness. The computational techniques can support to detect the DR by using the retinal images. However, it is hard to measure the DR with the raw retinal image. This paper proposes an effective method for identification of DR from the retinal images. In this research work, initially the Weiner filter is used for preprocessing the raw retinal image. Then the preprocessed image is segmented using fuzzy c-mean technique. Then from the segmented image, the features are extracted using grey level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM). After extracting the fundus image, the feature selection is performed stochastic gradient descent, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) for accurate identification during the classification process. Then the inception v3-convolutional neural network (IV3-CNN) model is used in the classification process to classify the image as DR image or non-DR image. By applying the proposed method, the classification performance of IV3-CNN model in identifying DR is studied. Using the proposed method, the DR is identified with the accuracy of about 95%, and the processed retinal image is identified as mild DR.
ResNet-n/DR: Automated diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy using a residual neu...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a progressive eye disease associated with diabetes, resulting in blindness or blurred vision. The risk of vision loss was dramatically decreased with early diagnosis and treatment. Doctors diagnose DR by examining the fundus retinal images to develop lesions associated with the disease. However, this diagnosis is a tedious and challenging task due to growing undiagnosed and untreated DR cases and the variability of retinal changes across disease stages. Manually analyzing the images has become an expensive and time-consuming task, not to mention that training new specialists takes time and requires daily practice. Our work investigates deep learning methods, particularly convolutional neural network (CNN), for DR diagnosis in the disease’s five stages. A pre-trained residual neural network (ResNet-34) was trained and tested for DR. Then, we develop computationally efficient and scalable methods after modifying a ResNet-34 with three additional residual units as a novel ResNet-n/DR. The Asia Pacific Tele-Ophthalmology Society (APTOS) 2019 dataset was used to evaluate the performance of models after applying multiple pre-processing steps to eliminate image noise and improve color contrast, thereby increasing efficiency. Our findings achieved state-of-the-art results compared to previous studies that used the same dataset. It had 90.7% sensitivity, 93.5% accuracy, 98.2% specificity, 89.5% precision, and 90.1% F1 score.
A Novel Approach for Diabetic Retinopthy ClassificationIJERA Editor
Sustainable Diabetic Mellitus may lead to several complications towards patients. One of the complications is
diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy is the type of complication towards the retinal and interferes with
patient’s sight. Medical examination toward patients with diabetic retinopathy is observed directly through
retinal images using fundus camera. Diabetic retinopathy is classified into four classes based on severity, which
are: normal, non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), and
macular edema (ME). The aim of this research is to develop a method which can be used to classify the level of
severity of diabetic retinopathy based on patient’s retinal images. Seven texture features were extracted from
retinal images using gray level co-occurence matrix three dimensional method (3D-GLCM). These features are
maximum probability, correlation, contrast, energy, homogeneity, and entropy; subsequently trained using
Levenberg-Marquardt Backpropagation Neural Network (LMBP). This study used 600 data of patient’s retinal
images, consist of 450 data retinal images for training and 150 data retinal images for testing. Based on the result
of this test, the method can classify the severity of diabetic retinopathy with sensitivity of 97.37%, specificity of
75% and accuracy of 91.67%
Discovering Abnormal Patches and Transformations of Diabetics Retinopathy in ...cscpconf
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.
Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to
screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of
well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a
big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy
severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images
in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,
and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used
for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
DISCOVERING ABNORMAL PATCHES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF DIABETICS RETINOPATHY IN ...csandit
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
An improved dynamic-layered classification of retinal diseasesIAESIJAI
Retina is main part of the human eye and every disease shows the effect on retina. Eye diseases such as choroidal neovascularization (CNV), DRUSEN, diabetic macular edema (DME) are the main retinal diseases that damage the retina and if these damages are identified in the later stages, it is very difficult to reverse the vision for these retinal diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-nosy image testing for finding the retinal diseases. OCT mainly collects the cross-section images of retina. Deep learning (DL) is used to analyze the patterns in several complex research applications especially in the disease prediction. In DL, multiple layers give the accurate detection of abnormalities in the retinal images. In this paper, an improved dynamic-layered classification (IDLC) is introduced to classify retinal diseases based on their abnormality. Image filters are used to filter the noise present in the input images. ResNet is the pre-trained model which is used to train the features of retinal diseases. Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are the DL model used to analyze the OCT image. The dataset consists of three types of OCT disease datasets from Kaggle. Evaluation results show the performance of IDLC compared with state-of-art algorithms. A better performance is obtained by using the IDLC and achieved the better accuracy.
ResNet-n/DR: Automated diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy using a residual neu...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a progressive eye disease associated with diabetes, resulting in blindness or blurred vision. The risk of vision loss was dramatically decreased with early diagnosis and treatment. Doctors diagnose DR by examining the fundus retinal images to develop lesions associated with the disease. However, this diagnosis is a tedious and challenging task due to growing undiagnosed and untreated DR cases and the variability of retinal changes across disease stages. Manually analyzing the images has become an expensive and time-consuming task, not to mention that training new specialists takes time and requires daily practice. Our work investigates deep learning methods, particularly convolutional neural network (CNN), for DR diagnosis in the disease’s five stages. A pre-trained residual neural network (ResNet-34) was trained and tested for DR. Then, we develop computationally efficient and scalable methods after modifying a ResNet-34 with three additional residual units as a novel ResNet-n/DR. The Asia Pacific Tele-Ophthalmology Society (APTOS) 2019 dataset was used to evaluate the performance of models after applying multiple pre-processing steps to eliminate image noise and improve color contrast, thereby increasing efficiency. Our findings achieved state-of-the-art results compared to previous studies that used the same dataset. It had 90.7% sensitivity, 93.5% accuracy, 98.2% specificity, 89.5% precision, and 90.1% F1 score.
A Novel Approach for Diabetic Retinopthy ClassificationIJERA Editor
Sustainable Diabetic Mellitus may lead to several complications towards patients. One of the complications is
diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy is the type of complication towards the retinal and interferes with
patient’s sight. Medical examination toward patients with diabetic retinopathy is observed directly through
retinal images using fundus camera. Diabetic retinopathy is classified into four classes based on severity, which
are: normal, non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), and
macular edema (ME). The aim of this research is to develop a method which can be used to classify the level of
severity of diabetic retinopathy based on patient’s retinal images. Seven texture features were extracted from
retinal images using gray level co-occurence matrix three dimensional method (3D-GLCM). These features are
maximum probability, correlation, contrast, energy, homogeneity, and entropy; subsequently trained using
Levenberg-Marquardt Backpropagation Neural Network (LMBP). This study used 600 data of patient’s retinal
images, consist of 450 data retinal images for training and 150 data retinal images for testing. Based on the result
of this test, the method can classify the severity of diabetic retinopathy with sensitivity of 97.37%, specificity of
75% and accuracy of 91.67%
Discovering Abnormal Patches and Transformations of Diabetics Retinopathy in ...cscpconf
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.
Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to
screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of
well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a
big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy
severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images
in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,
and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used
for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
DISCOVERING ABNORMAL PATCHES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF DIABETICS RETINOPATHY IN ...csandit
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the retinal diseases due to long-term effect of diabetes.Early detection for diabetic retinopathy is crucial since timely treatment can prevent
progressive loss of vision. The most common diagnosis technique of diabetic retinopathy is to screen abnormalities through retinal fundus images by clinicians. However, limited number of well-trained clinicians increase the possibilities of misdiagnosing. In this work, we propose a big-data-driven automatic computer-aided diagnosing (CAD) system for diabetic retinopathy severity regression based on transfer learning, which starts from a deep convolutional neural
network pre-trained on generic images, and adapts it to large-scale DR datasets. From images in the training set, we also automatically segment the abnormal patches with an occlusion test,and model the transformations and deterioration process of DR. Our results can be widely used for fast diagnosis of DR, medical education and public-level healthcare propagation.
An improved dynamic-layered classification of retinal diseasesIAESIJAI
Retina is main part of the human eye and every disease shows the effect on retina. Eye diseases such as choroidal neovascularization (CNV), DRUSEN, diabetic macular edema (DME) are the main retinal diseases that damage the retina and if these damages are identified in the later stages, it is very difficult to reverse the vision for these retinal diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-nosy image testing for finding the retinal diseases. OCT mainly collects the cross-section images of retina. Deep learning (DL) is used to analyze the patterns in several complex research applications especially in the disease prediction. In DL, multiple layers give the accurate detection of abnormalities in the retinal images. In this paper, an improved dynamic-layered classification (IDLC) is introduced to classify retinal diseases based on their abnormality. Image filters are used to filter the noise present in the input images. ResNet is the pre-trained model which is used to train the features of retinal diseases. Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are the DL model used to analyze the OCT image. The dataset consists of three types of OCT disease datasets from Kaggle. Evaluation results show the performance of IDLC compared with state-of-art algorithms. A better performance is obtained by using the IDLC and achieved the better accuracy.
Rapid detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal images: a new approach usi...IJECEIAES
The challenge of early detection of diabetic retinopathy (DR), a leading cause of vision loss in working-age individuals in developed nations, was addressed in this study. Current manual analysis of digital color fundus photographs by clinicians, although thorough, suffers from slow result turnaround, delaying necessary treatment. To expedite detection and improve treatment timeliness, a novel automated detection system for DR was developed. This system utilized convolutional neural networks. Visual geometry group 16-layer network (VGG16), a pre-trained deep learning model, for feature extraction from retinal images and the synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) to handle class imbalance in the dataset. The system was designed to classify images into five categories: normal, mild DR, moderate DR, severe DR, and proliferative DR (PDR). Assessment of the system using the Kaggle diabetic retinopathy dataset resulted in a promising 93.94% accuracy during the training phase and 88.19% during validation. These results highlight the system's potential to enhance DR diagnosis speed and efficiency, leading to improved patient outcomes. The study concluded that automation and artificial intelligence (AI) could play a significant role in timely and efficient disease detection and management.
Social media marketing (SMM) is a form of digital marketing that utilizes social media platforms to promote products, services, or brands. The goal of social media marketing is to connect with the target audience, build brand awareness, increase website traffic, and drive engagement and conversions. Here are some key aspects of social media marketing:
Strategy Development:
Identify your target audience: Understand the demographics, interests, and online behavior of your target audience.
Set clear goals: Define specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals for your social media campaigns.
Choose the right platforms: Select social media platforms that align with your target audience and business objectives.
Content Creation:
Create engaging content: Develop content that resonates with your audience, such as images, videos, infographics, and text posts.
Maintain consistency: Establish a consistent posting schedule to keep your audience engaged and informed.
Use a variety of content types: Experiment with different content formats to keep your social media presence diverse and interesting.
Audience Engagement:
Respond to comments and messages: Engage with your audience by responding to comments, messages, and mentions in a timely manner.
Encourage user-generated content: Encourage your followers to create and share content related to your brand.
Run contests and giveaways: Organize contests or giveaways to boost engagement and attract new followers.
Paid Advertising:
Utilize paid social media advertising: Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn offer advertising options to reach a larger audience.
Targeted advertising: Use advanced targeting options to reach specific demographics, interests, and behaviors.
Analytics and Monitoring:
Use analytics tools: Monitor the performance of your social media campaigns using analytics tools provided by the platforms or third-party tools.
Adjust strategies based on data: Analyze the data and adjust your strategies to optimize performance and achieve better results.
Influencer Marketing:
Collaborate with influencers: Partner with influencers who align with your brand to reach a wider audience and build credibility.
Leverage user trust: Influencers can help establish trust with their followers, leading to increased brand credibility.
Social Media Trends:
Stay updated: Keep track of emerging trends in social media marketing and adapt your strategies accordingly.
Experiment with new features: Platforms regularly introduce new features; experiment with these features to stay ahead of the curve.
Remember that effective social media marketing requires a consistent and strategic approach. Regularly assess your performance, listen to your audience, and adjust your strategies to meet your goals.
An effective feature selection using improved marine predators algorithm for ...IJECEIAES
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irremediable neurodegenerative illness developed by the fast deterioration of brain cells. AD is mostly common in elder people and it extremely disturbs the physical and mental health of patients, therefore early detection is essential to prevent AD development. However, the precise detection of AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is difficult during classification. In this paper, the Residual network i.e., ResNet-18 is used for extracting the features, and the proposed improved marine predators algorithm (IMPA) is developed for choosing the optimum features to perform an effective classification of AD. The multi-verse optimizer (MVO) used in the IMPA helps to balance exploration and exploitation, which leads to the selection of optimal relevant features. Further, the classification of AD is accomplished using the multiclass support vector machine (MSVM). Open access series of imaging studies-1 (OASIS-1) and Alzheimer disease neuroimaging initiative (ADNI) datasets are used to evaluate the IMPA-MSVM method. The performance of the IMPA-MSVM method is analyzed using accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and matthews correlation coefficient (MCC). The existing methods such as the deep learning-based segmenting method using SegNet (DLSS), mish activation function (MAF) with spatial transformer network (STN) and BrainNet2D are used to evaluate the IMPA-MSVM method. The accuracy of IMPA-MSVM for the ADNI dataset is 98.43% which is more when compared to the DLSS and MAF-STN.
Automatic Detection of Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy Using Fundus Im...iosrjce
To diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) it is the prime cause of blindness in the working age
population of the world. Detection method is proposed to detect dark or red lesions such as microaneurysms
and hemorrhages in fundus images.Developed during this work, this first is for collection of lesion data
information and was used by the ophthalmologist in marking images for database while the automatic
diagnosing and displaying the diagnosis result in a more friendly user interface and is as shown in chapter
three of this report. The primary aim of this project is to develop a system that will be able to identify patients
with BDR and PDR from either colour image or grey level image obtained from the retina of the patient. The
algorithm was tested fundus images. The Operating Characteristics (ROC) was determined for red spot lesion
and bleeding, while cross over points were only detected leaving further classification as part of future work
needed to complete this global project. Sensitivity and specificity was calculated for the algorithm is given
respectively as 96.3% and 95.1%
An Efficient Integrated Approach for the Detection of Exudates and Diabetic M...acijjournal
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is a major cause of blindness. Exudates are one of the primary signs of diabetic retinopathy which is a main cause of blindness that could be prevented with an early screening process In this approach, the process and knowledge of digital image processing to diagnose exudates
from images of retina is applied. An automated method to detect and localize the presence of exudates and Maculopathy from low-contrast digital images of Retinopathy patient’s with non-dilated pupils is proposed. First, the image is segmented using colour K-means Clustering algorithm. The segmented image along with Optic Disc (OD) is chosen. To Classify these segmented region, features based on colour and texture are extracted. The selected feature vector are then classified into exudates and nonexudates using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier. Also the detection of Diabetic Maculopathy,
which is the severe stage of Diabetic Retinopathy is performed using Morphological Operation. Using a clinical reference standard, images with exudates were detected with 96% success rate. This method appears promising as it can detect the very small areas of exudates.
Fundus Image Classification Using Two Dimensional Linear Discriminant Analysi...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
It is constructed in this study a classification system of diabetic retinopathy fundus image. The system consists of two phases: training and testing. Each stage consists of preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction and classification. The tested image comes from the MESSIDOR dataset which has a total of 100 images. The number of classes to be classified consists of four classes with each class consists of 25 images. The classes are normal, mild, moderate and severe of Diabetic retinopathy. In this study, the level of preprocessing uses grayscales green channel, Wavelet Haar, Gaussian filter and Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization. The level of segmentation uses masking as a process of doing the subtracting operation of between the original image and the masking image. The purpose of the masking is to split between the object and the background. The feature extraction uses Two Dimensional Linear Discriminant Analysis (2DLDA). The classification uses Support Vector Machine (SVM). The test results of some scenarios show that the highest percentage of accuration of the system is up to 90%.
In this project, we propose a new novel DNN-based automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy. In deep neural networks are used for classify the images that indicate diabetic retinopathy. The main aim of this project is to find the suitable way to detect the problems and classify them. We propose an deep neural network (RBFNN) classifier gives high precision in grouping of these disease through spatial examination. The RBFNN classifier does not require an large training time, therefore the model production can be expedited. We further find from our data set of 80,000 images used in our proposed RBFNN achieves a sensitivity of 95% and an accuracy of 75% on 5000 validation images. The fuzzy c means clustering is used to store the information as the processed images in this project . Finally, the proposed system is developed using matlab simulation.
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common causes of blindness. The necessity for a robust and automated DR screening system for regular examination has long been recognized in order to identify DR at an early stage. In this paper, an embedded DR diagnosis system based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been proposed to assess the proper stage of DR. We coupled the power of CNN with transfer learning to design our model based on state-of-the-art architecture. We preprocessed the input data, which is color fundus photography, to reduce undesirable noise in the image. After training many models on the dataset, we chose the adopted ResNet50 because it produced the best results, with a 92.90% accuracy. Extensive experiments and comparisons with other research work show that the proposed method is effective. Furthermore, the CNN model has been implemented on an embedded target to be a part of a medical instrument diagnostic system. We have accelerated our model inference on a field programmable gate array (FPGA) using Xilinx tools. Results have confirmed that a customized FPGA system on chip (SoC) with hardware accelerators is a promising target for our DR detection model with high performance and low power consumption.
A Novel Advanced Approach Using Morphological Image Processing Technique for ...CSCJournals
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus and can lead to irreversible blindness. To date, DR is the leading cause of blindness and visual impairment among working adults globally. However, this blindness can be prevented if DR is detected early. Diabetes mellitus slowly affects the retina by damaging retinal blood vessels and leading to microaneurysms. The retinal images give detailed information about the health status of the visual system. Analysis of retinal image is important for an understanding of the stages of Diabetic retinopathy. Microaneurysms observed that appear in retina images, usually, the initial visible sign of DR, if detected early and properly treated can prevent DR complications, including blindness. In this research work, an advanced image modal enhancement comprises of a Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE), through morphological image, processing technique with final extraction algorithm is proposed. CLAHE is responsible for the detection, and removal of the retinal optical disk. While the microaneurysm initial indicators are detected by using morphological image processing techniques. The extensive evaluation of the proposed advanced model conducted for microaneurysm detection depicts all stages of DR with an increase in the number of data set related to noise in the image. The microaneurysms noise is associated with stage of retina diseases as well as its early possible diagnosis. Evaluation is also conducted against the proposed model to measure its performance in terms of accuracy, sensitivity as well as specificity in real-time. The results show the test image attained 99.7% accuracy for a real-time database that is better compared with anty colony-based method. A sensitivity of 81% with a specificity of 90% was achieved for the detection of microaneurysms for the e-optha database. The detection of several microaneurysms correlates with stages of DR that prove an analysis of detecting its different stages. As well as it reaches our goal of early detection of DR with high performance in accuracy.
Development of depth map from stereo images using sum of absolute differences...nooriasukmaningtyas
This article proposes a framework for the depth map reconstruction using stereo images. Fundamentally, this map provides an important information which commonly used in essential applications such as autonomous vehicle navigation, drone’s navigation and 3D surface reconstruction. To develop an accurate depth map, the framework must be robust against the challenging regions of low texture, plain color and repetitive pattern on the input stereo image. The development of this map requires several stages which starts with matching cost calculation, cost aggregation, optimization and refinement stage. Hence, this work develops a framework with sum of absolute difference (SAD) and the combination of two edge preserving filters to increase the robustness against the challenging regions. The SAD convolves using block matching technique to increase the efficiency of matching process on the low texture and plain color regions. Moreover, two edge preserving filters will increase the accuracy on the repetitive pattern region. The results show that the proposed method is accurate and capable to work with the challenging regions. The results are provided by the Middlebury standard dataset. The framework is also efficiently and can be applied on the 3D surface reconstruction. Moreover, this work is greatly competitive with previously available methods.
Model predictive controller for a retrofitted heat exchanger temperature cont...nooriasukmaningtyas
This paper aims to demonstrate the practical aspects of process control theory for undergraduate students at the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Bahrain. Both, the ubiquitous proportional integral derivative (PID) as well as model predictive control (MPC) and their auxiliaries were designed and implemented in a real-time framework. The latter was realized through retrofitting an existing plate-and-frame heat exchanger unit that has been operated using an analog PID temperature controller. The upgraded control system consists of a personal computer (PC), low-cost signal conditioning circuit, national instruments USB 6008 data acquisition card, and LabVIEW software. LabVIEW control design and simulation modules were used to design and implement the PID and MPC controllers. The performance of the designed controllers was evaluated while controlling the outlet temperature of the retrofitted plate-and-frame heat exchanger. The distinguished feature of the MPC controller in handling input and output constraints was perceived in real-time. From a pedagogical point of view, realizing the theory of process control through practical implementation was substantial in enhancing the student’s learning and the instructor’s teaching experience.
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Rapid detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal images: a new approach usi...IJECEIAES
The challenge of early detection of diabetic retinopathy (DR), a leading cause of vision loss in working-age individuals in developed nations, was addressed in this study. Current manual analysis of digital color fundus photographs by clinicians, although thorough, suffers from slow result turnaround, delaying necessary treatment. To expedite detection and improve treatment timeliness, a novel automated detection system for DR was developed. This system utilized convolutional neural networks. Visual geometry group 16-layer network (VGG16), a pre-trained deep learning model, for feature extraction from retinal images and the synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) to handle class imbalance in the dataset. The system was designed to classify images into five categories: normal, mild DR, moderate DR, severe DR, and proliferative DR (PDR). Assessment of the system using the Kaggle diabetic retinopathy dataset resulted in a promising 93.94% accuracy during the training phase and 88.19% during validation. These results highlight the system's potential to enhance DR diagnosis speed and efficiency, leading to improved patient outcomes. The study concluded that automation and artificial intelligence (AI) could play a significant role in timely and efficient disease detection and management.
Social media marketing (SMM) is a form of digital marketing that utilizes social media platforms to promote products, services, or brands. The goal of social media marketing is to connect with the target audience, build brand awareness, increase website traffic, and drive engagement and conversions. Here are some key aspects of social media marketing:
Strategy Development:
Identify your target audience: Understand the demographics, interests, and online behavior of your target audience.
Set clear goals: Define specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals for your social media campaigns.
Choose the right platforms: Select social media platforms that align with your target audience and business objectives.
Content Creation:
Create engaging content: Develop content that resonates with your audience, such as images, videos, infographics, and text posts.
Maintain consistency: Establish a consistent posting schedule to keep your audience engaged and informed.
Use a variety of content types: Experiment with different content formats to keep your social media presence diverse and interesting.
Audience Engagement:
Respond to comments and messages: Engage with your audience by responding to comments, messages, and mentions in a timely manner.
Encourage user-generated content: Encourage your followers to create and share content related to your brand.
Run contests and giveaways: Organize contests or giveaways to boost engagement and attract new followers.
Paid Advertising:
Utilize paid social media advertising: Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn offer advertising options to reach a larger audience.
Targeted advertising: Use advanced targeting options to reach specific demographics, interests, and behaviors.
Analytics and Monitoring:
Use analytics tools: Monitor the performance of your social media campaigns using analytics tools provided by the platforms or third-party tools.
Adjust strategies based on data: Analyze the data and adjust your strategies to optimize performance and achieve better results.
Influencer Marketing:
Collaborate with influencers: Partner with influencers who align with your brand to reach a wider audience and build credibility.
Leverage user trust: Influencers can help establish trust with their followers, leading to increased brand credibility.
Social Media Trends:
Stay updated: Keep track of emerging trends in social media marketing and adapt your strategies accordingly.
Experiment with new features: Platforms regularly introduce new features; experiment with these features to stay ahead of the curve.
Remember that effective social media marketing requires a consistent and strategic approach. Regularly assess your performance, listen to your audience, and adjust your strategies to meet your goals.
An effective feature selection using improved marine predators algorithm for ...IJECEIAES
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irremediable neurodegenerative illness developed by the fast deterioration of brain cells. AD is mostly common in elder people and it extremely disturbs the physical and mental health of patients, therefore early detection is essential to prevent AD development. However, the precise detection of AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is difficult during classification. In this paper, the Residual network i.e., ResNet-18 is used for extracting the features, and the proposed improved marine predators algorithm (IMPA) is developed for choosing the optimum features to perform an effective classification of AD. The multi-verse optimizer (MVO) used in the IMPA helps to balance exploration and exploitation, which leads to the selection of optimal relevant features. Further, the classification of AD is accomplished using the multiclass support vector machine (MSVM). Open access series of imaging studies-1 (OASIS-1) and Alzheimer disease neuroimaging initiative (ADNI) datasets are used to evaluate the IMPA-MSVM method. The performance of the IMPA-MSVM method is analyzed using accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and matthews correlation coefficient (MCC). The existing methods such as the deep learning-based segmenting method using SegNet (DLSS), mish activation function (MAF) with spatial transformer network (STN) and BrainNet2D are used to evaluate the IMPA-MSVM method. The accuracy of IMPA-MSVM for the ADNI dataset is 98.43% which is more when compared to the DLSS and MAF-STN.
Automatic Detection of Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy Using Fundus Im...iosrjce
To diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) it is the prime cause of blindness in the working age
population of the world. Detection method is proposed to detect dark or red lesions such as microaneurysms
and hemorrhages in fundus images.Developed during this work, this first is for collection of lesion data
information and was used by the ophthalmologist in marking images for database while the automatic
diagnosing and displaying the diagnosis result in a more friendly user interface and is as shown in chapter
three of this report. The primary aim of this project is to develop a system that will be able to identify patients
with BDR and PDR from either colour image or grey level image obtained from the retina of the patient. The
algorithm was tested fundus images. The Operating Characteristics (ROC) was determined for red spot lesion
and bleeding, while cross over points were only detected leaving further classification as part of future work
needed to complete this global project. Sensitivity and specificity was calculated for the algorithm is given
respectively as 96.3% and 95.1%
An Efficient Integrated Approach for the Detection of Exudates and Diabetic M...acijjournal
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is a major cause of blindness. Exudates are one of the primary signs of diabetic retinopathy which is a main cause of blindness that could be prevented with an early screening process In this approach, the process and knowledge of digital image processing to diagnose exudates
from images of retina is applied. An automated method to detect and localize the presence of exudates and Maculopathy from low-contrast digital images of Retinopathy patient’s with non-dilated pupils is proposed. First, the image is segmented using colour K-means Clustering algorithm. The segmented image along with Optic Disc (OD) is chosen. To Classify these segmented region, features based on colour and texture are extracted. The selected feature vector are then classified into exudates and nonexudates using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier. Also the detection of Diabetic Maculopathy,
which is the severe stage of Diabetic Retinopathy is performed using Morphological Operation. Using a clinical reference standard, images with exudates were detected with 96% success rate. This method appears promising as it can detect the very small areas of exudates.
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Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common causes of blindness. The necessity for a robust and automated DR screening system for regular examination has long been recognized in order to identify DR at an early stage. In this paper, an embedded DR diagnosis system based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been proposed to assess the proper stage of DR. We coupled the power of CNN with transfer learning to design our model based on state-of-the-art architecture. We preprocessed the input data, which is color fundus photography, to reduce undesirable noise in the image. After training many models on the dataset, we chose the adopted ResNet50 because it produced the best results, with a 92.90% accuracy. Extensive experiments and comparisons with other research work show that the proposed method is effective. Furthermore, the CNN model has been implemented on an embedded target to be a part of a medical instrument diagnostic system. We have accelerated our model inference on a field programmable gate array (FPGA) using Xilinx tools. Results have confirmed that a customized FPGA system on chip (SoC) with hardware accelerators is a promising target for our DR detection model with high performance and low power consumption.
A Novel Advanced Approach Using Morphological Image Processing Technique for ...CSCJournals
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus and can lead to irreversible blindness. To date, DR is the leading cause of blindness and visual impairment among working adults globally. However, this blindness can be prevented if DR is detected early. Diabetes mellitus slowly affects the retina by damaging retinal blood vessels and leading to microaneurysms. The retinal images give detailed information about the health status of the visual system. Analysis of retinal image is important for an understanding of the stages of Diabetic retinopathy. Microaneurysms observed that appear in retina images, usually, the initial visible sign of DR, if detected early and properly treated can prevent DR complications, including blindness. In this research work, an advanced image modal enhancement comprises of a Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE), through morphological image, processing technique with final extraction algorithm is proposed. CLAHE is responsible for the detection, and removal of the retinal optical disk. While the microaneurysm initial indicators are detected by using morphological image processing techniques. The extensive evaluation of the proposed advanced model conducted for microaneurysm detection depicts all stages of DR with an increase in the number of data set related to noise in the image. The microaneurysms noise is associated with stage of retina diseases as well as its early possible diagnosis. Evaluation is also conducted against the proposed model to measure its performance in terms of accuracy, sensitivity as well as specificity in real-time. The results show the test image attained 99.7% accuracy for a real-time database that is better compared with anty colony-based method. A sensitivity of 81% with a specificity of 90% was achieved for the detection of microaneurysms for the e-optha database. The detection of several microaneurysms correlates with stages of DR that prove an analysis of detecting its different stages. As well as it reaches our goal of early detection of DR with high performance in accuracy.
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A deep learning approach based on stochastic gradient descent and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator for identifying diabetic retinopathy
1. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Vol. 25, No. 1, January 2022, pp. 589~600
ISSN: 2502-4752, DOI: 10.11591/ijeecs.v25.i1.pp589-600 589
Journal homepage: http://ijeecs.iaescore.com
A deep learning approach based on stochastic gradient descent
and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator for
identifying diabetic retinopathy
Thirumalaimuthu Thirumalaiappan Ramanathan1
, Md. Jakir Hossen2
, Md. Shohel Sayeed1
,
Joseph Emerson Raja2
1
Faculty of Information Science and Technology (FIST), Multimedia University (MMU), Melaka, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), Multimedia University (MMU), Melaka, Malaysia
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Jul 10, 2021
Revised Nov 25, 2021
Accepted Dec 2, 2021
More than eighty-five to ninety percentage of the diabetic patients are
affected with diabetic retinopathy (DR) which is an eye disorder that leads to
blindness. The computational techniques can support to detect the DR by
using the retinal images. However, it is hard to measure the DR with the raw
retinal image. This paper proposes an effective method for identification of
DR from the retinal images. In this research work, initially the Weiner filter
is used for preprocessing the raw retinal image. Then the preprocessed image
is segmented using fuzzy c-mean technique. Then from the segmented
image, the features are extracted using grey level co-occurrence matrix
(GLCM). After extracting the fundus image, the feature selection is
performed stochastic gradient descent, and least absolute shrinkage and
selection operator (LASSO) for accurate identification during the
classification process. Then the inception v3-convolutional neural network
(IV3-CNN) model is used in the classification process to classify the image
as DR image or non-DR image. By applying the proposed method, the
classification performance of IV3-CNN model in identifying DR is studied.
Using the proposed method, the DR is identified with the accuracy of about
95%, and the processed retinal image is identified as mild DR.
Keywords:
Deep neural network
Diabetic retinopathy
LASSO
Stochastic gradient descent
Weiner filter
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Md. Jakir Hossen
Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET), Multimedia University (MMU)
Melaka, Malaysia
Email: jakir.hossen@mmu.edu.my
1. INTRODUCTION
The artificial intelligence techniques are widely used for classification and prediction in many
applications [1]-[5]. In medical diagnosis, the deep learning models are becoming more popular for
identifying various diseases [6], [7]. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the serious eye diseases which needs
to be accurately identified. The deficiency of insulin or incomplete activity of insulin causes diabetes mellitus
which is a sugar metabolism disorder, and it is identified by increased glucose level in the blood. This
increased blood glucose level damages the blood vessels through which the blood is carried to all organs of
the body and results in DR. The effect of DR is increased as per the time and ends with visual blindness. The
accurate and efficient functional enhancement of diabetic retinopathy can be analyzed by DR computer aided
diagnosis (CAD) [8] system. Thus, the diabetic retinopathy blindness can be rectified if it is detected early
and automated DR screening [9] is used for accuracy and complex tasks. To identify diabetic retinopathy
issues, blood vessels from the retina should be extracted and this extraction can be performed by matched
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filter and Laplacian of Gaussian filter [10]. The pixel level analysis can be done by multiple instance learning
(MIL) [11] at each level of image interpretation for accurate detection of DR lesions. For better identification
of DR, the pattern classification can be performed by Micro-aneurysms [12] for classifying the changed and
unchanged retinal areas.
The early detection of DR is hard, and it consumes more time for diagnosis. However, the referable
DR can be diagnosed by classifying colored retinal image with the combination of CAD and deep learning
algorithm [13]. The automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy from different classes of retinal images with
improved features and stage classifications can be performed by convolutional neural network (CNN) [14], [15].
The convolution of irrelevant data is improved when the CNN is applied to one-dimension data set. The DR
can be detected quickly by using the data from electronic health record [16] and thus the machine learning
models are used with these data to obtain better accuracy. The automatic diagnosis and appropriate
implication for DR is obtained by deep neural network [17] with data set of fundus DR image. The CAD is
used to diagnose DR medical image data; however, the decision making is difficult and to improve the
decision making of DR image, the class-enhanced attentive response discovery radiomics (CLEAR-DR) [18]
is utilized. The analysis of medical image with low latency and performance of the segmentation can be
improved by combining CNN with both deep learning and graphics processing unit [19]. Thus, the features
and dependence of DR can be selectively achieved by cross-disease attention network [20], and this network
is used only for image level observation. While detecting diabetic retinopathy medical image, it conveys the
non-DR lesion as DR lesions. To compensate this medical image identification, the method based on
neovessel like structures [21] can be used where the pre-existent image of retina is provided. Manually DR
can be detected by analyzing the fundus retinal image which requires more time, and it is very complex to
execute. However, in traditional approach the artificial intelligence [22] is utilized which play a major role in
identifying DR at its early stage.
The quantitative tool that is used for identifying diabetic retinopathy is given by generating region
of interest [23]; with this the images are reconstructed and then the histogram and clustering is obtained for
DR image. To equalize the intensity and for improving the quality of image contrast, limited adaptive
histogram equalization [24] is utilized; with this method DR image efficiency is uniform and intensity of
retinal damage is improved. From the obtained uniform image, classification is performed by dividing large
data set into smaller data set and to attain better accuracy level, deep CNN [25] is employed. Thus, the CNN
is optimized for developing optical coherence tomography [26] and by extracting the retinal image, the
performance is improved. It is necessary to classify DR image as per its severity and this severity-based
classification can be performed by hyper parameter tuning inception-V4 [27], for identifying its intensity
more accurately. However, diabetic eye disease known to be diabetic retinopathy is detected by evaluating
the following aspects like available dataset, image processing techniques, deep learning models and then by
its performance [28]. The performance and features of DR image can be extracted by using anisotropic dual-
tree complex wavelet transform [29]; with this, the DR medical image is obtained. The spatial representation
of DR lesions can be obtained by multispectral imaging [30] in which the structure and thickness of retina is
distinguished. The interior lesions of DR can be identified by employing MIL [31] which is better for
irregular lesions of DR. However, the morphological variations or its complication also leads to the
development of DR [32], further these techniques do not overcome diabetic risk factors and complications.
This paper proposes a method to explore suitable features for classifying DR image based on its
severity level. The accuracy of DR image classification is improved by undergoing several steps where it is
initiated with preprocessing technique and ends with classification process. Here, classification is performed
by inception V3- CNN (IV3-CNN) to obtain better accuracy. The rest of this paper is structured as follows:
the function of the entire proposed method is given in section 2. The result and performance analysis of this
proposed method is given in section 3 and our proposed method is concluded in section 4.
2. THE PROPOSED METHOD
The aim of the proposed method is to detect DR. Figure 1 shows architecture of the proposed
method. According to the proposed method, initially the preprocessing is performed to convert red-green-
blue (RGB) image of DR into grey image and the noise present in the image is removed. This pre-processed
image is segmented and then features of DR are classified, through this severity level of DR is obtained by
following various classification levels. Here, IV3-CNN classifier is employed to perform the classification
process. For accurate determination of DR, the input retinal image is passed through the following five steps.
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2.1. Preprocessing
The initial stage at each image processing technique is the preprocessing and enhancement; with this
the suspicious region in fundus image is detected. The removal of noise and edge reduction is performed by
the preprocessing method. Here, the Weiner filter is utilized. This filter contains various advantages like edge
enhancement and noise reduction. By this filter, the RGB image is converted into grey image to perform
computation accurately. The Weiner filter is one of the low-pass filters and it is based on a statistical
approach where the signal and noise are assumed with spectral characteristics. This filter is registered in
various context for reestablishing noise degraded signal and based on the performance, the Weiner filter is
said to be superior. However, the Weiner filter is also said as an adaptive filter as it evaluates mean and
variance of neighboring at the situation in which the variation is maximum then the applied smoothing is
minimum, likewise when the variation is low then the applied smoothing is high.
Figure 1. Architecture of the proposed method
The error that occurs in between the estimated signal and original signal is minimized by the Weiner
filter. Here, the uncorrupted fundus image is represented as f, the estimated fundus image is given as 𝑓
̂, and
thus the error is measured as (1):
𝑒2
= 𝐸{(𝑓 − 𝑓
̂)2} (1)
Here, the value for argument is given by E{.}. The chance for obtaining is reduced by minimum quadratic
error function. To accomplish this, the frequency domain is employed, and the following speculation is done;
noise and image contains zero mean, and the linear functions are used to degrade the level of intensity in the
estimated image. The minimum error is illustrated by following these conditions as (2):
𝐹
̂(𝑢, 𝑣) = [
𝐻∗(𝑢,𝑣)𝑆𝑓(𝑢,𝑣)
𝑆𝑓(𝑢,𝑣)|𝐻(𝑢,𝑣)|2+𝑆𝑓(𝑢,𝑣)
]𝐺(𝑢, 𝑣) (2)
In this the estimated fundus image with frequency domain is represented as 𝐹
̂(𝑢, 𝑣), the transform
for degradation function is given as H(u,v) and the degraded image is given as G(u,v), the conjugate of
H(u,v) is given as H*(u,v), and the non-degradable image’s power spectrum is represented as 𝑆𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) =
|𝐹(𝑢, 𝑣)|2
. The product of complex value with conjugate value equates squared complex value which is the
general principle of filter. Therefore,
𝐹
̂(𝑢, 𝑣) = [
1
𝐻(𝑢,𝑣)
|𝐻(𝑢,𝑣)|2
|𝐻(𝑢,𝑣)|2+𝑆𝑛(𝑢,𝑣)/𝑆𝑓(𝑢,𝑣)
] 𝐺(𝑢, 𝑣) (3)
here, the power spectrum of noise is given as 𝑆𝜂(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝑁(𝑢, 𝑣)|2
. Due to the unknowing of non-degraded
fundus image, 𝑆𝜂(𝑢, 𝑣)/𝑆𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) is substituted with constant k. At digital image processing, the persistent
power additive noise is degraded by the Weiner filter, and the parameters of the filter are area, size, and noise
power. In Weiner filter, the optimal trade-off is executed among inverse filtering and noise smoothing, the
noise is removed simultaneously, and the occurred blur is inverted.
2.2. Segmentation
The segmentation is performed in the preprocessed input image. In the segmentation method, the
image is segmented into several set of regions and each region contains information like texture and
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intensity. The histogram is generated along with the segmentation to obtain normalized color intensity. The
retinal vasculature segmentation is the most important as it contain detailed information about the patient’s
health. For the recognition of DR and to perform spatial alignment and registration of the image, an accurate
segmentation is required. Here, the fuzzy c-mean is employed to perform segmentation process because it
terminates false alarms. Each segmented region is considered as a fuzzy zone and other regions are
considered as background. Fuzzy c-mean converts each target into a cluster where the members with same
characteristics are grouped in a same class. The cluster center is evaluated by measuring the distance between
cluster and pixel as (4),
𝐶𝑝𝑞 =
∑ (𝑈𝑝𝑟)2𝑋𝑟𝑞
𝑛
𝑟=1
∑ (𝑈𝑝𝑟)2
𝑛
𝑟=1
(4)
where U represents the membership function, n represents the number of pixels, X represents the pixel value,
p and q represent the cluster amount, and C represents the cluster center. While measuring, the membership
value becomes high when pixel is nearer to the cluster and the membership value becomes low when pixel is
far from the cluster. The cluster center value and membership values are upgraded in each iteration until it
satisfies the convergence criterion. In fuzzy c-mean, the pixel from one cluster has the ability to become a
member of another cluster, and each pixel value is reversed for each cluster center. The presence of large
number of clusters may results in downside; however, by increasing the iteration level the accuracy can be
improved. Below describes the fuzzy c-mean algorithm.
In fuzzy c-mean, the group of N elements (𝑋 = {𝑋1, 𝑋2, … … , 𝑋𝑛}) are converted as a fuzzy c-mean
cluster (𝑉 = {𝑉1, 𝑉2, … … , 𝑉𝑁}).
Step 1. Cluster center ‘C’ is selected randomly.
Step 2. Fuzzy membership ‘𝜇𝑖𝑗’ is evaluated by
𝜇𝑖𝑗 =
1
∑ (
𝑑𝑖𝑗
𝑑𝑖𝑘
)
𝑐
𝑘=1
(2𝑙𝑚−1) (5)
Step 3. The fuzzy center 𝑉
𝑗 is assessed by
𝑉
𝑗 =
(∑ (𝜇𝑖𝑗)𝑚𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 )
(∑ (𝜇𝑖𝑗)𝑚
𝑛
𝑖=1 )
, ∀= 1,2, . . . 𝑐 (6)
Step 4. Both the step 2 and 3 are repeated till achieving the minimum ‘J’ value else ‖𝑈(𝐾+1)
− 𝑈(𝐾)
‖ < 𝐵, B
= 0.01.
𝐽 = ∑ ∑ 𝑢𝑖𝑗
𝑚
‖𝑋𝑖 − 𝐶𝑗‖
2
𝐶
𝑗=1
𝑀
𝑖=1 (7)
Where ‘K’ represents the iteration step, ‘B’ represents the termination criterion in the range of [0,1], U =
(𝜇𝑖𝑗)𝑁 ∗ 𝐶, ‘U’ represents the fuzzy membership matrix, and ‘J’ represents the objective function. The
individual clusters are obtained by selecting the fuzzy membership matrix, and the matrix is formed by
clusters. Here, the lowest mean value is considered as the first cluster, the highest mean value is considered
as the last cluster, and the middle mean value is considered as the middle cluster.
2.3. Feature extraction
In the feature extraction method, the large set of input data measurement is converted into a
minimized set of features. In this method, the selected texture and retrieving features of the segmented fundus
image are extracted by grey level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM). The co-occurrence matrix is considered as
an intermediate matrix because it constitutes the relation among pixels that are situated in the image at
different direction and co-relation. This co-occurrence matrix is used in GLCM. Thus, it is known as a
second-order statistical feature extraction. In GLCM, the number of rows and columns are similar to the grey
levels.
The GLCM is known as a square matrix (L×L) for the greyscale image I with spatial dimension
M×N and the range of grey level is given as 𝑇 = [𝑡𝑖,𝑗]𝐿 × 𝐿. The grey value transmissions are specified by
each matrix elements. The special co-ordinate (m,n) of each pixel in the image embraces grey value of
f(m,n). The nearest adjacent pixels are calculated at the location: (m+1, n), (m-1, n), (m, n+1), and (m, n-1).
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The grey level f(m,n) is varied by its corresponding grey levels to form co-occurrence matrix: f(m+1,n), f(m-
1,n), f(m,n+1), and f(m,n-1).
The co-occurrence matrix is formed by both grey level i and j, also by considering the lower
transitions on vertical and horizontal as given (8).
𝑡𝑖,𝑗 = ∑ ∑ 𝛿
𝑁
𝑛=1
𝑁
𝑚=1 (8)
Where
𝛿 = {
1 𝑖𝑓 {
𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛 + 1) = 𝑗
𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑚 + 1, 𝑛) = 𝑗
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
(9)
by normalizing the transition level at co-occurrence matrix, the grey level i to grey level j transition is
obtained like (10),
𝑃𝑖,𝑗 =
𝑡𝑖,𝑗
∑ ∑ 𝑡𝑖,𝑗
𝐿
𝑗=1
𝐿
𝑖=1
(10)
grey level of GLCM is represented as (11),
𝑃(𝑑, 𝜙) = (
𝑃0,0 𝑃0,1 𝑃0,𝑁−1
𝑃1,0 : :
𝑃𝑁−1,0 𝑃𝑁−1,1 𝑃𝑁−1,𝑁−1
) (11)
it is a N×N matrix, where:
𝑃i,j =
number of pixels pairs with intensity (i,j)
total number of pairs considered
(12)
Here, 𝑃𝑖,𝑗 defines the number of grey level pair (i,j) that raised when pixels are separated with the distance
and angle ∅ and P represent the total amount of normalized element that needs to configure GLCM.
In the image, the presence of local variations, intensity among the pixels and its neighbor are
measured by (13),
1 1
2
0 0
( )
N N
ij
i j
Contrast i j P
(13)
where GLCM pixel is represented by 𝑃𝑖𝑗.
The closeness of the GLCM image distribution is represented as (14),
𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∑ ∑
𝑃𝑖𝑗
(1+|𝑖,𝑗|)
𝑁−1
𝑗=0
𝑁−1
𝑖=0 (14)
The grey level dependency in co-occurrence matrix is known to be correlation, and it is represented as,
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∑ ∑
(𝑖−𝜇)(𝑗−𝜇𝑖)𝑃𝑖
𝜎𝑖𝜎𝑗
𝑁−1
𝑗=0
𝑁−1
𝑖=0 (15)
where the mean, and standard deviation of pixel i and j are represented as 𝜇𝑖, 𝜇𝑗, 𝜎𝑖, 𝜎𝑗.
The smoothness and uniformity of texture in the image is obtained by the squared element
summation in co-occurrence matrix, which is represented as,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∑ ∑ 𝑃𝑖𝑗
2
𝑁−1
𝑗=0
𝑁−1
𝑖=0 (16)
where these obtained features are used to extract GLCM texture features of the image and features of the
segmented images are retrieved by eliminating the redundant data. The feature selection process is performed
using the extracted image.
2.4. Feature selection
After extracting the fundus image, feature selection process is performed. The feature selection
process is implemented by considering the smallest data so that the data accurate prediction of extracted
image can be performed by minimizing the computation time. Here, the stochastic gradient descent method
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with least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression is used to perform the feature
selection process by eliminating redundant and irrelevant features of the image.
The well-organized approach to obtain the finest result for smallest data is stochastic gradient
descent in which the slope is referred as gradient and the slope is moved in the downward direction to
influence the lowest point. Here, the downward movement is performed until it reaches the minimum point.
For stochastic gradient descent, a small set of data is trained instead of training the entire data. However, the
small set of data is used for each iteration and each small data set is known as batch.
The stochastic gradient descent model is said to be a discriminative learning model because it
selects batch from the observed data. The size of batch is considered as one because the batch used for
iteration is one and the computation of single sample is performed for gradient cost function. The
performance of stochastic gradient descent is faster because it updates the information instantly after each
iteration. Thus, the time required for iteration is minimized. Below describes the stochastic gradient descent
algorithm.
Step 1. Initially the loss function for each iteration is considered and represented as (17),
2
( ) ( ) ( )
J y y x
(17)
where 𝑦
̌ represents predicted value and y represents actual value. Both 𝑦
̌ and y are selected with respect to x.
Step 2. Gradient ‘∇’ of the loss function is computed in step 1.
Step 3. Initial value of the features is considered randomly to begin 𝜃0.
Step 4. The gradient functions are updated with the feature values.
Step 5. Step size is computed as (18),
Step size = Gradient∗ Learning rate (18)
Step 6. New feature value is computed as, ‘New value = Old value – Step size’. This new value is updated in
the opposite direction of gradient.
1 0 ( * ( ))
Step size j
(19)
Step 7. For each iteration, the samples are rearranged, and step 3 to 5 is repeated till the gradient value
becomes nearer to zero.
The robust method to perform the feature selection and regularization task is LASSO technique in
which the error and over fitting is minimized. The sum of parameter scores is calculated absolutely by
LASSO and the restriction is applied for each score that the obtained sum should be less than upper bound
level. In some case, LASSO is punished with least square regression and L1- penalty function.
The LASSO is estimated as (20),
𝛽
̂𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝛽 𝑚𝑖𝑛 {
1
2
∑ (𝑦𝑖 − 𝛽0 − ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝛽𝑗
𝑝
𝑗=1 )
2
+ 𝜆 ∑ |𝛽𝑗|
𝑝
𝑗=1
𝑁
𝑖=1 } (20)
it can also be represented as (21):
𝛽
̂𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝛽 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∑ (𝑦𝑖 − 𝛽0 − ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝛽𝑗
𝑝
𝑗=1 )
2
𝑁
𝑖=1 (21)
Each co-efficient in the LASSO is transformed by constant 𝜆 and diminished to zero, and this is known as
forward looking selection method. Thus, the predicted accuracy and interpretability is improved by LASSO.
If the presence of predictor groups is high, LASSO selects only one and minimize others to zero. By this
minimization, variability among the estimation is reduced.
The LASSO method is not constant in some applications which is the major drawback. Thus, the
feature selection process is performed more accurately and quickly by the stochastic gradient descent
technique with LASSO technique where the error and over fitting is minimized. With the benefit of feature
selection process, the performance of classification is enhanced.
2.5. Classification
The classification is performed to improve the outcome of the feature selection process. Here, the
IV3-CNN model is employed for the classification process. Figure 2 shows IV3-CNN architecture. In IV3-
CNN architecture, the image categorization is performed by five convolution layer, two max-pooling layer,
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11 inception modules, one average pooling layer and one fully connected layer. The small nodes which are
similar to each other are made into a cluster for improving the network depth and width, and thus the
computation process is reduced efficiently. The network is trained by image-net dataset [33] and ground truth
table is used in which 1,000 categories are identified. The intensity of pixels in each image are given to this
network so that the parameters in networks are adjusted automatically to provide an accurate prediction. The
obtained performance error is identified by comparing the difference among generated network output and
ground truth table. This comparison is repeated for each sample image until the network becomes more
appropriate.
The small sets of retinal images are further trained by Image-Net dataset by transferring it through
IV3-CNN. It is finely tuned to reduce time and the accuracy of retinal image is improved. The transfer
learning is combined with IV3-CNN for classifying the retinal image. The pre-trained weights that are
obtained from Image-Net dataset is initialized at convolution layer to speed up the training process and the
redundancy is minimized. In IV3-CNN, the retinal images are learned by fully connected layer. However, in
order to train 1,000 output categories, the fully connected layer trains the Image-Net into five output
categories. The DR is identified by fixed weights that are obtained from the convolution layer and max-
pooling layer, and the initialized weights are updated throughout the training process. At each training, the
dataset of fundus image is passed over several features and the data are retrained until the valid dataset is
achieved. By this valid data, the IV3-CNN identifies the level of DR in fundus image with reduced
parameters and complexity.
Figure 2. IV3-CNN architecture
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The proposed classification method is executed using python environment where the level of DR is
traced by pairing each image with the size 256*256. The severity of DR is identified by recovering several
samples and the classification is performed accurately by using IV3-CNN architecture. The proposed
classification method consists of several steps to achieve a high-level classification. Figure 3 shows the retina
input image.
Figure 3. Input image of retina
The quality of input image is enhanced by next step. Initially the input image is in RGB and it is
converted into grey image by the Weiner filter. De-noised and resized images are obtained using the Weiner
filter. It allows the frequency to be passed with minimum loss by enhancing the image. Figures 4(a)-(c) show
the gray scale image, noise reduced data, and filtered image, respectively.
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Threshold plays a major role in performing segmentation using which the acuteness of image is
identified. The gray image is converted into binary image with a fixed threshold value where the important
characteristics are pixel background and object. The threshold is performed to separate object from the
background. If the pixel value is higher than the threshold value, then it appears as a bright spot and if the
pixel value is less than the threshold value, then it appears as a dark spot. Figures 5(a) and (b) show the
binary and enhanced images. The binary image is recovered to minimize the classification identification
process.
The segmentation is performed using fuzzy c-mean method to segregate the objects as cluster.
Figure 6 shows the clustered image where the DR is spotted. The retinal image is further optimized by
stochastic gradient descent with LASSO regression and then the classification is performed for an accurate
identification. Using the extracted features and parameters, the IV3-CNN is used to classify the image as
either DR or non-DR image. The IV3-CNN classifier trained with the Image-Net dataset is tested and its
performance is analyzed. Figure 7 shows the sample analysis of IV3-CNN performance where it identifies
the test data as mild DR.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. Filtered image of (a) gray scale image, (b) noise reduced data, (c) filtered image
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Enhanced image of (a) binary image and (b) enhanced image
The proposed method shows good performance in classification. The performance is analyzed using
sensitivity, specificity, and classification accuracy measures which are based on the confusion matrix [34].
The sensitivity, specificity, and classification accuracy are calculated using the values of true positive (TP),
true negative (TN), false positive (FP), and false negative (FN) as shown in the (22), (23), and (24).
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑃
𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑁
=
𝑇𝑃
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
(22)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑁
𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃
=
𝑇𝑁
𝐴𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑡ℎ𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
(23)
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 =
𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁
𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃+𝐹𝑁
(24)
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The sensitivity identifies the TP value among the DR affected people in percentage. The specificity
identifies the TN value among the healthy people in percentage. The classification accuracy identifies the rate
of correct classification among the DR affected people and healthy people in percentage. Figures 8-10 show
the sensitivity, specificity, and classification accuracy of the IV3-CNN classifier, respectively. Using the
proposed method, the IV3-CNN classifier showed the sensitivity, specificity, and classification accuracy of
about 94.3%, 98%, and 95%, respectively.
Figure 6. Clustered image
Figure 7. Analysis of DR
Figure 8. Sensitivity of the proposed method
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Figure 9. Specificity of the proposed method
Figure 10. Classification accuracy of the proposed method
4. CONCLUSION
As DR is a serious eye disease caused by diabetes mellitus, there had been many research works
done in artificial intelligence in the recent years to support the detection of DR from retinal images. The
proposed image classification method in this paper will be added as a beneficial to the medical society in
supporting the detection of DR more efficiently. The DR and its stages are identified with good accuracy
using our proposed method. The input retinal image is passed through several steps where the features of
retinal image are extracted, and finally the image is processed by a trained classifier. In the proposed method,
the Weiner filter, fuzzy c-mean, GLCM, stochastic gradient descent, LASSO, and IV3-CNN are used for
preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction, feature selection, and classification, respectively. The
classification accuracy of IV3-CNN classifier showed about 95% which proved that the proposed method is
effective in identifying DR.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Thirumalaimuthu Thirumalaiappan Ramanathan is currently a PhD candidate
of Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Multimedia University, Malaysia. He
received the bachelor of engineering degree in computer science from Anna University, India
in 2010 and the master degree in information science from University of Canberra, Australia
in 2016. His research interests are application of artificial intelligence techniques in health
informatics. He can be contacted at email: 1181402216@student.mmu.edu.my.
Dr. Md. Jakir Hossen is currently working as a Senior Lecturer in the
Department of Robotics and Automation, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia
University, Malaysia. He received the master degree in communication and network
engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia in 2003. He received the PhD
degree in smart technology and robotic engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM),
Malaysia in 2012. His research interests are artificial intelligence techniques in data analytics,
robotics control, data classification and predictions. He can be contacted at email:
jakir.hossen@mmu.edu.my.
Dr. Md. Shohel Sayeed is currently working as an Associate Professor of Faculty
of Information Science and Technology, Multimedia University, Malaysia. He received the
master degree in information technology from Universiti Kebangsaan Malayasia, Malaysia in
2000 and the PhD degree in engineering from Multimedia University, Malaysia in 2010. His
research interests are biometrics, image and signal processing, cloud computing, soft
computing and data mining. He can be contacted at email: shohel.sayeed@mmu.edu.my.
Dr. Joseph Emerson Raja is currently working as a Senior Lecturer in the
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University, Malaysia. He received the
bachelor of engineering and master of engineering degree in computer science from University
of Madras, India in 1989 and 2001 respectively. He received the PhD degree in engineering
from Multimedia University, Malaysia in 2015. His research interests are application of soft
computing techniques in machine condition monitoring. He can be contacted at email:
emerson.raja@mmu.edu.my.