A Critical Analysis Of The Theory Of Endosymbiosis And It...

A Critical Analysis Of The Theory Of Endosymbiosis And It...
A critical analysis of the Theory of Endosymbiosis and it's supporting evidence
Abstract
Introduction
The endosymbiotic theory is an evolutionary theory explaining the origin of Eukaryotic cells from
Prokaryotic, and is at present; the most widely accepted evolutionary theory of the Eukaryotic cell.
The theory explains the origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts and their double membranes,
suggesting that chloroplasts and mitochondria represent formerly free–living bacteria that were
taken into a cell as an endosymbiont. Molecular evidence suggests that mitochondria developed
from proteobacteria and chloroplasts from cyanobacteria. It is thought that the Prokaryotes may
have entered the host cell as a parasite or source of nutrient for the host, however avoided digestion.
The primitive chloroplast may have provided the host cell with crucial nutrients, and the primitive
mitochondrion may have aided the exploitation of oxygen for the extraction of energy. In return the
host cell offered a protected environment for the Prokaryotes to live in. This was the beginning of a
symbiotic relationship between the primitive chloroplast and mitochondria, and the Eukaryotic cell.
The theory was ridiculed for years due its controversial nature, however in 1967 Lynn Margulis, a
biologist from Boston University, developed the modern Serial Endosymbiosis Theory.
Primary Endosymbiosis vs. Secondary Endosymbiosis
Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a bacterium by another
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Eukaryotic Analysis
Eukaryotic translation is the mechanism by which mRNA transcribed from DNA is translated into a
protein, consisting of three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. The clone that I chose
(H2FC2.16) contained an insert with a homolog in C. elegans called eif–3.F (Eukaryotic translation
initiation factor 3 subunit F), one of many eukaryotic initiation factors. The ORF sequence name of
the C. elegans homolog is D2103.7. Several orthologs of C. elegans eif–3.F exist, Cbr–eif–3.F in C.
briggsae and Cre–eif–3.F in C. remanei. Also, eif–3.F is an ortholog of human EIF3F. The molecular
function of the protein is to specifically bind to a ribosome and initiate translation of mRNA into a
polypeptide. The biological functions of this gene besides protein synthesis include: development of
larva till maturation, reproduction, hermaphrodite genitalia development, receptor–mediated
endocytosis, reproduction, determination of the lifespan of the adult nematode, and body
morphogenesis which determines the shape of the nematode. ... Show more content on
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Secretion of the protein can either be to become a part of the plasma membrane as an integral
protein or free–floating in the cytoplasm so it can be used within the cell such as the protein coded
by eif–3.F. The protein encoded by eif–3.F plays a role mainly during the initiation phase of
eukaryotic

Electrolytes, Carbohydrates, And Proteins
There are many types of foods, nutrients, and minerals that are important to the body, and the ones
that will be covered in this paper are electrolytes, carbohydrates, and proteins. The items listed
above are vital to body functions in many ways; for example, electrolytes necessary for proper
muscle contraction (Nordqvist 2013). Proteins are essentially what allow our bodies to function as
they do, and carbohydrates provide us with the energy that allows it to function. Our body is an
amazing and intricate machine, and that's basically what it is –– a well–oiled machine. In this
adventure we will discover what makes our bodies work the way they do, what moves the figurative
cogs of our body, and what makes us tick inside. Now, first up on the imaginary and minuscule
chopping block is the electrolyte. This mysterious thing inside your body. The thing that all those
sports drinks will replenish. If it's so important, why does almost nobody know what they are? What
is an electrolyte? Well, an electrolyte is the ionic form of elements, like sodium, chlorine, and
magnesium. To quote Nate Morrow's article about electrolytes, "Any fluid that conducts electricity,
such as this new saltwater solution, is known as an electrolyte: the salt ions of which it's composed
of are known as electrolytes" (2013, Pg. 1). Electrolytes are, at their most simple and easy to
understand form, ions that help maintain the body. There are many different electrolytes, but there
are several main ones in a

Protein Transformation Lab Report
To understand the transformation lab we did, you need some background information to help
understand what we did. The DNA structure is formed in a double helix which means it has two
strands and consists of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains deoxyribose sugars that are bonded by
phosphodiester which bond to a phosphate group and a nitrogen base. The nitrogen base matches up
to the nitrogen base on the opposite strand of the double helix. There are two types of nitrogen bases
that occur, purine which is either A or G which form a hydrogen bond with pyrimidine which is
either T or C. When DNA is replicated the hydrogen bonds that hold the strands together break
down by an enzyme and then the RNA primase is added so DNA polymerase 3 can attach ... Show
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This creates a long chain of amino acids and will soon become a protein. Another system you must
know about is the Operon system, which can either be repressible or inducible. If inducible the the
inducer will cause the repressor to inactive and the RNA polymerase will be able to move through
protein synthesis and create a protein, if repressible the RNA polymerase will not be able to move
through. The last topic you need to know is biotechnology. This is the process in which a gene is
isolated through different genetic techniques that then insert the bacteria into another organism. In
the pGLO lab we used a clone GFP gene (green fluorescent protein) from jellyfish that was then
used to make a plasmid called pGLO. I predict that bacteria with +pGLO plasmids which are
resistant to the antibiotic ampicillin and have the gene for GFP, will survive and grow if they have
LB and AMP. Also +pGLO bacteria on a plate with LB, AMP, and ARA will grow and glow under a
UV light because of the arabinose. Finally the plate with –pGLO bacteria that are not resistant to
ampicillin will not grow on the LB and AMP plates. This is important to know for genetic

What Is Two Features Of 22rv1 Cells?
This discrepancy can be explained by another feature of 22Rv1 cells. In these cells, Tet caused
significant and rapid increase in phosphorylation of the initially very low p–eIF2α. It is well known
that phosphorylation of eIF2α at Ser51 serves as a switch, which effectively suppresses translation
initiation by preventing the functioning of eIF2B, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor [50]. eIF2B
facilitates the exchange of GDP for GTP on eIF2 to restore active eIF2·GTP complex, which binds
the initiator methionyl–tRNA and recruits it to the 40S ribosomal subunit. When phosphorylated, the
alpha subunit of eIF2 sequesters eIF2B in an inactive complex and prevents another round of
translation initiation to occur. Thus, our study showed that in ... Show more content on
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Dephosphorylation of Ser535 activates eIF2B [53]. Currently, the mechanism of the activation is
unknown. It is thought that dephosphorylated eIF2B undergoes a conformational change, enabling
GDP–GTP exchange and eIF2B dissociation from eIF2 even in the presence of phosphorylated
alpha subunit [51, 53]. Therefore, a balance between the phosphorylating and dephosphorylating
reactions determines the activity of eIF2B. GSK–3 is the major kinase phosphorylating Ser535 and
negatively regulating eIF2B [54, 55]. GSK–3 is constitutively active but negatively regulated by
Akt. The foregoing allows us to suggest the way that LNCaP cells can escape the translation
inhibition caused by p–eIF2α. As already mentioned, LNCaP cells are characterized by abnormally
active Akt and, accordingly, inactive p–GSK–3, so the latter is not able to phosphorylate eIF2B. This
can shift the equilibrium between eIF2B and p–eIF2B toward the active dephosphorylated eIF2B,
allowing bypass of the translational checkpoint implemented by p–eIF2α. This assumption is
consistent with our results, showing that Tet inhibited Akt and thus activated GSK–3, contributing to
the inactivation of eIF2B and inhibition of mRNA translation in LNCaP cells. Our results obtained
with LNCaP cells are in agreement with the results obtained with human colon carcinoma HT–29
[46]. In these cells, Tet inhibited Akt and activated GSK–3β. The upregulation of GSK–3β in HT–29
cells induced degradation of cyclin D1 and

General Characteristics Of Antimicrobials And Therapeutic...
General Characteristics of Antimicrobials
The usefulness of antimicrobials can be measured using the therapeutic index. The therapeutic index
is the ratio of the highest dose of the drug that is not toxic to the patient to the amount of drug
required to produce the desired effect. A high therapeutic index indicates a drug will be well–
tolerated by most people, but a low therapeutic index means a patient being treated with the drug
should be carefully monitored for adverse effects. Antimicrobials are designed to have as large a
therapeutic index as possible, often by exploiting differences between human and bacterial cells,
such as the presence of a cell wall in some bacteria but in no human cells. This concept can also be
described as selective toxicity meaning the drug kills or inhibits the microbes while damaging host
cells as little as possible.
Antimicrobials can most broadly be described as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Bactericidal
agents cause disruption and death of microbial cells. The drugs generally act on the bacterial cell
wall, cell membrane, or DNA. Bacteriostatic substances only stop the bacterium from replicating
without killing it and typically affect the microbe's ability to synthesize proteins.
Finally, antimicrobials are often labeled as either narrow–spectrum or broad–spectrum. Broad–
spectrum drugs are effective against a wide range of pathogens and can sometimes be used to treat
infections that have not been definitely diagnosed.

Essay about Describe the structural compartmentation of...
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURAL COMPARTMENTATION OF MAMMALIAN CELLS
AND THE DIFFERING FUNCTIONS OF THESE COMPARTMENTS
All mammalian cells are eukaryotic, and whilst the eukaryotic type of cell is not exclusive to
mammals, mammalian cells differ from other eukaryotic cells because of the organelles that are or
are not present. For instance some plant cells have chloroplasts which are not present in mammalian
cells, but both plant cells and mammalian cells are eukaryotic in nature. The term eukaryotic refers
to the cell having specific membrane bound organelles, which are not present in prokaryotic cells.
The defining feature of a eukaryotic cell is usually its membrane bound nucleus (the exception being
the red blood cell) [1].
Because of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The small ribosomal subunit, amongst other things, is initiates the engagement of the mRNA and is
responsible decoding the genetic information during translation [4].
The endoplasmic reticulum is specialised for protein processing and lipid biosynthesis. One of its
primary functions is to regulate the ionic concentration in the cytoplasm via the movement of Ca2+,
via ionic pumps and channels. It also contains enzymes responsible for the metabolising of drugs.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can come in two forms. As depicted in Fig. 2 Rough ER has ribosomes
present as part of the membrane of the organelle, and together with these ribosomes takes
polypeptides and amino acids from the cytosol and synthesises proteins destined for attachment to
cell membranes. It is in the lumen of the rough ER that the proteins are folded into the specific three
dimensional shapes that are so important for biochemical recognition and linking sites [6]. It is
called rough because of the presence of ribosomes makes the surface of the membrane look rough,
unlike smooth ER, which lacks the ribosomes so the membrane looks smooth. Rough ER is
composed of a large but convoluted flattened sac. The main function of the smooth ER is the
production of lipids and the metabolism of compounds (such as the breakdown of glycogen into
glucose). Because of the different functions between the rough and smooth ER, different specialised
cells will have different amounts of each; for example, hepatic

Similarities And Differences Between Prokaryotic And...
Edouard Chatton (cities in Soyer– Gobillard, 2006) in 1925, was first to divide cells into either
prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are typically larger and include protists, plants, fungi
and animal cells. They are described as 'a type of cell with membrane–enclosed organelles and
membrane–enclosed nucleus' (Cain et al, 2014, p171). A typically smaller prokaryotic cell 'lacks a
membrane–enclosed nucleus and membrane–enclosed organelles'; this term includes the domains of
bacteria and Archaea (Cain et al, 2014, p171).
Prokaryotic cells evolved earlier than Eukaryotic cells this is shown by the fact that Prokaryotic
means 'before nucleus', this earlier evolution resulted in many differences seen between these cell
types (Cain et al, 2014, p172), such as different organisation within the cell. However because all
cells are thought to have evolved from a Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) (Heaphy, S,
2015) similarities between these cells are also seen such as ribosomes, however further difference
can be found within these similarities. Some of these key differences can be seen in the figures
below.
Figure 1: A typical prokaryotic cell. Left is a diagram of typical prokaryotic bacteria with subcellular
structures labelled. Right is an electron microscope of a prokaryotic cell (Taken from Bevington, A,
2015)
Figure 2: A typical eukaryotic cell. A diagram of typical eukaryotic animal cell with subcellular
structures labelled (Taken from Bevington, A, 2015).

The Impact Of Mrna Modifications On Ribosomal Translation
Impact of mRNA modifications on ribosomal translation The incorporation of a single nucleotide
modification like m6A, m5C, ᴪ or 2′–O–methylated nucleotides in the coding regions of bacterial
mRNA could either prematurely terminate protein synthesis or reduce the translation efficiency.
These findings have escalated the interest in investigating the potential roles of mRNA
modifications as the regulators of gene expression. SEE ARTICLE P. 852
DIMPLE CHAVAN Regulation of protein synthesis and gene expression in every prokaryotic and
eukaryotic organism is a multiplex process. The regulation of protein synthesis is associated with
several factors such as regulatory proteins, regulating non–coding RNAs (ncRNAs), correct
assembly of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, no evidence was provided to show how mRNA modifications can be linked to ribosomal
translation.
Using the systematic approaches Hoernes et. al. has successfully put forth the results that conclude a
direct link between mRNA modifications and ribosomal translation. They introduced m5C, m6A, Ψ
or 2′–O–methylated nucleotides at specific codon positions (i.e. first, second or third position,
respectively) within the bacterial ErmCL mRNA using splinted ligation protocol. Peptide products
produced after the translation of modified mRNA were analyzed using mass spectroscopy to reveal
any change occurring in the cognate amino acid sequence due to nucleotide modifications. They also
investigated whether these modifications would result in the termination of protein synthesis or
ribosome stalling using toe–printing assay.
Hoernes et. al. provided a compelling evidence of how the effects on translation were strongly
dependent on the type as well as the position of modifications occurring in the mRNA. Almost
complete inhibition of protein synthesis was observed when 2nd codon position was modified with
2′–O–methylated nucleosides. In contrast, the nucleotide modification at the first codon position
hardly affected the translation process. Methylation of lysine codons (codon triplet: AAA) and
pseudouridylation of phenylalanine codon (codon

Codon Diagrams For Dna
Proteins are built inside of cells using DNA. DNA is located in the nucleus of ever eukaryotic cell
and is stored in chromosomes. DNA starts out all messy like a bowl of spaghetti, but then begin to
tighten up and form chromosomes.
Transcription
Transcription is the process of making the first working copy of the DNA, known as the mRNA.
This is actually a very smart Idea. Would you want to give out your only copy of a super rare comic,
or give someone a copy of it? The choice is obvious. Polymerase are used to make mRNA. In order
to make the protein, it will have to be sent outside of the nucleus to the ribosomes. The ribosomes
are the construction site for building the protein. In sticking with Chargaff's Rule, we have to switch
uracil for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This time we will actually be making proteins. mRNA is turned into amino acids for making
proteins. The tRNA helps transfer these protein making amino acids from the cytoplasm to the
ribosomes, or construction sites. The anticodon, only found on tRNA not mRNA, matches and
connects to the 3' end of the amino acid. There the large and small ribosomal sub units start to
prepare and make proteins. The A site is where the molecule is added. P site is where the protein is
added. E site is where the used molecule exits. Then the ribose reads the mRNA one codon at a time
until it reaches the end. This information is stored so that it has the information on how to make that
specific protein

Life Process Of A Cell
Cell Biology
Introduction
The report will look at and discuss the life process of a cell, the functions of the cell and the cells
structure. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism and is the building block of all living things.
Key life processes of a cell
All living things including cells have some life processes in common. There are seven processes that
they need to preform to be classed alive. These are:–
1) Movement all living things have movement including plants
2) Respiration the process of getting energy from food
3) Sensitivity this allows the living thing to detect changes in the surroundings
4) Growth all living things grow
5) Reproduction to reproduce and make more living things of the same type
6) Excretion getting rid of waste product
7) Nutrition taking in and using food
Viruses are not known as living like cells as living things require nutrition and viruses do not. A
virus is not live; it is unable to absorb nutrients, produce or excrete waste; so viruses attach
themselves to living organism known as a host to survive and gain the nutrition they need. They also
need the host to be able to move and reproduce as they unable to do this alone. Viruses have to inject
its viral DNA into the host cell it has invaded in order to get the host to reproduce for it.
Understanding living cells and distinguishing them from viruses
There are two primary types of cells prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The key difference between the
two is that the eukaryotic cells contain

The Components and Functions of Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid,
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid, or rRNA, is the principle component of the ribosome and is crucial in
the development of proteins for living cells. Approximately 80–85% of a cell's total RNA is made up
of rRNA. The low molecular weight transfer RNA (tRNA), which aids in bringing amino acids to
the site of ribosomal translation, comprises only 15–20%. The remaining 1–5% is made up by
messenger RNA (mRNA), which is essentially the encoding blueprint for the synthesis of a given
protein.
Proteins are comprised of particularly assembled amino acid chains – the instructions for proper
sequencing of these chains are found within the cell's genome. Transcription of the DNA into RNA
is the first step towards protein production. This occurs in the nucleus of the cell and undergoes
RNA splicing to produce mRNA (Transcription, 2014). In addition to the removal of introns, mature
mRNA will also exhibit the addition of a 5' cap and a 3' poly(A)–tail. This cap provides resistance to
5' exonuclease activity and protects the mRNA from degradation on that end. The cap also serves as
an important binding site for ribosomes during translation, and aids the transport of mRNA through
the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. Similar to the 5' cap, the poly(A)–tail also helps prevents
degradation of the mRNA and may help facilitate the movement of mRNA into the cytoplasm.
Translation of the newly synthesized mRNA occurs in the cytoplasm, through coordination of the
ribosome and other

Escherichia Coli : An Ideal Model Organism
Title : Studies of Large RNAP
NusG
70S Transcription
Translation Linking Complex Author :
Dominique Gutierrez, Cristina Gutierrez
Vargas, and Dr. Joachim Frank Abstract Escherichia coli
(E.coli) is an ideal model organism. Many mechanisms found in E.coli are resembled in other
species. S10, a protein on the 30S subunit of the ribosome, is highly conserved and found in
pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus
pneumoniae. S10 has been shown to interact with NusG, a transcription elongation factor, linking
the translational machinery to that of transcription. The coupling ... Show more content on
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Introduction The relatively sudden rise in antibiotic resistance has resulted in the increasing
pathogenicity of bacterial infection entailing the utilization of novel and more universal mechanisms
in the development of new treatments. Both NusG and NusE/S10 are
highlyconservedandplayrolesintranscriptionandtranslation(Werner,2012).Sinceits identification as an
E.coli transcription elongation factor involved in N protein phage lambda transcriptional
antitermination in 1992 (Li J., et.al), N
utilization substance G, NusG a 20.5 kDa protein has been
suggested toactasadirectphysicallinkercoupling transcription and translation (Burmann et al., 2010).
Through NMR and biochemical assay studies Mooney (2009) found that NusG has two domains
connected by a flexible linker that distinctly makeupthecharacteristic functionalities of NusG. The
N
TerminalDomain,NTDcomposedof3alphahelicesand 4 beta strands that form an antiparallel sheet
has a hydrophobic pocket by which it interacts and binds to the β′ clamp helices of RNA
Polymerase, RNAP. Through this

Essay on Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is the theory that eukaryotic cells were formed when a prokaryotic cell ingested
some aerobic bacteria. The first step of the evolution of a eukaryotic cell is the infolding of the
cellular membrane. This process takes place when the plasma membrane folds inwards and develops
an envelope around a smaller prokaryotic cell. Once the smaller cell is engulfed, it becomes
dependent upon its host cell. It relies on the host cell for organic molecules and inorganic
compounds. However, the host cell also benefits because it has an increased output of ATP for
cellular activities and becomes more productive. This ATP comes from the mitochondrion (the
aerobe) that is engulfed.
All eukaryotic cells contain the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The protein–synthesizing machinery in mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble prokaryotes. This is
shown through their ribosomal RNA and the structure of the ribosomes. The ribosomes are similar
in size and structure to bacterial ribosomes. fMat is always the first amino acid that is in the
mitochondria and chloroplasts transcripts. The antibiotics that act by blocking protein synthesis in
bacteria also block protein synthesis in mitochondria and chloroplasts. These antibiotics do not
interfere with protein synthesis in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotes. The inhibitors that effect the
protein synthesis of eukaryotic ribosomes do not change the protein synthesis of the bacteria,
mitochondria, or chloroplasts.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have two membranes that surround them. The inner membrane is
probably from the engulfed bacterium and this is supported by that the enzymes and proteins are
most like their counterparts in prokaryotes. The outer membrane is formed from the plasma
membrane or endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell. The electron transport enzymes and the H+
ATPase are only found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of the eukaryotic cell. (2)
Currently, there are two major competing theories for the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells.
The first theory claims that the eukaryotic cell is a combination of an archaeon with a

Tetracycline Research Paper
Information on the Broad Category of Tetracycline's
With a Focus on Minocycline as Related to Acne
Introduction
Many adolescence struggle with a poor self–image due to changes going on in the body during
puberty. While there are differences in how boys become men and girls become women there is one
issue the both groups struggle with, acne. According to the American Academy of Dermatology
"acne effects up to 50 million Americans annually and approximately 84% of people between the
ages of 12 and 24 experience at least minor acne"(AAD). With these numbers it is clear that acne is
something that many people struggle with. Thankfully medications in the form or creams, face
washes, and even pills have been manufactured to combat acne and its effects on the skin. This
paper focuses on one specific, oral, form of acne medication called Minocycline.
The Drug Minocycline is one of many medications that falls under a broad category of anti–
infectives known as Tetracycline's. Tetracycline's "inhibit protein synthesis at the level of the 30S
bacterial ribosome" (Vallerand, 1185) or in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Any patient on a Tetracycline should notify their physician if they develop a rash or blisters, oral
lesions, diarrhea, fever, fatigue, or joint and muscle aches (Vallerand, 1186). Patients should also be
instructed to take their medication as prescribed and to never double up on a missed dose. All
medications should be kept out of the reach of children. Minocycline is usually given in the form of
an extended release tablet and is to be taken twice a day on an empty stomach to increase absorption
(MedlinePlus). If a patient is experiencing stomach upset, Minocycline can be taken with a glass of
milk or food but the pills should never be crushed, broken, chewed, or mixed into any substance
(Vallerand,

Similarities Between Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells
Cells were divided into two, which are, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Examples of prokaryotic
cells are Bacteria and Archae, while the examples of eukaryotic cells are Protists, Fungi, plants and
animals. All cells share certain basic features, but the major difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells is their DNA. Thus, these two cells have different features on DNA transcription
and protein synthesis mechanisms. The general processes of transcription may be applied to both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as their basic biochemistry was the same. But, they are differs in
their specific mechanisms and regulation of transcriptions. In all species, the process of
transcriptions begins with the binding of RNA polymerase complex to a special DNA sequence at
the beginning of the gene, which named promoter. The activation of RNA polymerase leads to
initiation of transcription and followed by elongation of transcription. And these two cells were
different in these elements. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In contrast, eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotes as their transcriptions process are
utilize by three different types of RNA polymerase. These polymerases differ in number and type of
subunits they contain and also the class of RNA they subscribe. RNA polymerase I, which located in
the nucleolus, transcribe ribosomal RNA (rRNA), RNA polymerase II, which located in the
nucleoplasm, transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA) and RNA polymerase III, which also located in
the nucleoplasm, transcribe both ribosomal and transfer RNA (tRNA). All eukaryotic RNA
polymerases are homologous to one another and to prokaryotic RNA

D2L: Describe And Explain The Process Of Translation
Module #12
Chapter 22
Books cited: Becker's world of the cell: J. Hardin, G. Bertoni, and L. Kleinsmith: 8th edition; pg.
681 & pgs. 685–690
Question #6 from D2L: Describe and explain the process of translation. Include all three major
steps.
Translation is the modification of language of a mRNA molecule from a nucleotide base sequence to
an amino acid sequence. There are three main steps in translation which are: initiation, elongation,
and termination. In order for translation to begin, initiation must occur. Initiation begins at the codon
AUG, but in order to know which AUG to begin at, the Shine–Dalgarmo sequence is the indicator of
where to begin. The Shine–Dalgarmo sequence is made up of a few purine nucleotides strung
together, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The wobble hypothesis states that the base pairs during the binding of codons and anticodons on the
third base, have the ability to adjust or "wobble." This means that some codons are able to code for
more than one pair. Inosine is a base that can be found in tRNA but not usually in RNA. It is one of
the more flexible bases because it can be paired with U, C, and A and is often in the wobble
position. The wobble hypothesis shows that there is not a need for as many tRNA because they have
the ability to translate more than one codon. (pg.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy : Analysis
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
What is the Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy?
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is a sex–linked disease, which is inherited in a recessive fashion
(National Human Genome Research Institute, 2013). Over thirty similar genetic disorders exist
(Duchenne Foundation Australia, 2015). All types of muscular dystrophy are considered to be a rare
disorder (Duchenne Foundation Australia, 2015). Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is most common
in children and causes muscle weakness and wasting, which commonly begins in the lower limbs
(Duchenne Foundation Australia, 2015; National Human Genome Research Institute, 2013). The
disease itself is caused by changes to the DMD gene, which is responsible for providing instructions
regarding the creation of the dystrophin protein in one's muscles (Duchenne Foundation Australia,
2015). This protein is responsible for protecting muscles from damage, and without it the cells of a
person's muscles deteriorate and symptoms of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy are exhibited
(Duchenne Foundation Australia, 2015). The disease results from changes in the DMD gene, or
other genetic changes in a child (Duchenne Foundation Australia, 2015).
How is Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy inherited?
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy has the potential to be inherited from previous generations (National
Human Genome Research Institute, 2013). The disease is sex–linked and inherited on the X
chromosome in a recessive fashion. Males who only have one X and one Y chromosome

Most Important Drug Discoveries Ever Made
Antibiotics or antimicrobial agents are known to be one of the most important drug discoveries ever
made. It has transformed the expanding field of medicine in various ways. Be it as curative efforts
for diseases, empirical treatments for clinically diagnosed ailments or preoperative medications,
they have known to be miraculous drugs. Exceptional scientific histories of the development of
these medications are valuable in showing us the variety of its actions on the bacterial cell wall
biosynthesis and at the level of intracellular metabolism of bacteria.
Antimicrobial agents induce bacterial cell death by interactions between a drug fragment and
proteins on bacteria. It can act on very specific stages of bacteria (Briand, 1978). Widely speaking,
most antimicrobial agents can be classified in a variety of ways. It can be classified based on purely
the chemical structure such as polypeptides, acyclic or glycosides. Other than that, it can also be
divided based on its source: synthetic, semi–synthetic or natural forms. Another form of its division
is based on its spectrum of activity, making it broad or narrow spectrum or based on the type of
organism its effective against, such as gram positive, gram negative, aerobes or anaerobes species.
An essential classification is based on its function on bacterial cell replication and also based on its
type of actions, whether causing an effect on cell growth or directly cell demise. These two
imperative classifications will be

Identifying An Organism With A Biological Lens Essay
Spectrophotometrically Identifying Alfalfa Sprouts' Chloroplasts and Lysosomes Isolated in a
Sucrose Gradient
Introduction: Conceptualizing an organism with a biological lens involves understanding the
organism's components and how their individual functions characterize the overarching entity. For a
body, this means understanding organs and tissues. For a cell, this means classifying its organelles
and discerning their functions. Analysis of subcellular components has become a major focus in
biochemical studies, and it relies heavily on the fractionation of organelles. Fractioning and isolating
organelles essentially enables a scientist to elucidate organelle functions, which, as mentioned
before, adds definition to the all–encompassing image of a cell. Modern studies on this topic tend to
target organelles with somewhat ambiguous functions, like anammoxosomes and melanosomes. By
isolating these subcellular components and analyzing them, biologists have unearthed
ammoxosomes' role in filling a large part of the Earth's atmosphere with nitrogen gas (Neumann et.
al, 2014). In addition to this, other biological organizations have managed to sequester intact
melanosomes from cells, separating them from other items of similar densities, and study the
activity of V–Type ATPase proteins while they are in a subcellular membrane (Pelkonen et. al,
2016). The general procedure for executing an experiment like these involves lysing cells,
centrifuging their components, and separating

The Invention Of Phase Contrast Microscopy By The Nobel...
Abstract
In the last century with the invention of phase contrast microscopy by the Nobel Prize winner Frits
Zernike, nucleoli were among the most con–spicuous structures. The nucleolus was first de–scribed
between 1835 and 1839, but it had to go through another century before it was discovered to be
related with a specific chromosomal locus, which marked it as a cytogenetic entity.1
At the end of the 18th century, Montgomery was the first to publish the monumental monograph,
which included color figures of nuclei and nucleo–li.1
Based on the Montgomery work, further studies where conducted to analyze the function of the
nucleolus in the next century. In fact himself has studied nucleoli in the oocytes of over 175 differ–
ent species and had approached at three re–markable conclusions that still hold true today: 1) In one
cell there can be more than one nucleolus;
2) Cells with higher growth are presented with more and larger size;
3) The last conclusion was, the size of the cells interfere with the size of nucleolus.2
After the 1960 numerous discovers made a huge impact in the modern science, one of these is the
study on the rRNA which lead to the conclusion that the nucleolus is the site of ribosomal RNA
synthesis and nascent ribosome assembly.1
In the early 70s it was observed that the ribonu–cleoprotein precursors to ribosomes contain two
classes of protein. The difference between these proteins was thought to be that one class could be
recognized as ribosomal proteins,

Rna G Quadruplexes And Its Effects On The Society
ABSTRACT: An independently folding RNA G–quadruplex (GQ) forming domain interacts with
the 40S ribosomal subunit and determines their binding affinity and function of an internal
ribosomal entry site (IRES). The interaction begins to shed light to theprovide possible mechanistic
role of RNA GQ structures in cap–independent translation initiation.
RNA G–quadruplexes (GQ) structures are secondary nucleic acid structures are that can act as both
necessary elements of translation and as translation repressors. formed in guanine rich regions and
known to play crucial role in several biochemical processes. The RNA GQ structures are known to
modulate translation of several clinically significant mRNAs such as NRAS, ZIC1, BCL–2, TRf2,
FGF, VEGF, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human vascular endothelial growth factor (hVEGF) is a key physiological and pathological
angiogenic growth factor. An increase in VEGF levels correlates with normal physiological
conditions, such as embryonic development, wound repair, adaptation to hypoxia and also in
pathological conditions such as proliferative retinopathies, arthritis, psoriasis, and tumor
angiogenesis.10–12 The 5′–UTR of hVEGF presence ofencompasses two independently functional
two IRESs (A and B). in the 5′–UTR has been established that can initiate translation independent of
each other. IRES A is the 293–nt–long fragment (745 to 1038 from 5 '–end of the mRNA)
immediately upstream of the canonical AUG translation start site. 13–16 The presence of a tunable
GQ structure in the IRES A was observed to be essential for cap–independent translation initiation.7
The IRES mediated translation initiation although initially observed in viral mRNAs has also been
identified in many cellular mRNAs.17
Translation initiation by IRESs involves a cap–independent mechanism wherein the 40S ribosomal
subunit and/or other IRES trans–acting factors (ITAFs) are recruited directly onto the mRNA and
rendering the requirement of the 5′–cap and some initiation factors unessential. Our investigations
into the secondary

Describe How Bacteria Decode Its Genetic Information to...
Describe how Bacteria decode its genetic information to produce proteins?
Intro(10mins)
Bacteria belongs to a group of organism that lacks cell nucleus and membrane bound organells. This
group of organisms are termed as prokaryotes. Prokaryotes follows the central dogma of molecular
biology first proposed by Francis Crick in 1958 to synthesize proteins from mRNA through a
process called translation and the mRNA is being synthesized from the DNA by another process
called Transcription. Temperature, nutrient availibity are some key factors that start the process of
synthesizing proteins in response to these key factors. Example. This paper will provide an
explanation as to how bacteria decode the genetic information to produce ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Elongation is terminated by a stop codon. Stop codon do not code for any amino acid.
Protein folding
The amino acid sequences derived from decoding the mRNA determines a protein's final
conformation, helper proteins aid the newly formed polypeptide with its folding to achieve a proper
functional shape. These molecular chaperones are essential as the cytoplasm is often filled with new
polypeptide chains and thus these accumulation of polypeptide chain might accumulate together and
fold into a non–function shape. Example of well studied chaperones from E.Coli are DnaK, DnaJ,
GroEL and GroES. And GrpE.
Protein splicing
Some microbial proteins are spliced after translation. In protein splicing, a part of the polypeptide is
removed before folding to its final shape.
Conclusion
Decoding its genetic information refers to the process of transcription while producing proteins refer
to the process of translation.
Body 1(30mins)
DNA transcription.
MRNA Translation
Body 2

Different between
Conclusion(10mins)
Introduction.
Bacteria belongs to a group of organism that lacks cell nucleus and other membrane bound
organells. This group of organisms are called "Prokaryotes" and they follow the central dogma of
molecular biology first proposed by Francis Crick in 1958 for protein synthesize. Protein synthesize
is how instruction written by the bacteria DNA are being copied into a temporary form called
mRNA and these mRNA are sent to

What Are The Four Bases Commonly Found In Dna
1) a. What are the four bases commonly found in DNA? The nucleotides encompass a sugar
molecule (2' deoxyribose), one among four element ring structures called bases (called A (A), purine
(G), pyrimidine (C) and T (T)) and a phosphate cluster.
b. Which form base pairs? A and G contain 2 rings and are referred to as purines whereas C and T
contain one ring and are referred to as pyrimidines. 2 of those strands combine along to make the
acquainted double helix structure of DNA. the 2 strands link to every alternative via interaction
between the bottom pairs in a very extremely specific method. A solely pairs with T and C solely
pairs with G. This specificity, called complementary base pairing, arises via hydrogen bonds. every
C–G pairing involves 3 hydrogen bonds between the bases, whereas every A–T bond involves solely
2 hydrogen bonds leading to a weaker interaction. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
You use nucleases to completely degrade the samples in to their constituent nucleotides and
determine their approximate relative proportions. The results are as follows. What are you deduce
and why?
Sample 1 dAMP 37% dCMP 12% dGMP 13% dTMP 38%
Sample one has nearly identical amounts of dAMP and dTMP, and of dCMP and dGMP. thus this
sample could be a duplex DNA, which implies that it's 2 strands of DNA that are complementary.
[dAMP] =

Antimicrobial Chemotherapy : A Highly Respected Medical...
Introduction
Antimicrobial chemotherapy is a highly respected medical science which has shaped modern
humanity in many ways including the furthering the understanding of medicine. A wide variety of
antimicrobial substance have been discovered, designed and synthesized. Modern medicine is highly
dependent on chemotherapeutic agents that are used to treat diseases. Antimicrobials are combined
of chemotherapeutic agents and antibiotics. It can be defined as any substance of natural, synthetic,
or semisynthetic origin which at low concentrations kill or inhibits growth of microorganisms and
causes little or no damage. Antimicrobial Chemotherapy is a chemical compound that selectively
inhibits or kills bacteria without suggestively harming the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Bacitracin inhibits cell wall synthesis by interfering with action of the lipid carrier that transports
wall precursors across the plasma membrane. Vancomycin Binds directly to the D–Ala–D–Ala
terminus and inhibits transpeptidation.
Certain drugs that are engaged in protein synthesis, differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
ribosomes. (Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline, Erythromycin, Clindamycin,
and Fusidic) Their therapeutic index is fairly high, but not as favorable as that of cell wall synthesis
inhibitors. Streptomycin Binds with the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome to inhibit protein
synthesis and causes misreading of mRNA. Chloramphenicol binds to the 50S ribosomal subunit
and blocks peptide bond formation through inhibition of peptidyl transferase. Tetracycline bind to
the 30S ribosomal subunit and interfere with aminoacyl–tRNA binding. Erythromycin and
Clindamycin bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit and inhibit peptide chain elongation. Fusidic acid
binds to EF–G and blocks translocation.
The antibacterial drugs that inhibit nucleic acid synthesis or damage cell membranes are not as
selectively toxic as other antibiotics. (Ciprofloxacin, Quinolones, and Rifampin) This is because
prokaryotes and eukaryotes do not vary in order to maintain the nucleic acid synthetic mechanisms
or cell membrane structure. Ciprofloxacin and Quinolones inhibit bacterial DNA Gyrase and
therefore interfering with DNA

Centrioles, Ribosomes And Chloroplasts
1. Centrioles, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, nucleus.
Cell wall, chloroplasts. Lysosomes and centrioles.
2. Nucleus stores genetic info.
Golgi apparatus sends from endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Vacuoles stores starch and water.
Ribosomes turns genetic info from nucleus into protein.
Cytoskeleton is the "skeleton" of the cell, it holds it up and in shape.
3. Paramecium.
Doesn't have a cell wall.
4. The structure is a fluid collage of lipids and proteins. Its function is to protect the cell from
surroundings. It forms a phospholipid bilayer to keep the hydrophobic tails to stay away from water
while still maintaining the heads to remain surrounded by water.
5. The chloroplasts are located inside the cell. It's the strings ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Each cube not cut the same measurements therefore not having the same volume.
Not the amount of salt solution measured correctly.
Calculating the volume incorrectly would tamper with ending results.
8. Water moves from lower concentration to higher concentration.
9. A freshwater protest has an environment of hypotonic and its body is made to endure that
environment. And if placed in salt water, it would shrivel and die.
A salt–water snail is isotonic to salt–water so if placed in fresh water, it would gain water swell and
burst.
10. The student might not have kept spraying the lettuce head with water. So when you change the
environment that it is used to, a hypertonic environment, then it loses water and starts to shrivel up.
11. The salt concentration is higher on the outside than on the inside. Since the water goes from low
solute to high, the inside of the leech dehydrates and then it falls off.
12. 216mm^2/216mm^3=1 mm^2/mm^3
54mm^2/26mm^3=2mm^2/mm^3
24mm^2/8mm^3=3mm^2/mm^3
13. Cube 3 because the smaller the cell is, the better the process becomes therefore making Cube 3
easier to handle diffusion because it's smaller.
14. The smaller the cube, the easier the dye was to be absorbed. With a smaller cube, diffusion has a
better chance to travel because it has a shorter

The Dna And The Nucleus Of Cell York
Danny the DNA lived with Mack the mRNA in the nucleus of Cell York, they were brothers, after
all. Danny was always a stay–at–home molecule, while Mack was always interacting with others,
especially his coworkers Tony the tRNA and Rick the rRNA. Even though Danny looked lazy, he
always was the center of attention within the nucleic brothers. Everyone made up stories of how he
did all the work in the nucleus, while Mack apparently did little to nothing and, before the evolution
of Cell York, this was true. The main job the nucleic brothers has were to code and send information
to the ribosomes in order to make proteins for Cell York businesses. Before the evolution, Danny
coded and sent the information to make proteins, while Mack was only a cheerleader on the side.
However, when Danny had a break from delivering, he stayed in bed all day on his laptop, only
coding what he needed to do. He soon never left the house, all his necessities were in the nucleus.
As time went on, Danny grew larger than he used to be, and less active. His double helixes doubled
in size, as well as his bases. Now that the break is over, Danny will have to go back to his job, but
with great difficulty. "Hey Dan, your break is over, you need to send all those codes!" Mack yelled
as he prepared Danny's supplies. "But I don't want to!" Danny whined, "let the other guy do his job,"
and went back to sleep. "That guy is gone now, it's your job to deliver codes now!" Mack became
frustrated and kept on

Dna And Protein Synthesis Essay
DNA and Protein Synthesis
One of the most fundamental properties of any and all living organisms is that of reproduction. As
we all have learned, organisms inherit their genetic information defining their structure and
functions from their parents. Similarly, all cells come from preexisting cells, so the genetic
information is duplicated and pass from the parent to the new cell of each division.
DNA is the term that is used in biology, as well as several other parts of your everyday life. We all
know that DNA is a part of our bodies, but may wonder what exactly is DNA. DNA which is also
known as deoxyribonucleic acid, which is the genetic material of a cell. DNA is considered to be the
molecule of life, and aides in the determination of our physical characteristics. DNA is present in all
living organisms.
It is said that the process of protein synthesis is controlled by the DNA molecules. Proteins are used
for growth and repair, as well as enzymes. Thus, DNA is able to apply some controlling influence
over the cells as a whole, and ultimately the organism as well. In DNA, the segments which hold the
vital key to this process are referred to as the genes.
In the early 1940's, two American geneticists by the names of George Wells Beadle, and Edward
Lawrie Tatum provided one of the first vital clues. While they were working with fungi, more
specifically Nuerospora and Penicillium, they found information regarding genes and how they
direct the formation of enzymes through the

Prior to the treatment of the ribosome, the P sites would...
Prior to the treatment of the ribosome, the P sites would function as the binding force holding the
growing polypeptide chain of the amino acid to the peptidyl site. This is in correlation to the process
of translation, in which the RNA is translated into a polypeptide chain with the aid of Ribosomal
RNA and transfer RNA. To begin the process prior to treatment, first the initiation process starts
through tRNA and methionine serving as catalyst to form a complete ribosome in an empty A–site.
The RNA's from the A site are linked to the P site which allows the appropriate amino acids to
connect with RNA using the A site as an amino acid storage for the polypeptide chain. Without the P
site, or the blockage of it, there would be no ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
De–Methylation is the removal of methyl groups from DNA all together, which would lead to active
corresponding cancer genes thus enhancing the threat. So far it is clear to scientists that Methylation
of DNA directly influences gene expression, cancer being abnormal in expression patterns. In
repressing or stimulating methylation in the cell, research indicates that transcription of cancer cells
can be repressed which could lead to cancer gene arrest. This drug would be a good candidate for an
anti–cancer drug because if we're able to correct the DNA methylation in cancer cells, they would be
able to behave normally. Methylation inhibitors could assist in reactivating epigenetically silenced
genes in cancer and reverse aberrant DNA methylation restoring regular gene functions and tumor
cell growth arrest.
The group of genes that would cause the most problems for an organism if mutated would be the
Homeobox Genes. The Homeobox Genes are a class of regulatory genes that are used to help
regulate the gene expression, and assist with body structure formation during early embryonic
development. Pertaining to Transcription, there are a couple factors typically encoded by the
proteins in the Homeobox gene, within the gene, that bind to and control activities of other genes in
the Homeobox Gene family (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/geneFamily/homeobox). The formation of
limbs, organs and physiological positioning are influenced by this embryological gene. The HOX
gene

Suntab Catalog
Visualization of the Dynamics of translation in live cells
Translation is a very important step in the process of gene expression. Even though it is a very
important step, little is known about it. It is a challenge to study the translation of gene expression
due to the limited time of chromosome maturation. In this study the author developed a plan to
directly see the translation activity of single mRNAs in live cells. The author predicts that by using
an improved version of SunTag system he will be able to see the translation. SunTag is a protein
scaffold which makes multiple copies of single cells that enables imaging of single protein
molecules in active cells for a long term. As the study continues it becomes interesting to see the
different observations the author gets by using different versions of SunTag.
As the author approaches the study using the SunTag system he gets to see the translation of
mRNAs in live cells at the level of single molecules. The method he used were traditional cloning
techniques, and gene–synthesis techniques to help improve the sensitivity of the SunTan system.
The original SunTag has 24 repetitions of peptide epitope, so to improve the system he generated 32
new epitopes, and combined them two together. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I liked how he combine the original SunTag and came up with SunTag56x to improve his
observations. The study was well made he clearly stated his observations, and made comparisons
throughout his study that helped better understand the study. The author might had asked what
caused the brighter protein foci of SunTag56–Ki67 clones to disappear after the treatment of
puromycin? The SunTag tool can be applied to any study of human live cells, it can be useful to
observe the process of translation up close. It may also be used to make new discoveries of patterns
through the process of

Biology : The Base Of Biology
Understanding cells is at the base of biology. As part of our curriculum we teach that cells are the
basic unit of structure and function. All living organisms are made of cells that work together to
maintain the whole organism. Therefore, I stress the importance of knowing the parts of a cell and
their function as one of the learning objectives for the cytology unit. Those parts, known as
organelles, become reoccurring concepts in the following units of the course. For example, the
nuclear membrane and chromosomes are at the center of unit four (cellular division) as well as unit
five (protein synthesis) along with ribosomes.
The metaphor strategy has been a part of my unit plan for the last few years. As an assessment,
students are required to provide a direct analogy, (Laureate, n.d.), of how the cell is compared to
something in their life (event, sports, place, thing, etc.). My intention is for my students to connect
what they already know to this new concept in order to commit it to memory.
In class we begin by going over the structure and functions of cell organelles. We draw them out on
own and color and label diagrams to become familiar with the parts of the cell. Then, a couple of
days into the lesson, I show pictures of various objects and ask how they are like a part of the cell. I
also have a story about a city that makes widgets. Students read through the story and identify which
organelle would be that city part.
Finally, students are asked to

Unit Three Lecture Study Guide
Unit 3 Lecture Study Guide
1. List the 4 primary tissue types and give the general characteristics and functions of each one.
2. How are epithelial tissues classified?
3. How does the type of epithelial tissue relate to its function? Give at least 1 example of where you
would find each type of epithelial tissue.
4. Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands. Give an example of each.
5. What is the difference between apocrine, merocrine and holocrine glands? Which is the most
common?
6. Describe connective tissue's intercellular material.
7. What are the 8 main types of connective tissue? Briefly describe each.
8. Order the types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest. Be sure that you ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are very strong, yet lightweight. Dense connective tissue, are cells crowded between collagen
fibers. Loose connective tissue is the most common type of tissue in vertebrates. It holds the organs
in place, and attaches to epithelial tissue. Reticular connective tissue is found around the liver, the
kidney, the spleen, the lymph nodes, and in bone marrow. It forms a soft skeleton that supports.
Blood is used to transport oxygen and nutrients to the cells.
8. Bone is the most rigid, and then comes cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue,
softest, blood.
9. Hyaline cartilage is found on many joint surfaces, it has a very firm consistency. It contains no
nerves or blood vessels, and its structure is relatively simple. Elastic cartilage, also called yellow
cartilage, is present in the ears; it contains elastic fiber networks and collagen fibers. Fibrocartilage
is found in the pubic symphysis, the annulus firbrosus of the intervertebral discs, menisci and the
TMJ. During labor, the pubic symphysis is loosened to aid in delivery.
10. two of the main types of muscle tissue correspond with muscles that are involuntary, they are
cardiac muscle, which includes the heart. Smooth muscle, which is also involuntary, and includes
the stomach, intestines, uterus, urethra, bladder, and blood vessels. The Skeletal muscles are

voluntary, they're attached to the bone and are used to affect skeletal movement.
11. The repair is initially started with the blood

The Biological Processes Of Dairy Cattle Essay
In today's world, many infants are allergic to certain proteins naturally present in cow's milk. Due to
the huge volume of milk products consumed by the human race, there is a need to get rid of this
allergy–causing protein and eliminate this allergic reaction. AgResearch has investigated ways to
manipulate the genetic material in dairy cattle by using the process of 'Gene Knockdown', with the
aim to create a cow which produces milk which doesn't contain the protein responsible for the
allergic reactions, the Beta–lacto globulin protein or 'BLG'. Scientists have been successful in
creating Daisy the Cow, who is a cloned calf genetically modified to produce milk which does not
contain the BLG protein. I will be discussing the biological processes behind the cloning of Daisy
the cow, and the decisions made by scientists to use methods for genetically modifying the cow's
genes from whom Daisy was cloned, for the benefit of humans.
There are specific reasons AgResearch used processes like 'Gene Knockdown' and cloning by
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer 'SCT' to get the result they wanted. The stakes are high to ensure the
cloned cow Daisy survives and is healthy. Therefore AgResearch needed to choose procedures
which were most likely to yield successful results. The whole project and process cost around 50
million dollars to produce one cow, and with historical success rates very low they could potentially
lose funding and be shut down if the project didn't produce any successful

Heterogeneous Ribonucleic Proteins ( Hnrnps )
Heterogeneous ribonucleic proteins (HNRNPs) are a family of RNA binding proteins that play a key
role in various metabolic functions of RNA. There are roughly twenty major hnRNPs which are
readily found in large quantities in the nucleus and in some cases in the cytoplasm. hnRNPs are
expressed throughout all tissues at different levels depending on the hnRNP (Kamma et al. 1994).
hnRNP metabolic roles include polyadanilation, shuttling mRNA out of the nuclear envelope,
telomere biogenesis and localization. (Dreyfuss et al. 2002). In particular, hnRNP A1 can acts an an
antagonist to the SF2/ASF protein, which allows A1 to inhibitor exon splicing and cytoplasm bound
transport of mRNA. An example of localization is hnRNP A2, which confers the dendritic mRNA
transport of various transcripts when induced by neuronal activity (Muslimov et al. 2002).
Role of hnRNP A2/B1
Brain plasticity and learning such as BDNF driven long term synaptic potentiation rely partly on the
shuttling and translation of dendritic mRNAs. Large messenger RNA binding proteins such as
hnRNP A2/B1 carry inactive dendrite bound mRNA via the microtubule cytoskeleton where they
will be translated when they are activated at the synapse (Leal et al. 2014). Brain derived
neurotropic factor (BDNF) and increased neuronal activity has shown to regulate the distribution of
A2/B1. Particularly an increase in BDNF rises the tendency of cytoplasmic and and dendritic
localization. Some key protein transcripts carried by

The Effect Of New Protein Synthesis At Prl Cortex
training. Mice infused with anisomycin (n= 12) immediately after conditioning showed impairment
in contextual fear memory compared with vehicle–infused animals (saline, n=18) when tested 24
hours after CFC training (DF=28, F=7.19, t–test: p< 0.05) (Figure 2A). Surprisingly, irrespective of
the overall decrease in freezing percentage, mice injected with anisomycin did not show any
statistical difference in the level of freezing within the first 2 minutes of the test (Figure 2B). By the
third minute of testing, ANI–injected mice show a significant decrease in their level of freezing,
showing statistical significant differences until the end of the test (drug × memory minutes of test
DF=28, F=13.16, t–test p< 0.01; DF=28, F=7.66, t–test p< 0.01; DF=28, F=5.46, t–test p< 0.05)
(Figure 2B). These results suggested that new protein synthesis at PrL cortex is critical for the
encoding of contextual fear memories.
To further understand new protein synthesis at PFC, we asked whether other subregions of PFC are
also critical for encoding of contextual fear memories. To address this question, we studied the role
of cingulate cortex 1 (CG1) region of PFC in encoding. We injected anisomycin to inhibit protein
synthesis at CG1. Four separate groups of animals received anisomycin and saline infusions into the
adjacent CG1 (Saline, n= 8; ANI, n=6; Figure 2 C and D). As in the case of Prl cortex, anisomicyn
was injected shortly after CFC training. Measurements of freezing at 24 hours

Osteogenesis Imperfecta ( Oi ) Is An Inherited Disorder...
Science Biology Transcript
Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)
Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI) is an inherited disorder characterized by extreme fragility of the bones
also known as 'brittle bone disease'.
Clinical Features
The symptoms of OI include malformed bones, short, small body, loose joints, muscle weakness,
sclera (whites of the eyes) look purple, grey or blue, triangular face, barrel–shaped rib cage, curved
spine, brittle teeth, breathing problems and a collagen deficiency.
Classification
There are many ways to classify OI. The most accurate methods are the following.
In some cases, an ultrasound can identify bone abnormalities at 14–18 weeks. Cells obtained
through chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis can also be analysed for a genetic mutation.
Amount of collagen can be tested through a skin sample and genes can be tested through a blood
sample and X–rays to check for bone abnormalities such as the symptoms explained earlier can be
used to diagnose.
Radiographic Features
The hallmark feature of Osteogenesis Imperfecta is fragile bones that fracture easily. Osteogenesis
Imperfecta affects both bone quality and quantity (i.e. bone mass).
History
We do not know for certain about when OI started. Perhaps when sin entered the world but we do
know that it has been around for a long time as you can see in these pictures.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00381–009–0817–7/fulltext.html These are pictures of a
3000 year old mummy that has OI. This proves

Ribosomes In Eukaryotic Cells
The nucleus houses most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell. The genetic instructions are housed
within a cell, and the instructions are carried out by the ribosomes. The nucleus directs protein
synthesis by synthesizing messenger RNA according to instructions provided by the DNA. The
mRNA is then transported to the cytoplasm via nuclear pores.
The main parts of the nucleus include the nuclear envelope, which encloses the nucleus and
separates it from the cytoplasm, which has an outer and an inner membrane. There is a complex of
pores that helps regulate entry and exit into the nucleus. The nuclear side of the envelope is lined by
the nuclear lamina, which helps maintain the structure of the nucleus. The DNA inside a nucleus is
organized into units called chromosomes, which is made up of chromatin, a complex of proteins and
DNA. The structures in a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They carry out protein synthesis. There are two locales– free ribosomes in cytosol and bound ones to
the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. Most proteins are made in free ribosomes.
The central dogma of biology is how proteins are made– DNA transcribes RNA, then RNA forms
proteins by translation, or protein synthesis. DNA–>RNA–>Proteins.
Free ribosomes are found in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes are found attached to the side of the
endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope.
The information in a gene,found on a chromosome, in the nucleus is used to synthesize an mRNA
that is transported through a nuclear pore to the cytoplasm. There it is translated into a protein,
which is transported back through a nuclear pore into the nucleus, where it joins other proteins and
DNA, forming chromatin.
The transport vesicles move membranes and substances that they enclose between other components
of the endomembrane system. They are sacs made of membrane that helps transport

The Encoding of Contextual Fear Conditioning
The formation of new memories requires protein synthesis dependent changes in synaptic structure
and plasticity in the hippocampus. Studies in humans and animals suggest that these memories are
initially stored in hippocampus but later transferred to cortex for permanent storage. This
phenomenon is described as systems consolidation of memories. While the specific role for new
protein synthesis in hippocampus in early encoding of memories is established, whether protein
synthesis in medial prefrontal cortex play a major role in encoding of memories is unclear. To
address this question, we used contextual fear conditioning (CFC) of mouse, a behavior training that
induce long lasting memories. A single training session produces robust lifelong memory (8) that
can be measured using automated procedures (9). Several studies have used CFC training as a model
to study hippocampal–cortical communications and mechanisms underlying systems consolidation
of memories. Contextual fear memories are initially stored in hippocampus and then moved to
medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) for long–term storage.
We assume that if encoding of contextual fear memories require protein synthesis at both
hippocampus and PFC, we will be able to identify translationally active mRNAs in hippocampus
and PFC. Because RNAs associated with polyribosomes indicate translational activation, we first
isolated polyribosomes from mPFC and hippocampus at two time points (one hour and six hours,
hereafter T1 and T2

Plant Cells : Occasion Homework
Plant Cells: Occasion Homework. 9/4/16
Plants have numerous cells inside them. They all have distinctive part and capacities. Together they
all out to make the plant empower itself to survive. Inside a plant are its cells. Inside a cell are its
organelles. These organelles are called cell organelles which are little individual parts of a phone
which complete distinctive particular capacities. There are a vast variety of different
Golgi Mechanical assembly: An arrangement (stack) of levelled, film bound sacs (saccules) required
in the capacity, alteration and emission of proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids bound to leave the cell
(extracellular) and for use inside the cell (intracellular). The Golgi device is plentiful in secretory ...
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Bigger particles (counting microscopic organisms) enter extraordinary white platelets (phagocytes)
through a type of endocytosis called phagocytosis. The Single adaptable cell is a unicellular protist
that ingests sustenance (counting algal cells) by phagocytosis.
Lysosome: A film bound organelle containing hydrolytic (digestive) catalysts. Lysosomes begin as
layer bound vesicles (called Golgi vesicles) that bud from the Golgi mechanical assembly. They are
basically required with intracellular processing. Lysosomes wire with vesicles (little vacuoles)
framed by endocytosis. The substance of these vesicles are processed by lysosomal chemicals. Auto
absorption by lysosomes likewise happens amid embryonic improvement. The fingers of a human
developing life are webbed at first, however are isolated from each other by lysosomal catalysts.
Cells in the tail of a tadpole are processed by lysosomal compounds amid the continuous move into
a frog.
Peroxisome: A layer bound organelle that contains particular catalysts imported from the cytoplasm
(cytosol). For instance, certain peroxisomes contain the compound catalase which quickly separates
dangerous hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This response can be effectively exhibited by
pouring some hydrogen peroxide on crude meat or an open injury.
Glycolysis: An anaerobic oxidation pathway outside of the mitochondria in which glucose is

A Critical Analysis Of The Theory Of Endosymbiosis And It...

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