This document summarizes a study comparing altitudinal species richness patterns of bryophytes (liverworts and mosses) in Nepal to patterns observed in ferns and flowering plants. The study uses published data on the altitudinal ranges of over 840 Nepalese bryophyte species to estimate species richness in 100m elevation bands from 100-5500m. Generalized additive models show bryophytes have a unimodal relationship between richness and elevation, with liverworts peaking at 2800m and mosses at 2500m, contrasting with ferns peaking at 1900m and vascular plants from 1500-2500m. Endemic liverwort richness peaks higher than non-endemics.
This research paper examines how plant species richness varies along a subtropical elevation gradient in eastern Nepal. The study analyzes species richness data from 1500 to 100 meters above sea level, divided into 15 100-meter elevation bands. Species were counted in standardized plots and assigned to different life forms, including trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs and ferns. Climate variables like potential evapotranspiration and mean annual rainfall were analyzed to explain variations in species richness of different life forms along the elevation gradient. The results found relationships between climate variables and species richness for woody life forms but not for herbaceous life forms. A water-energy dynamics model was found to explain 63-70% of the variation in species richness for
WE1.L09 - DESDYNI BIODIVERSITY AND HABITAT KEY VARIABLES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR...grssieee
This document discusses the use of lidar and radar data from the proposed DESDynI mission to characterize 3D vegetation structure for assessments of biodiversity and habitat. It identifies key variables like canopy height, height profiles, biomass, and cover that influence habitat suitability and have been correlated with species diversity. Fusion of lidar and radar is highlighted as providing more complete and accurate global maps of these important structural metrics compared to either sensor alone. The document concludes that lidar-radar fusion holds promise for advancing scientific understanding of biodiversity patterns in relation to forest structure and how these may change in response to disturbance events.
Above and belowground biomass in a brazilian cerradotamielkhan
This document summarizes a study that estimated aboveground and belowground biomass in a Brazilian Cerrado savanna. Specifically:
- The study destructively sampled 120 trees from 18 species to develop allometric equations relating tree biomass to diameter and wood density.
- Mean aboveground biomass was estimated to be 62,965.5 kg/ha with belowground biomass accounting for 37,501.8 kg/ha.
- The best-fit model for individual tree aboveground biomass included diameter and wood density and explained 89.8% of variation. A stand-level model using basal area explained 93.4% of variation.
EcoSummit: Ecological Complexity and Sustainability, China 2007 Dr. Amalesh Dhar
The document compares the structural diversity and population characteristics of two English yew populations in Austrian gene conservation forests. It finds that population B has smaller and younger yews than population A, but with better overall vitality. Higher interspecific competition is associated with lower vitality for individual yews. Management recommendations include reducing interspecific competition through selective thinning to improve yew population viability long-term.
Although surveys of soft-bottom macrofauna are an important tool in assessing marine pollution,
identifying organisms to the species level is time-consuming and therefore costly. One solution is to identify
organisms to a higher taxonomic level. This study, using data from macrobenthic surveys in Gamak Bay, on the
southern coast of Korea, shows that abundances measured at higher taxonomic levels than species can be
adequate for pollution assessments. 'Second-stage' MDS and 'BIO-ENV' showed that aggregation of data to the
level of family produces results that are close to those based on species-level identification. In severely polluted
areas, a W statistic based on order-level aggregation was identical to that produced by species-level
identification.Although these results could be used to make a general recommendation that the family level, at
least, is a suitable level for faunal identification in pollution assessments, this will to a large extent depend on
the objectives of each individual investigation. In surveys to assess pollution, nonetheless, analyzing the benthic
community at a higher taxonomic level than species is efficient and cost-effective, and is sufficient to accomplish
the assessment’s objective.
Does biomass partitioning differ between plant functional types? Analysis of ...remkoduursma
Presentation for ESA (Baltimore), 2015, "Does biomass partitioning differ between plant functional types? Analysis of a global biomass and allometry database (BAAD)" by Remko Duursma and Daniel Falster
Reforestation is one of the Philippines’ government efforts to restore and rehabilitate degraded mangrove ecosystems. Although there is recovery of the ecosystem in terms of vegetation, the recovery of closely-linked faunal species in terms of community structure is still understudied. This research investigates the community structure of mangrove crabs under two different management schemes: protected mangroves and reforested mangroves. The transect-plot method was employed in each management scheme to quantify the vegetation, crab assemblages and environmental variables. Community composition of crabs and mangrove trees were compared between protected and reforested mangroves using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and analysis of similarity in PRIMER 6. Chi-squared was used to test the variance of sex ration of the crabs. Canonical Correspondence Analysis was used to determine the relationship between crabs and environmental parameters. A total of twelve species of crabs belonging to six families were identified in protected mangroves while only four species were documented in reforested mangroves. Perisesarma indiarum and Baptozius vinosus were the most dominant species in protected and reforested mangrove, respectively. Univariate analysis of variance of crab assemblage data revealed significant differences in crab composition and abundance between protected mangroves and from reforested mangroves (P<0.05).><0.05).Environmental factors and human intervention had contributed to the difference in crab assemblages in mangrove ecosystems.
This study used radio telemetry to track 37 male wood thrush birds over two breeding seasons in coastal Virginia. The researchers then collected data on prey availability and habitat structure within the birds' home ranges. They developed models to examine how prey availability and habitat structure related to the birds' space use patterns within their home ranges. The best model included both prey and habitat variables. Areas of high wood thrush use were associated with greater biomass of spiders and worms, which correlated with higher soil moisture. Bird use also related positively to forest canopy height and snag basal area, and negatively to red oak count and pine basal area. Evaluation of the models found that habitat structure variables explained more variation in bird space use than prey availability alone. This
This research paper examines how plant species richness varies along a subtropical elevation gradient in eastern Nepal. The study analyzes species richness data from 1500 to 100 meters above sea level, divided into 15 100-meter elevation bands. Species were counted in standardized plots and assigned to different life forms, including trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs and ferns. Climate variables like potential evapotranspiration and mean annual rainfall were analyzed to explain variations in species richness of different life forms along the elevation gradient. The results found relationships between climate variables and species richness for woody life forms but not for herbaceous life forms. A water-energy dynamics model was found to explain 63-70% of the variation in species richness for
WE1.L09 - DESDYNI BIODIVERSITY AND HABITAT KEY VARIABLES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR...grssieee
This document discusses the use of lidar and radar data from the proposed DESDynI mission to characterize 3D vegetation structure for assessments of biodiversity and habitat. It identifies key variables like canopy height, height profiles, biomass, and cover that influence habitat suitability and have been correlated with species diversity. Fusion of lidar and radar is highlighted as providing more complete and accurate global maps of these important structural metrics compared to either sensor alone. The document concludes that lidar-radar fusion holds promise for advancing scientific understanding of biodiversity patterns in relation to forest structure and how these may change in response to disturbance events.
Above and belowground biomass in a brazilian cerradotamielkhan
This document summarizes a study that estimated aboveground and belowground biomass in a Brazilian Cerrado savanna. Specifically:
- The study destructively sampled 120 trees from 18 species to develop allometric equations relating tree biomass to diameter and wood density.
- Mean aboveground biomass was estimated to be 62,965.5 kg/ha with belowground biomass accounting for 37,501.8 kg/ha.
- The best-fit model for individual tree aboveground biomass included diameter and wood density and explained 89.8% of variation. A stand-level model using basal area explained 93.4% of variation.
EcoSummit: Ecological Complexity and Sustainability, China 2007 Dr. Amalesh Dhar
The document compares the structural diversity and population characteristics of two English yew populations in Austrian gene conservation forests. It finds that population B has smaller and younger yews than population A, but with better overall vitality. Higher interspecific competition is associated with lower vitality for individual yews. Management recommendations include reducing interspecific competition through selective thinning to improve yew population viability long-term.
Although surveys of soft-bottom macrofauna are an important tool in assessing marine pollution,
identifying organisms to the species level is time-consuming and therefore costly. One solution is to identify
organisms to a higher taxonomic level. This study, using data from macrobenthic surveys in Gamak Bay, on the
southern coast of Korea, shows that abundances measured at higher taxonomic levels than species can be
adequate for pollution assessments. 'Second-stage' MDS and 'BIO-ENV' showed that aggregation of data to the
level of family produces results that are close to those based on species-level identification. In severely polluted
areas, a W statistic based on order-level aggregation was identical to that produced by species-level
identification.Although these results could be used to make a general recommendation that the family level, at
least, is a suitable level for faunal identification in pollution assessments, this will to a large extent depend on
the objectives of each individual investigation. In surveys to assess pollution, nonetheless, analyzing the benthic
community at a higher taxonomic level than species is efficient and cost-effective, and is sufficient to accomplish
the assessment’s objective.
Does biomass partitioning differ between plant functional types? Analysis of ...remkoduursma
Presentation for ESA (Baltimore), 2015, "Does biomass partitioning differ between plant functional types? Analysis of a global biomass and allometry database (BAAD)" by Remko Duursma and Daniel Falster
Reforestation is one of the Philippines’ government efforts to restore and rehabilitate degraded mangrove ecosystems. Although there is recovery of the ecosystem in terms of vegetation, the recovery of closely-linked faunal species in terms of community structure is still understudied. This research investigates the community structure of mangrove crabs under two different management schemes: protected mangroves and reforested mangroves. The transect-plot method was employed in each management scheme to quantify the vegetation, crab assemblages and environmental variables. Community composition of crabs and mangrove trees were compared between protected and reforested mangroves using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and analysis of similarity in PRIMER 6. Chi-squared was used to test the variance of sex ration of the crabs. Canonical Correspondence Analysis was used to determine the relationship between crabs and environmental parameters. A total of twelve species of crabs belonging to six families were identified in protected mangroves while only four species were documented in reforested mangroves. Perisesarma indiarum and Baptozius vinosus were the most dominant species in protected and reforested mangrove, respectively. Univariate analysis of variance of crab assemblage data revealed significant differences in crab composition and abundance between protected mangroves and from reforested mangroves (P<0.05).><0.05).Environmental factors and human intervention had contributed to the difference in crab assemblages in mangrove ecosystems.
This study used radio telemetry to track 37 male wood thrush birds over two breeding seasons in coastal Virginia. The researchers then collected data on prey availability and habitat structure within the birds' home ranges. They developed models to examine how prey availability and habitat structure related to the birds' space use patterns within their home ranges. The best model included both prey and habitat variables. Areas of high wood thrush use were associated with greater biomass of spiders and worms, which correlated with higher soil moisture. Bird use also related positively to forest canopy height and snag basal area, and negatively to red oak count and pine basal area. Evaluation of the models found that habitat structure variables explained more variation in bird space use than prey availability alone. This
The distribution of the endangered Blunt-nosed leopard lizard is determined by native shrub cover and invasive grass abundance. The study examined the role of native shrubs for the lizards through analyzing shrub dimensions, grass cover, burrows, trails and scat. Results showed lizards preferred shrubs with a canopy over 50% that were located in areas with the lowest grass cover, as evidenced by the highest scat counts. Conservation efforts should focus on managing habitats for "perfect" shrubs - those low in invasive grasses with burrows - as lizards have small home ranges of 2-4 hectares.
Biomass partitioning, leaf area index, and canopy greenness: the Good, the BA...remkoduursma
Seminar presented to the Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment's weekly seminar series on 28 October 2015. Topics include a global database of plant biomass and allometry, leaf area index at the EucFACE, and canopy greenness as measured with phenocams.
Comparative study on Population of Earthworms in Different Habitat Types alon...AI Publications
Earthworms are one of the very diverse organisms in the environment. The abundance of the earthworms relates to the different land use, human activity, biotic and abiotic factors on nature. The diversity and abundance of earthworms was studied in different habitats; broadleaved forest, chirpine forest, residential area and agriculture land with the aim to understand the variation in earthworm species in those habitats. Between the altitude 650-1450masl. a total of 20 major plots and 100 sub-plots was made to assess the earthworm diversity in selectedhabitat. Physio-chemical analysis of soil was done to know the diversity, abundance and density of earthworms. The result of study does find two orders, five families and seven species of earthworms. They were Amynthasalexandri, Metaphirehoulleti, Perionyx excavatus, Aporrectodeacalciginosa, Dichogastersp., Pontoscolexcorethrurus and Darwidasp. Broadleaved had the highest diversity with Shannon index of 2.04 and the lowest diversity was found in chirpine forest with Shannon index of 1.6. The highest richness was in the broadleaved forest with index of 0.827. Amynthasalexandri was present in all the habitats and it had the highest relative abundance of 28.12%, relative density of 32.80 per m2 and frequency of 25%. The lowest relative density, abundance and frequency was found in Darwida sp. The analysis of variance showed thatthe NPK content in the soil has effect on the density of earthworm along the altitude. In lower altitude at 650 masl. The density of earthworms was more with a high amount of NPK in soil and in higher altitude at 1450masl. the decrease in NPK showed low earthworm density. Pearson correlation showed a positive correlation with soil Physico-chemical parameters and an abundance of earthworms.
Measuring Individual Tree Height and Crown Diameter for Mangrove Trees with A...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Mangroves are unique ecosystems that provide valuable coastal area habitats, protection, and services. Access to observing mangrove forests is typically difficult on the ground. Therefore, it is of interest to develop and evaluate remote sensing methods that enable us to obtain accurate information on the structure of mangrove forests and to monitor their condition in time. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for processing airborne lidar data for measuring height and crown diameter for mangrove forests in the north-eastern coastal areas of Brazil. Specific objectives were to: (1) evaluate the most appropriate lidar data processing approach, such as area-based or individual tree methods, (2) investigate the most appropriate parameters for lidar-derived data products when estimating height and crown diameter, such as the spatial resolution of canopy height models and ground elevation models; and (3) compare the accuracy of lidar estimates to field measurements of height and crown diameter. The lidar dataset was acquired over mangrove forest of the northeast of Brazil. The crown diameter was calculated as the average of two values measured along two perpendicular directions from the location of each tree top by fitting a fourth-degree polynomial on both profiles. The lidar-derived tree measurements were used with regression models and cross-validation to estimate plot level field-measured crown diameter. Root mean square error, linear regression and the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient were also used to compare lidar height and field height. The mean of lidar-estimated tree height was 9,48m and the mean of field tree height was 8.44m. The correlation between lidar tree height and field tree height was r= 0.60, E=-0.06 and RMSE= 2.8. The correlation between height and crown diameter needed to parameterized the individual tree identification software obtained for 32 trees was r= 0.83 and determination coefficient was r2 = 0.69. The results of the current study show that lidar data could be used to estimate height and average crown diameter of mangrove trees and to improve estimates of other mangrove forest biophysical parameters of interest by focusing at the individual tree level. The research presented in this study contributes to the overall knowledge of using lidar remote sensing to measure and monitor mangrove forests.
Diversity and distribution of epiphytic lichens in relation to different forest types in the Knuckles Mountain range - Sri Lanka.
Gothamie Weerakoon* 1 ,
S. Somaratne 2 &
S.C. Wijeyaratne 1
1 Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka,
2 Department of Botany, The Open University, Sri Lanka.
Presented at International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2009 at Department of Forestry and Environment Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka from 18 – 19 December 2009 (Session 7 – Ecology)
David Lindenmayer_Transforming long-term plot-based research in Australia: LT...TERN Australia
This document discusses a collaborative book project involving 83 environmental professionals that described changes in Australian ecosystems based on long-term research. It included 14 chapters covering nine ecosystems, drawing from 35 core long-term studies. Key findings included detecting increased woodland bird populations and impacts of interventions like grazing control. The book aims to inform natural resource management by documenting ecosystem changes. Future work will maintain long-term sites, curate datasets, succession plan, and conduct new synthesis using long-term data to understand drivers of change across systems over time.
Rotem et al 2011 The Effect of anthropogenic resources on the space-use patt...Guy Rotem
This study examined how the space-use patterns of golden jackals are affected by proximity to human villages in Israel. The researchers radio-tracked 16 jackals, 8 near villages and 8 further away. They found that jackals near villages had smaller home ranges and core areas than those further away. Jackals near villages also moved less during the day than those in more natural areas. However, nighttime movement did not differ between the two groups, though jackals near villages moved in a less directional manner. The presence of abundant, predictable food sources from human villages compressed jackal space use and altered their movement patterns.
This document describes a study that examined the effects of leaf age and phosphorus supply on the photosynthetic characteristics of three perennial legume species - Medicago sativa, Cullen australasicum, and Cullen pallidum. The study found that maximum photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance increased with leaf age until full expansion, then decreased, while dark respiration decreased with leaf age. Phosphorus supply affected leaf area and emergence rate but not photosynthetic parameters. Modelling changing photosynthetic parameters over leaf age reduced estimated leaf photosynthesis compared to assuming constant parameters.
This study examined potential mechanisms for fern species coexistence in Catlins forests of New Zealand. The study analyzed differences in environmental traits between sites characterized by different dominant tree types (gymnosperm or angiosperm), and differences in functional traits between common fern species. Results showed soil temperature varied significantly between sites, with higher temperatures under gymnosperm trees. However, other environmental traits did not differ between sites. Significant differences were found for several functional traits (specific leaf area, specific root length, pinnae thickness, water use efficiency) between fern species. This supports the hypothesis that functional trait diversity, rather than environmental heterogeneity, is the prevailing mechanism allowing coexistence of fern species in these forests.
This document summarizes a study on the initial effects of afforestation with sitka spruce on ground beetle assemblages in Irish grasslands and peatlands. The study used data collected from pitfall traps set in unplanted sites and similar sites after afforestation. It found that afforestation initially causes a large drop in beetle species richness in improved grasslands. Rare species disappeared or declined in peatlands after planting. Wet grasslands were less negatively impacted than improved grasslands, though one rare species declined. Peatlands supported the rarest species, which were lost after afforestation. The study concludes afforestation efforts would be best focused on improved and wet grasslands to avoid negatively impacting
Presentation of the fall and rise and fall again of eastern hemlock, a foundation tree species of eastern North American forests. Testing the hypothesis that it is a foundation species, modeling its future given climate change scenarios, and validating model results with eddy covariance data
Assessing rarity of forest communities at a regional scaleJames Snider
This document summarizes a study assessing the rarity of forest communities in northeastern Ontario at a regional scale. The objectives were to 1) classify forests based on the concept of community rarity at an appropriate scale for management and conservation and 2) evaluate representation of rare forest communities in protected areas. Results showed that in the boreal ecoregion, most communities had a narrow geographic range and small population size, and rare communities had low representation in protected areas, while in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence ecoregion communities tended to have a broader range and larger populations, with higher representation for rare communities in protected areas.
Species and Community Diversity of Vascular Flora along Environmental Gradien...Shujaul Mulk Khan
This document summarizes a study that analyzed plant community diversity along environmental gradients in the Naran Valley of Pakistan. The study identified 198 plant species belonging to 68 families along 24 altitudinal transects ranging from 2450 to 4100 meters above sea level. Multivariate analysis identified 5 main plant communities. The communities generally showed an elevation gradient from cool temperate vegetation at lower elevations to alpine herbaceous vegetation at higher elevations. Indicator species analysis showed that mountain aspect, altitude, and soil depth were the strongest factors influencing community structure. Species diversity was found to be highest at mid-elevations between 2800-3400 meters.
A framework for assessing and projecting climate change effects on forest com...Jennifer Costanza
Presented at US-IALE annual meeting in Baltimore, MD. We are using hierarchical classification to produce an empirical set of forest tree assemblages for use in projection, assessment, and monitoring of global change effects on forest communities.
This doctoral thesis examines the relationship between fire (pyrodiversity) and biodiversity in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. It uses a comparative study of two Mediterranean regions, southeastern France and southwestern Australia, analyzing fire patterns over 50 years at multiple scales. The thesis aims to quantify the effects of fire on plant diversity, including effects on habitat, taxonomic species, and functional trait diversity. A key finding is that higher pyrodiversity, meaning greater spatiotemporal variability in fire patterns, is associated with greater diversity of successional habitats and plant life at both local and landscape scales. However, the two regions differ in their floras and responses to fire due to differing fire management and environmental conditions. Overall, the research
Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala...AI Publications
Chimpanzee nest construction has been potentially influenced by altitude and human activities. This study entitle “effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon,” dated June 2017-March 2018 with the objectives to investigate the construction of arboreal (night nest) and ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests among chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) subpopulations in the THWS, and the effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location. A guided reconnaissance survey “recce” walks based on the line transect method was used to obtain information on the location, altitudinal distribution, height and age of chimpanzee nests in order to determine the encounter rates of chimpanzee nesting in the THWS. The different statistical tests were conducted using XLSTAT 2007. 8. 4 statistical software for data analysis. From the result, arboreal (night nest) nests accounted for 75.86% of total nest construction while ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests accounted for 21.14%. Chimpanzee nested most at elevated heights (mean nesting height = 15.8m) and at high altitudes (800-1000m) with very low encounter rates of logging and agricultural activities (0.13 and 0.06 signs per km respectively). Nests were constructed amongst trees of the families; Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae and Moraceae trees of girth 25.5 – 115cm. However, fruiting and flowering trees were most preferable. In the THWS, chimpanzees prefer to select their nesting sites mostly in the woodland and primary forests vegetation where human activities (agricultural and hunting activities) are low. Therefore, human predation appeared to be an important factor influencing chimpanzee nest location in the THWS.
THE EFFECTS OF CLEARCUT SIZE ON THE BIRD COMMUNITY IN THE SECOND COLLEGE GRANTjoshmooney
Abstract. This study examines the effects of forest opening (clearcut) size on the surrounding forest-bird community with the objective of offering management suggestions for foresters who employ the clearcut method. I hypothesized that large and small clearcuts would have different effects on the forest-bird assemblage associated with each. I used the point-count method to assess bird abundance in clearcuts, on the edges, and 100 m into the forest from the edges of large and small clearcuts. I found that Neotropical migrant birds and forest-interior birds were the most affected by large clearcuts showing significantly lower abundance in forest areas 100 m from large clearcut edges than in forest areas 100 m from small clearcuts. Edge-open birds were more abundant in large clearcut openings and edges than in small clearcut openings and edges. Blue jays (an avian nest predator) were more abundant on the edges of large clearcuts than on the edges of small clearcuts. A recent study found that forest-interior bird abundance levels off after 100 m distance from small (0.4 ha) forest openings. This result combined with my findings suggest that small openings in the Second College Grant represent less of a disturbance to Neotropical migrants and forest-interior birds. Additionally, given higher abundances of an avian nest predator in large clearcuts, reproductive success could be much lower in areas associated with large clearcuts. Some species such as the White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), however preferred large clearcuts suggesting that there are some benefits to overall bird abundance by including large clearcuts in a managed landscape.
This document lists 10 action words in two columns: eat, sing, play, kiss, hug, run, write, study, go, talk. It appears to be a list of verbs for students to reference during their 4th period class.
The distribution of the endangered Blunt-nosed leopard lizard is determined by native shrub cover and invasive grass abundance. The study examined the role of native shrubs for the lizards through analyzing shrub dimensions, grass cover, burrows, trails and scat. Results showed lizards preferred shrubs with a canopy over 50% that were located in areas with the lowest grass cover, as evidenced by the highest scat counts. Conservation efforts should focus on managing habitats for "perfect" shrubs - those low in invasive grasses with burrows - as lizards have small home ranges of 2-4 hectares.
Biomass partitioning, leaf area index, and canopy greenness: the Good, the BA...remkoduursma
Seminar presented to the Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment's weekly seminar series on 28 October 2015. Topics include a global database of plant biomass and allometry, leaf area index at the EucFACE, and canopy greenness as measured with phenocams.
Comparative study on Population of Earthworms in Different Habitat Types alon...AI Publications
Earthworms are one of the very diverse organisms in the environment. The abundance of the earthworms relates to the different land use, human activity, biotic and abiotic factors on nature. The diversity and abundance of earthworms was studied in different habitats; broadleaved forest, chirpine forest, residential area and agriculture land with the aim to understand the variation in earthworm species in those habitats. Between the altitude 650-1450masl. a total of 20 major plots and 100 sub-plots was made to assess the earthworm diversity in selectedhabitat. Physio-chemical analysis of soil was done to know the diversity, abundance and density of earthworms. The result of study does find two orders, five families and seven species of earthworms. They were Amynthasalexandri, Metaphirehoulleti, Perionyx excavatus, Aporrectodeacalciginosa, Dichogastersp., Pontoscolexcorethrurus and Darwidasp. Broadleaved had the highest diversity with Shannon index of 2.04 and the lowest diversity was found in chirpine forest with Shannon index of 1.6. The highest richness was in the broadleaved forest with index of 0.827. Amynthasalexandri was present in all the habitats and it had the highest relative abundance of 28.12%, relative density of 32.80 per m2 and frequency of 25%. The lowest relative density, abundance and frequency was found in Darwida sp. The analysis of variance showed thatthe NPK content in the soil has effect on the density of earthworm along the altitude. In lower altitude at 650 masl. The density of earthworms was more with a high amount of NPK in soil and in higher altitude at 1450masl. the decrease in NPK showed low earthworm density. Pearson correlation showed a positive correlation with soil Physico-chemical parameters and an abundance of earthworms.
Measuring Individual Tree Height and Crown Diameter for Mangrove Trees with A...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Mangroves are unique ecosystems that provide valuable coastal area habitats, protection, and services. Access to observing mangrove forests is typically difficult on the ground. Therefore, it is of interest to develop and evaluate remote sensing methods that enable us to obtain accurate information on the structure of mangrove forests and to monitor their condition in time. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for processing airborne lidar data for measuring height and crown diameter for mangrove forests in the north-eastern coastal areas of Brazil. Specific objectives were to: (1) evaluate the most appropriate lidar data processing approach, such as area-based or individual tree methods, (2) investigate the most appropriate parameters for lidar-derived data products when estimating height and crown diameter, such as the spatial resolution of canopy height models and ground elevation models; and (3) compare the accuracy of lidar estimates to field measurements of height and crown diameter. The lidar dataset was acquired over mangrove forest of the northeast of Brazil. The crown diameter was calculated as the average of two values measured along two perpendicular directions from the location of each tree top by fitting a fourth-degree polynomial on both profiles. The lidar-derived tree measurements were used with regression models and cross-validation to estimate plot level field-measured crown diameter. Root mean square error, linear regression and the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient were also used to compare lidar height and field height. The mean of lidar-estimated tree height was 9,48m and the mean of field tree height was 8.44m. The correlation between lidar tree height and field tree height was r= 0.60, E=-0.06 and RMSE= 2.8. The correlation between height and crown diameter needed to parameterized the individual tree identification software obtained for 32 trees was r= 0.83 and determination coefficient was r2 = 0.69. The results of the current study show that lidar data could be used to estimate height and average crown diameter of mangrove trees and to improve estimates of other mangrove forest biophysical parameters of interest by focusing at the individual tree level. The research presented in this study contributes to the overall knowledge of using lidar remote sensing to measure and monitor mangrove forests.
Diversity and distribution of epiphytic lichens in relation to different forest types in the Knuckles Mountain range - Sri Lanka.
Gothamie Weerakoon* 1 ,
S. Somaratne 2 &
S.C. Wijeyaratne 1
1 Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka,
2 Department of Botany, The Open University, Sri Lanka.
Presented at International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2009 at Department of Forestry and Environment Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka from 18 – 19 December 2009 (Session 7 – Ecology)
David Lindenmayer_Transforming long-term plot-based research in Australia: LT...TERN Australia
This document discusses a collaborative book project involving 83 environmental professionals that described changes in Australian ecosystems based on long-term research. It included 14 chapters covering nine ecosystems, drawing from 35 core long-term studies. Key findings included detecting increased woodland bird populations and impacts of interventions like grazing control. The book aims to inform natural resource management by documenting ecosystem changes. Future work will maintain long-term sites, curate datasets, succession plan, and conduct new synthesis using long-term data to understand drivers of change across systems over time.
Rotem et al 2011 The Effect of anthropogenic resources on the space-use patt...Guy Rotem
This study examined how the space-use patterns of golden jackals are affected by proximity to human villages in Israel. The researchers radio-tracked 16 jackals, 8 near villages and 8 further away. They found that jackals near villages had smaller home ranges and core areas than those further away. Jackals near villages also moved less during the day than those in more natural areas. However, nighttime movement did not differ between the two groups, though jackals near villages moved in a less directional manner. The presence of abundant, predictable food sources from human villages compressed jackal space use and altered their movement patterns.
This document describes a study that examined the effects of leaf age and phosphorus supply on the photosynthetic characteristics of three perennial legume species - Medicago sativa, Cullen australasicum, and Cullen pallidum. The study found that maximum photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance increased with leaf age until full expansion, then decreased, while dark respiration decreased with leaf age. Phosphorus supply affected leaf area and emergence rate but not photosynthetic parameters. Modelling changing photosynthetic parameters over leaf age reduced estimated leaf photosynthesis compared to assuming constant parameters.
This study examined potential mechanisms for fern species coexistence in Catlins forests of New Zealand. The study analyzed differences in environmental traits between sites characterized by different dominant tree types (gymnosperm or angiosperm), and differences in functional traits between common fern species. Results showed soil temperature varied significantly between sites, with higher temperatures under gymnosperm trees. However, other environmental traits did not differ between sites. Significant differences were found for several functional traits (specific leaf area, specific root length, pinnae thickness, water use efficiency) between fern species. This supports the hypothesis that functional trait diversity, rather than environmental heterogeneity, is the prevailing mechanism allowing coexistence of fern species in these forests.
This document summarizes a study on the initial effects of afforestation with sitka spruce on ground beetle assemblages in Irish grasslands and peatlands. The study used data collected from pitfall traps set in unplanted sites and similar sites after afforestation. It found that afforestation initially causes a large drop in beetle species richness in improved grasslands. Rare species disappeared or declined in peatlands after planting. Wet grasslands were less negatively impacted than improved grasslands, though one rare species declined. Peatlands supported the rarest species, which were lost after afforestation. The study concludes afforestation efforts would be best focused on improved and wet grasslands to avoid negatively impacting
Presentation of the fall and rise and fall again of eastern hemlock, a foundation tree species of eastern North American forests. Testing the hypothesis that it is a foundation species, modeling its future given climate change scenarios, and validating model results with eddy covariance data
Assessing rarity of forest communities at a regional scaleJames Snider
This document summarizes a study assessing the rarity of forest communities in northeastern Ontario at a regional scale. The objectives were to 1) classify forests based on the concept of community rarity at an appropriate scale for management and conservation and 2) evaluate representation of rare forest communities in protected areas. Results showed that in the boreal ecoregion, most communities had a narrow geographic range and small population size, and rare communities had low representation in protected areas, while in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence ecoregion communities tended to have a broader range and larger populations, with higher representation for rare communities in protected areas.
Species and Community Diversity of Vascular Flora along Environmental Gradien...Shujaul Mulk Khan
This document summarizes a study that analyzed plant community diversity along environmental gradients in the Naran Valley of Pakistan. The study identified 198 plant species belonging to 68 families along 24 altitudinal transects ranging from 2450 to 4100 meters above sea level. Multivariate analysis identified 5 main plant communities. The communities generally showed an elevation gradient from cool temperate vegetation at lower elevations to alpine herbaceous vegetation at higher elevations. Indicator species analysis showed that mountain aspect, altitude, and soil depth were the strongest factors influencing community structure. Species diversity was found to be highest at mid-elevations between 2800-3400 meters.
A framework for assessing and projecting climate change effects on forest com...Jennifer Costanza
Presented at US-IALE annual meeting in Baltimore, MD. We are using hierarchical classification to produce an empirical set of forest tree assemblages for use in projection, assessment, and monitoring of global change effects on forest communities.
This doctoral thesis examines the relationship between fire (pyrodiversity) and biodiversity in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. It uses a comparative study of two Mediterranean regions, southeastern France and southwestern Australia, analyzing fire patterns over 50 years at multiple scales. The thesis aims to quantify the effects of fire on plant diversity, including effects on habitat, taxonomic species, and functional trait diversity. A key finding is that higher pyrodiversity, meaning greater spatiotemporal variability in fire patterns, is associated with greater diversity of successional habitats and plant life at both local and landscape scales. However, the two regions differ in their floras and responses to fire due to differing fire management and environmental conditions. Overall, the research
Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala...AI Publications
Chimpanzee nest construction has been potentially influenced by altitude and human activities. This study entitle “effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon,” dated June 2017-March 2018 with the objectives to investigate the construction of arboreal (night nest) and ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests among chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) subpopulations in the THWS, and the effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location. A guided reconnaissance survey “recce” walks based on the line transect method was used to obtain information on the location, altitudinal distribution, height and age of chimpanzee nests in order to determine the encounter rates of chimpanzee nesting in the THWS. The different statistical tests were conducted using XLSTAT 2007. 8. 4 statistical software for data analysis. From the result, arboreal (night nest) nests accounted for 75.86% of total nest construction while ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests accounted for 21.14%. Chimpanzee nested most at elevated heights (mean nesting height = 15.8m) and at high altitudes (800-1000m) with very low encounter rates of logging and agricultural activities (0.13 and 0.06 signs per km respectively). Nests were constructed amongst trees of the families; Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae and Moraceae trees of girth 25.5 – 115cm. However, fruiting and flowering trees were most preferable. In the THWS, chimpanzees prefer to select their nesting sites mostly in the woodland and primary forests vegetation where human activities (agricultural and hunting activities) are low. Therefore, human predation appeared to be an important factor influencing chimpanzee nest location in the THWS.
THE EFFECTS OF CLEARCUT SIZE ON THE BIRD COMMUNITY IN THE SECOND COLLEGE GRANTjoshmooney
Abstract. This study examines the effects of forest opening (clearcut) size on the surrounding forest-bird community with the objective of offering management suggestions for foresters who employ the clearcut method. I hypothesized that large and small clearcuts would have different effects on the forest-bird assemblage associated with each. I used the point-count method to assess bird abundance in clearcuts, on the edges, and 100 m into the forest from the edges of large and small clearcuts. I found that Neotropical migrant birds and forest-interior birds were the most affected by large clearcuts showing significantly lower abundance in forest areas 100 m from large clearcut edges than in forest areas 100 m from small clearcuts. Edge-open birds were more abundant in large clearcut openings and edges than in small clearcut openings and edges. Blue jays (an avian nest predator) were more abundant on the edges of large clearcuts than on the edges of small clearcuts. A recent study found that forest-interior bird abundance levels off after 100 m distance from small (0.4 ha) forest openings. This result combined with my findings suggest that small openings in the Second College Grant represent less of a disturbance to Neotropical migrants and forest-interior birds. Additionally, given higher abundances of an avian nest predator in large clearcuts, reproductive success could be much lower in areas associated with large clearcuts. Some species such as the White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), however preferred large clearcuts suggesting that there are some benefits to overall bird abundance by including large clearcuts in a managed landscape.
This document lists 10 action words in two columns: eat, sing, play, kiss, hug, run, write, study, go, talk. It appears to be a list of verbs for students to reference during their 4th period class.
This document discusses how to import models from sources like Excel and TreeAge, build presentations with drag and drop functionality similar to PowerPoint with minimal technical skill, and allow field force to securely access the presentations from anywhere using a web browser.
The document describes the creative digital media industry and skills needed for jobs in it. It discusses three main sectors - pre-production, production, and post-production. It also lists various job titles and employability skills important for the industry, such as positive attitudes, teamwork, communication, time management, and technical skills. Candidates are asked to self-assess their strengths and weaknesses in these skills.
The document provides a summary of Eurasia FLEX Alumni events that took place in January 2013 across various countries in Eurasia. In 3 sentences or less, events included grant writing sessions in Armenia, raising cancer awareness in Azerbaijan, an alumni club celebrating its second New Year's together in Russia, interacting with senior alumni in Georgia, enjoying a holiday brunch in Kazakhstan, making cards for a holiday in Kyrgyzstan, representing FLEX at an education fair in Moldova, supporting a fellow alumna artist in Moscow, marking an anniversary in Northwest Russia, welcoming an Olympic flame in the Russian Far East, planning future events in Siberia, making collages for a nursing home in South Ukraine, building models with children in Southern Russia
This document summarizes a study that analyzed fern species richness along an elevational gradient in central Nepal from 100-4800 meters above sea level. The study found a unimodal relationship between species richness and elevation, with the maximum number of fern species occurring at 2000 meters. Fern species richness was found to have a unimodal response to energy gradients and a linear response to moisture gradients. The peak in fern species coincided with elevations that have higher moisture levels due to more rainy days and presence in the cloud zone.
Phyto climatic gradient of vegetation and habitat specificity in the high ele...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Phyto-climatic gradient and ecological indicators can be used to understand the requirements, long term management and conservation strategies of natural habitats and species. For this purpose phytosociological attributes were measured using quadrats along transects on different slope aspects across an elevation range of 2450-4400 m. The 198 recorded plant species were placed in five Raunkiaer life form classes among which the Hemicryptophytes (51%) dominate the flora of the study area followed by Phanerophytes and Cryptophytes (Geophytes) with 15 and 13% dominance respectively. Therophytes and Chamaephytes are represented by smaller numbers (12 & 10% each). The phyto-climatic gradient of the vegetation was evaluated using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Phyto-climatic relationships show that Phanerophytes especially tree species are widely distributed on northern aspect slopes whilst shrubs are more dominant on southern aspect slopes. Woody plants are dominant at lower altitudes (2450-2800 m), with a much smaller proportion occurring at middle elevations (2800-3300 m) whilst higher (3300-3900 m) and highest elevations (3900-4400 m) are dominated mainly by hemi-cryptophytes and cryptophytes. Our findings further elucidate that vegetation changes gradually from moist-cool temperate Phanerophytic and Chamaephytic elements to dry-cold subalpine and alpine herbaceous Cryptophytic and Hemi-cryptophytic vegetation in the upper elevations. Assessment of life forms and ecological gradient provide a basis for more extensive conservation studies on biodiversity in mountain ecosystems. Our findings further advocate that the Naran Valley appears to be at a transitional floristic position bridging the contrasting moist and dry temperate zones of the Sino-Japanese and Irano-Turanian floristic regions.
Regional and global elevational patterns of microbial species richness and ev...sediman
Although elevational gradients in microbial biodiversity have attracted increasing attention recently, the generality in the patterns and underlying mechanisms are still poorly resolved. Further, previous studies focused mostly on species richness, while left understudied evenness, another important aspect of biodiversity. Here, we studied the elevational patterns in species richness and evenness of stream bio lm bacteria and diatoms in six mountains in Asia and Europe. We also reviewed published results for elevational richness patterns for soil and stream microbes in a literature analysis. Our results revealed that even within the same ecosystem type (that is, stream) or geographical region, bacteria and diatoms showed contrasting patterns in diversity. Stream microbes, including present stream data, tend to show signi cantly increasing or decreasing elevational patterns in richness, contrasting the ndings for soil microbes that typically showed nonsigni cant or signi cantly decreasing patterns. In all six mountains for bacteria and in four mountains for diatoms, species richness and evenness were positively correlated. e variation in bacteria and diatom richness and evenness were substantially explained by anthropogenic driven factors, such as total phosphorus (TP). However, diatom richness and evenness were also related to di erent main drivers as richness was mostly related to pH, while evenness was most explained by TP. Our results highlight the lack of consistent elevational biodiversity patterns of microbes and further indicate that the two facets of biodiversity may respond di erently to environmental gradients.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This study compares plant communities in the mountainous regions of Al-Akhdar and Nafusa in northern Libya. The two regions differ in species composition, life form frequency, and patterns of reproductive phenology between elevation zones and between regions. Species diversity, life form distribution, and duration of flowering and fruiting were all affected by elevation. Both regions showed spring flowering, but only Al-Akhdar showed fall flowering. Climate change is expected to cause upward shifts of plant communities and loss of sensitive species over time.
Diversity of halophytes growing in the university of peshawar botanical garde...Raees Khan
The present study was conducted to investigate the Halophytic Biodiversity of the University of Peshawar Botanical Garden. The study revealed 37 halophytic plant species belonging to 34 genera and 18 families. Four families were of monocotyledons and 14 families were of Dicotyledons. The leading family was Poaceae with 10 species (27.03%), followed by Chenopodiaceae with 4 species (10.81%) and Papilionaceae with 3 species (8.81%). The remaining families consisted of less than 3 species each. The Halo-physiotypic classification revealed that Xerohalophytes were dominant with 12 (32.43%) species, Hydrohalophytes 9 (24.32%), Psammophytes6 (16.22%), Weedy 5 (13.51%), Xerohalophyte 3(8.11%), while Chasmophytes and Phrea with 1(2.70%) species each. The Electric conductivity (EC) of the soil ranges from 6.9 to 15.8 dS/m and the soil texture varied from loamy sand to clay. On the basis of biological spectrum the Thererophytes and Nanophanerophytes were dominant with 13(35.14%) species each, followed by Chamaephytes 5 (13.51%) species, Microphanerophytes and Mesophanerophytes 2(5.41%) species each and Megaphanerophytes sand Hemicryptophytes with 1(2.70%) species each. Leaf size spectrum was dominated by Nanophylls with 14(37.84%) species, followed by Microphylls 11(29.73%), Leptophylls 6(16.21%), Macrophylls 3(8.12%), Mesophylls 2(5.41%) and Megaphylls with 1(2.70%) species. Abundance status indicated that 21(56.76%) were frequent followed by dominant and rare with 8(21.62%) species. Phenologically 27(72.97%) species were in reproductive and 10(27.03%) were in vegetative stages.
Vegetation dynamics in the western himalayas, diversity indices and climate c...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Vegetation provides the first tropic trophic level in mountain ecosystems and hence requires proper documentation and quantification in relation to abiotic environmental variables both at individual and aggregate levels. The complex and dynamic Himalayas with their varying climate and topography exhibit diverse vegetation that provides a range of ecosystem services. The biodiversity of these mountains is also under the influence of diverse human cultures and land uses. The present paper is not only first of its kind but also quite unique because of the use of modern statistical techniques for the quantification of Diversity Indices of plant species and communities. The vegetation was sampled in three categories, i.e., trees, shrubs and herbs, as follows: a height of ≥ 5m were classified in the tree layer, shrubs were all woody species of height 1m and 5m and, finally, the herb layer comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in height. The presence/absence of all vascular plants was recorded on pre-prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast height was measured using diameter tape. Coverage of herbaceous vegetation was visually estimated according to Daubenmire and Braun Blanquet methods. It gives overall abundance of vascular plants on one hand and composition of these species on the other. Data was analysed in Canonical Community Coordination Package (CANOCO) to measure diversity indices of plant communities and habitat types. Results for five plant communities/habitat types indicated that plant biodiversity decreased along the altitude. Shannon Diversity Index values range between 3.3 and 4. N2 index and Index of Sample Variance were also designed. All of these Diversity Indices showed the highest values for the communities/habitats of north facing slopes at middle altitudes. Higher plant diversity at these slopes and altitudes can be associated to the period of snow cover which is longer and a relatively denser tree cover as compared to the southern slopes and hence the soil has high moisture which supports high biodiversity in return. Global warming causes desertification in number of fragile mountain ecosystem around the globe. These findings suggest that species diversity decreases along the measured ecological gradient under the influence of deforestation coupled with global climatic change.
This document summarizes a study on the spatial distribution of four genera of epiphytic orchids (Pleurothallis, Epidendrum, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia) in a fragment of regenerating montane cloud forest in southern Ecuador. The study found that the distributions of the orchid genera varied with altitude, with Epidendrum and Lepanthes more frequent at lower elevations and Pleurothallis and Masdevallia more abundant at higher elevations. Analysis also showed that Pleurothallis and Epidendrum plants tended to be clumped in distribution while Lepanthes and Masdevallia were randomly distributed, possibly due to differences in seed dispers
This document discusses factors relevant to fern biogeography including habitat preferences, reproductive biology, and dispersal mechanisms. It notes that ferns are well-suited for biogeographic studies due to their worldwide distribution, species richness, and independent gametophytic and sporophytic generations. Habitat preferences are outlined for minute filmy ferns and large tree ferns. Geographic ranges and dispersal of fern spores are also summarized.
This document discusses a study that assessed the genetic diversity of two tree species, Brachystegia boehmii and Burkea africana, across a fire gradient in the Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique using ISSR molecular markers. The results showed high levels of genetic polymorphism and diversity in both species. B. africana displayed higher diversity, likely due to its greater tolerance to fire. While fire differentially impacted genetic diversity between the species, overall diversity was high and population survival does not seem threatened by fire frequency, consistent with the reserve being a less disturbed miombo woodland area.
Spatial Structure Of Pleurothallis, Masdevallia,utplcbcm1
This study examined the spatial distribution of four epiphytic orchid genera (Pleurothallis, Epidendrum, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia) in a 30-year-old secondary cloud forest fragment in southern Ecuador. The researchers established plots at three elevations and recorded all trees, shrubs, lianas, and orchids. They found that Pleurothallis and Epidendrum exhibited clumped distributions while Lepanthes and Masdevallia were randomly distributed. Epidendrum and Pleurothallis abundance decreased with increasing elevation while Pleurothallis and Masdevallia abundance increased with elevation. Phorophyte identity and size did
Spatial Structure Of Pleurothallis, Masdevallia,cbcmutpl
This document summarizes a study on the spatial distribution of epiphytic orchids from four genera (Pleurothallis, Epidendrum, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia) in a fragment of regenerating montane cloud forest in southern Ecuador. The study found:
1) Orchid distributions varied with altitude, with Epidendrum and Lepanthes more frequent at lower elevations and Pleurothallis and Masdevallia more abundant at higher elevations.
2) The most common host trees also had the greatest richness and numbers of orchids. Pleurothallis occupied the most host trees while Masdevallia occupied the fewest.
Spatial Structure Of Pleurothallis, Masdevallia,guest22eb17
This document summarizes a study on the spatial distribution of epiphytic orchids from four genera (Pleurothallis, Epidendrum, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia) in a fragment of regenerating montane cloud forest in southern Ecuador. The study found:
1) Orchid distributions varied with altitude, with Epidendrum and Lepanthes more frequent at lower elevations and Pleurothallis and Masdevallia more abundant at higher elevations.
2) The most common host trees also had the greatest richness and numbers of orchids. Pleurothallis occupied the most host trees while Masdevallia occupied the fewest.
Spatial Structure Of Pleurothallis, Masdevallia,cbcmutpl
This document summarizes a study on the spatial distribution of epiphytic orchids from four genera (Pleurothallis, Epidendrum, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia) in a fragment of regenerating montane cloud forest in southern Ecuador. Some key findings include:
1) The most abundant orchid genus was Stelis, followed by Epidendrum, Pleurothallis, Lepanthes, and Masdevallia. Orchid distributions varied with altitude, with Epidendrum and Lepanthes more frequent at lower elevations and Pleurothallis and Masdevallia more abundant at higher elevations.
2) Orch
This article examines how climate and herbivory have influenced the evolution of Senecio pterophorus, a plant native to South Africa that has invaded other regions. The study conducted a common garden experiment with populations from throughout the plant's native and introduced ranges, subjecting them to different watering treatments. It found that plants from introduced regions grew smaller and reproduced less than native plants, indicating genetic divergence related to climate differences rather than herbivory. Specifically, introduced plants adapted traits similar to native plants experiencing comparable drought conditions. The results suggest climate, not herbivory, has been the main driver of rapid evolution in S. pterophorus after invasion.
WOODY PLANT RICHNESS AND NDVI RESPONSE TO DROUGHT EVENTS IN CATALONIAN (NORT...Hibrids
This study examines the relationship between woody plant species richness and the impact of drought events on forest canopy cover, as measured by NDVI anomalies, across different forest types in Catalonia, Spain. Forest plot data on species richness were compared to satellite imagery showing NDVI responses during a major drought in 2003. The relationship between richness and NDVI response differed among forest types and interacted with climate, as summarized by the Thorntwaite index. In some drier forest types, lower richness was linked to greater NDVI decreases during drought, while the opposite pattern emerged in some moister forest types. The results suggest the diversity-stability relationship shifts across the regional climatic gradient.
Kimmerer, R. W. and T. F. H. Allen. 1982. The role of disturbance in.pdfarri2009av
Jim can run 5 miles per hour on level ground on a still day. One windy day, he runs 12 miles
with the wind, and in the same amount of time runs 7 miles against the wind. What is the rate of
the wind? (Round your answer to the nearest tenth, it necessary.) 5 miles per hour 2.5 miles per
how 1.3 miles per hour 19 miles per hour Find the constant of proportionality k, and write the
linear function relating the two variables. Suppose that y varies directly with x. When x = 1/3,
then y = 4. k = 1/12; y = 1/12 x k = 11/3; y = x + 11/3 k = 12; y = 12x k = 1/4; y = 1/4 x
Solve. The velocity v of a falling object (ignoring air resistance) is directly proportional to the
time t of the fall. If, after 4 seconds, the velocity is 128 feet per second, what will its velocity be
after 7 seconds? 131 foot/second 224 feet/second 221 feet/second 7/32 foot/second Find the
constant of proportionality k, and write the linear function relating the two variables. Suppose
that y varies inversely with x. When x = 15, then y = 3. k = 5; y = 5x k = 45; y = x/45 k = 45; y
= 45/x k = 1/45; y = 1/45x
Solution
35) Let the wind speed be w:
with the wind = w +5
against the wind =5 -w
12/ (w+5) = 7/(5 -w)
12(5 -w) = 7(w +5)
60 -12w = 7w +35
25 = 19w
w = 25/19 = 1.3 miles per hour
Option C)
36) Let the relation ir represented as : y = kx
x = 1/3 ; y=4
4 = k/3
k = 12
So, y = 12x
Option C.
The study examined the effect of distance from a water source (Temescal Canyon creek) on plant biodiversity. Data on the number of plant species was collected within quadrats placed 0m and 1m from the creek across 16 replicate sites. Statistical analysis found significantly higher average species richness and a greater range of species closer to the creek, supporting the hypothesis that less distance from water leads to greater biodiversity. The results demonstrate the importance of water sources for developing plant diversity in ecosystems.
Diversity and distribution of butterflies in the open and close canopy forest...Innspub Net
Butterflies were sampled in Cadaclan, San Fernando La Union Botanical Garden (LUBG) of North Luzon to provide information on species-level diversity trend and distribution of butterflies on the open and close canopy portion of the dipterocarp forest from 2012-2014 using field transect method Species accumulation curve shows that additional sampling is needed for the possible turnover of species. Butterfly abundance was higher in open canopy forest with a mean individual of 8.14 per 10 meters out of the 814 total individuals. The close canopy forest had only 4.57 mean individuals for the total of 457. Species level diversity was higher in open canopy forest (H’ = 1.957) compared with the closed canopy forest (H’ = 1.933). These results suggest that butterflies prefer open canopy forest or clearing for their plights. Butterfly spatial distribution was uneven in the dipterocarp forest of LUBG with only 6 species of aggregate assemblages and 98 species with random distribution. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-1-january-2015-jbes/
Similar to A Comparison Of Species Rchness Of Bryophytes In Nepal, Central Nepal (20)
The document discusses applications of DNA technology including the Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Project was a 13-year international project completed in 2003 that mapped and sequenced the entire human genome. Its goals were to identify all human genes, determine the sequence of DNA's 3 billion base pairs, store this information in databases, improve analysis tools, and address ethical issues arising from the research. The project used genetic mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing approaches.
This document provides a summary of Nepal's State of the Environment Report from 2000. Some key points:
- Population growth and unsustainable use of natural resources have contributed to major environmental problems like land degradation, deforestation, and pollution.
- Only 30% of the population has access to piped water and only 7% has sanitation facilities. Water quality is degrading.
- Forest cover has declined significantly though community forestry programs have helped. Biodiversity faces threats from habitat loss.
- Solid waste is a major problem in cities and hazardous waste disposal needs improvement. Air pollution, especially from vehicles, is a concern in urban areas.
- Agriculture has increased but yields remain
New Record Of Fleshy Fungi From Khumbu Region, Nepalkiran
1) A new species of fleshy fungi, Pulverboletus ravenelii, was recently collected in Ghat, Nepal at an altitude of 2604 meters.
2) P. ravenelii is classified in the class Basidiomycetes and was found growing under coniferous forest dominated by Pinus wallichiana.
3) This represents the first record of P. ravenelii in Nepal.
This document discusses lichens and their use as bioindicators of environmental quality. Some key points:
- Lichens are a symbiotic organism composed of a fungus and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. They can live in extreme environments and are found worldwide.
- Lichens are good bioindicators because they are long-lived, can absorb environmental pollutants, and their presence/health reflects air quality over long periods of time. Damage to lichens can indicate high levels of pollutants like sulfur dioxide, fluoride, and ammonia.
- The document describes a classroom project where students measure lichen coverage on trees near their school to assess local air quality.
Floral Diversity In Wetlands Of Nepal In Terai Region Of Nepalkiran
This article provides an overview of floral diversity in the wetlands of Nepal's Terai region. It finds that the Terai contains 720 species of vascular plants, including 23 pteridophytes, 2 gymnosperms, 469 dicots and 226 monocots. The Koshi Tappu and Ghodaghodi wetlands contain 670 and 473 species respectively. Many plant species in the Terai wetlands are economically important or endemic. However, the wetlands face threats from habitat loss and invasive alien species.
This document describes 36 taxa of desmids belonging to 7 genera that were identified from Bees-hazaar Lake in Chitwan, Nepal. Eleven of the taxa are reported for the first time in Nepal. The desmids were collected from five sites around the lake from June to September 2007. The taxa identified, their morphological characteristics, and known distributions are described. This work contributes to expanding the knowledge of desmid diversity in Nepal.
Wild edible fungi collection contributes significantly to livelihoods in rural Nepal and neighboring countries. In Nepal, morels are the main exported fungi, though over 50 species are consumed locally. Neighboring countries like China and Tibet rely heavily on fungi collection for rural incomes. While Nepal has potential to increase exports and domestic trade of other fungi, quality control, training, and sustainable management practices need to be established first to fully realize economic benefits and ensure resource protection.
Andrewsianthus ferrugineus is an endangered species of liverwort endemic to the Himalayas. It grows on tree trunks and rocks in alpine forests and scrublands between 2440-4075 meters in Central Nepal, East Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. The small red-brown plant is dioecious with fragile leafy stems and lobed leaves. Its habitat in the alpine region is threatened by overgrazing, forest clearing, burning, and fuel wood collection.
Optimal Defence Theory And Secondary Chemistrykiran
This study examined variation in glucosinolate content between leaves and petals of wild radish (Raphanus sativus) to test predictions of optimal defence theory. The theory predicts that tissues most important for fitness, like reproductive parts, will be constitutively more defended. The study found that petals had higher constitutive glucosinolate levels than leaves, supporting the prediction. However, individual glucosinolates differed in their degree of inducibility between tissues. Petal colour variants also differed in their induced responses but not constitutive levels. The results provide evidence that selection from pollinators and herbivores could maintain variation in defence chemistry and petal colour in wild radish.
Nepal has many globally significant wetland ecosystems that provide ecological, economic, cultural, and recreational value. However, wetlands are being degraded and destroyed by natural succession, pollution, dams, overexploitation, siltation, and population growth. A lack of awareness, effective policy, responsible institutions, and clear ownership has exacerbated these threats. A conservation plan is needed to protect wetlands through stronger national support, protected area management, conservation of unprotected wetlands, and clear institutional roles for wetland governance.
Genetic engineering involves isolating and moving genes within and between species using recombinant DNA techniques. This involves using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sequences, and DNA ligase to join DNA fragments. Genes can be cloned by inserting DNA fragments into plasmids or viruses, which are then used to transform host cells. The transformed cells are cultured to produce multiple copies of the gene of interest. Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry such as producing therapeutic proteins, engineering pest-resistant crops, and creating transgenic organisms.
B I O T E C H N O L O G Y A N D G E N E T I C E N G E N E E R I N Gkiran
Biotechnology uses techniques such as genetic engineering and cloning to modify organisms or their genes for useful applications like producing therapeutic proteins, developing genetically engineered vaccines, and creating transgenic plants with desirable traits. Techniques include transferring genes between organisms using vectors like plasmids or viruses, screening libraries of cloned DNA to find genes of interest, and using polymerase chain reaction to amplify specific DNA sequences. While biotechnology has potential benefits, it also faces controversies regarding long term safety and environmental impacts of genetically modified organisms.
The document discusses applications of DNA technology including the Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Project was a 13-year international project completed in 2003 that mapped and sequenced the entire human genome. Its goals were to identify all human genes, determine the sequence of DNA's 3 billion base pairs, store this information in databases, improve analysis tools, and address ethical issues arising from the research. The project used genetic mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing approaches.
A Comparison Of Species Rchness Of Bryophytes In Nepal, Central Nepal
1. Journal of Biogeography (J. Biogeogr.) (2007) 34, 1907–1915
ORIGINAL A comparison of altitudinal species
ARTICLE
richness patterns of bryophytes with
other plant groups in Nepal, Central
Himalaya
Oriol Grau1,2*, John-Arvid Grytnes3 and H. J. B. Birks2,3,4
1
Departament de Biologia Vegetal, Universitat ABSTRACT
de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028,
Aim To explore species richness patterns in liverworts and mosses along a central
Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, 2Bjerknes Centre
for Climate Research, University of Bergen,
Himalayan altitudinal gradient in Nepal (100–5500 m a.s.l.) and to compare these
´
Allegaten 55, N-5007, Bergen, Norway, patterns with patterns observed for ferns and flowering plants. We also evaluate
3
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, the potential importance of Rapoport’s elevational rule in explaining the observed
´
Allegaten 41, N-5007, Bergen, Norway, richness patterns for liverworts and mosses.
4
Environmental Change Research Centre, Location Nepal, Central Himalaya.
University College London, London WC1E
6BT, UK Methods We used published data on the altitudinal ranges of over 840 Nepalese
mosses and liverworts to interpolate presence between maximum and minimum
recorded elevations, thereby giving estimates of species richness for 100-m
altitudinal bands. These were compared with previously published patterns for
ferns and flowering plants, derived in the same way. Rapoport’s elevational rule
was assessed by correlation analyses and the statistical significance of the observed
correlations was evaluated by Monte Carlo simulations.
Results There are strong correlations between richness of the four groups of
plants. A humped, unimodal relationship between species richness and altitude
was observed for both liverworts and mosses, with maximum richness at 2800 m
and 2500 m, respectively. These peaks contrast with the richness peak of ferns at
1900 m and of vascular plants, which have a plateau in species richness between
1500 and 2500 m. Endemic liverworts have their maximum richness at 3300 m,
whereas non-endemic liverworts show their maximum richness at 2700 m. The
proportion of endemic species is highest at about 4250 m. There is no support
from Nepalese mosses for Rapoport’s elevational rule. Despite a high correlation
between altitude and elevational range for Nepalese liverworts, results from null
simulation models suggest that no clear conclusions can be made about whether
liverworts support Rapoport’s elevational rule.
Main conclusions Different demands for climatic variables such as available
energy and water may be the main reason for the differences between the
observed patterns for the four plant groups. The mid-domain effect may explain
part of the observed pattern in moss and liverwort richness but it probably only
works as a modifier of the main underlying relationship between climate and
species richness.
*Correspondence: Oriol Grau, Departament de Keywords
`
Biologia Vegetal, Unitat de Botanica, Universitat
Altitudinal gradient, bryophytes, elevational gradient, endemism, Himalaya,
de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal, 645, 08028,
Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. liverworts, mid-domain effect, mosses, Rapoport’s elevational rule, species
E-mail: grau.oriol@gmail.com richness.
ª 2007 The Authors www.blackwellpublishing.com/jbi 1907
Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01745.x
2. O. Grau, J.-A. Grytnes and H. J. B. Birks
elevational ranges of species is bounded by the highest and
INTRODUCTION
lowest elevations, so-called hard boundaries. Contrary to
The Himalaya contain the highest mountains in the world and Rapoport’s rule, the hard-boundary hypothesis predicts that
a very wide range of ecoclimate zones (Dobremez, 1976). These species ranges at higher elevations are narrow (Bhattarai &
mountains are therefore an excellent system for evaluating Vetaas, 2006). In the present study these two hypotheses are
ecological and biogeographical patterns and theories of species discussed in addition to climate as explanatory factors for the
¨
richness (Korner, 2000). Many studies have investigated observed altitudinal patterns of bryophyte richness.
patterns of plant species richness along altitudinal gradients In summary, we have the following aims: (1) to describe the
¨ ´
(e.g. Ohlemuller & Wilson, 2000; Gomez et al., 2003; Grytnes, richness pattern of liverworts and mosses along the altitudinal
2003; Oommen & Shanker, 2005; Kluge & Kessler, 2006). In gradient in Nepal; (2) to compare the altitudinal patterns of
many cases, a mid-altitude peak in species richness has been species richness of liverworts and mosses with the patterns
found (Rahbek, 2005). However, a linear decrease of richness found for vascular plants and ferns in the same area; (3) to
with altitude has also been found in some studies (e.g. Stevens, compare the altitudinal patterns in richness of endemic
1992; Rey Benayas, 1995; Brown & Lomolino, 1998; Korner, ¨ liverworts with richness patterns of non-endemic liverworts;
2002). Factors causing variation in species richness may differ and (4) to evaluate the potential importance of Rapoport’s
between different organisms, resulting in different patterns elevational rule and the mid-domain effect in explaining
(Kessler, 2000; Bhattarai & Vetaas, 2003; Grytnes et al., 2006). liverwort and moss species richness along the altitudinal
Comparing altitudinal richness patterns between different gradient in Nepal.
organisms along the same gradient may therefore provide clues
to what determines species richness patterns at broad scales
METHODS
(Lomolino, 2001). In Nepal, species richness patterns along
altitudinal gradients have been analysed for vascular plant
Location and biogeography of the study area
species and fern species. A humped relationship was found for
both vascular plants and ferns (Vetaas & Grytnes, 2002; The Himalayan altitudinal gradient is the longest bioclimatic
Bhattarai & Vetaas, 2003; Bhattarai et al., 2004). In this study gradient in the world extending from 60 m a.s.l. to more than
we focus on altitudinal patterns in liverwort and moss species 8000 m a.s.l. within 150–200 km south to north; it comprises
richness in the same area and compare the observed patterns in extensive tropical/subtropical, temperate, subalpine and alpine
species richness with the richness patterns for vascular plants climatic zones (Bhattarai et al., 2004).
and ferns. Our study area is in Nepal, which covers 900 km from east
Endemic species are of a particular interest in conservation to west in the Central Himalaya (80º04¢–88º12¢ E, 26º22¢–
and management and in biogeography because patterns in 30º27¢ N). The Himalaya consist of three ranges running
range-restricted species may reveal insights into processes of south-east to north-west in Nepal: the Siwalik range (maxi-
speciation. Vetaas & Grytnes (2002) studied the richness of mum 1000–1500 m), the Mahabharat range (maximum 2700–
endemic vascular plants in relation to altitude in Nepal. They 3000 m) and the Great Himalaya (5000–8000 m) (Hagen,
found an elevated number of endemic vascular plant species 1969; Manandhar, 1999; Bhattarai et al., 2004).
between 3800 and 4200 m, while the fraction of endemics Beug & Miehe (1999) present a cross-section of the major
increased linearly from the lowlands to the highest altitudes. In vegetation types in Central Nepal in relation to altitude,
this study we compare these observations with the altitudinal topography and climate. The principal factors governing the
patterns of Nepalese endemic liverworts. Mosses have too few vegetation zonation are altitude and the duration of cloud
endemics in Nepal for such an analysis. cover and mist. According to their scheme, forests of the
Climate, productivity and other energy-related variables are lower foothills are represented by south-eastern impoverished
commonly proposed to explain species richness patterns along stands of Asian Dipterocarpaceae forest dominated by Shorea
altitudinal gradients (Rahbek, 1997). Other hypotheses include robusta. Bryophyte growth is generally not great in these
‘Rapoport’s rule’ and the ‘mid-domain effect’. Rapoport’s tropical forests. The vegetation above 1000 m is generally
elevational rule proposes that there is a positive correlation dominated by lauraceous trees (e.g. Schima wallichii, Castan-
between elevation and the elevational range of species (Stevens, opsis indica, Castanopsis tribuloides), which form subtropical
1992). This is usually explained by the fact that species evergreen forests that vary in composition from east to west.
occurring at high elevations must be able to withstand a broad Bryophytes are present but are not luxuriant. There is a
range of climatic conditions and this leads to a wide elevational striking change in the evergreen forests below and above
range. This will, in turn, lead to more species because of a 2000 m, associated with the average altitude of the lower
spillover effect around the range edges called a rescue effect condensation level of the cloud belt. The lower cloud-forest
(Stevens, 1992). Colwell & Hurtt (1994) proposed the mid- belt (2000–2500 m) is dominated by Pinus wallichiana–Quercus
domain effect to explain mid-elevation peaks in species rich- lanata (2000–2500 m), Lithocarpus elegans (2000–2300 m) and
ness. They suggest that mid-elevation peaks in species richness Quercus glauca (2100–2500 m), and is characterized
arise because of the increasing overlap of species ranges by abundant ferns, epiphytic orchids and evergreen ferns,
towards the centre of the domain, as the extent of the and large foliose lichens (e.g. Lobaria spp.). The middle
1908 Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
3. Altitudinal species richness patterns of bryophytes in Nepal
cloud-forest belt (2500–3000 m) is dominated by Quercus
Data analysis
semecarpifolia–Tsuga dumosa forests, and supports abundant
Calypothercium, Meteorium and Barbella beard-mosses. In the The elevational gradient was divided between 100 and 5500 m
upper cloud-forest belt (3000–4200 m) Abies spectabilis– for liverworts and between 100 and 5000 m for mosses.
Betula utilis forests are found, along with abundant tufts Between the upper and lower elevational limits, species were
and mats of epiphytic liverworts (e.g. Herbertus spp., Plagio- counted at every 100-m interval in the same way as in Vetaas &
chila spp.). Bryophytes, both mosses and liverworts, dominate Grytnes (2002) and Bhattarai et al. (2004). This gives an
the ground layer and form extensive carpets over boulders and estimate of gamma diversity, defined as the total richness of an
tree bases. Epiphytic beard-lichens (Usnea spp.) can be locally entire elevational zone (sensu Lomolino, 2001). In this study,
abundant, especially in openings in the upper cloud-forest. species richness (Peet, 1974) is defined as the number of
Large leafy liverworts (e.g. Schill & Long, 2003; Long, 2005) species present in each 100-m band. When estimating species
can also occur frequently in the subalpine Rhododendron– richness it was assumed that species were present in all
Potentilla–Kobresia–Juniperus communities, especially on steep elevational zones between the range limits (interpolation). This
north- or east-facing slopes up to an altitude of about may create an artificially humped pattern (Grytnes & Vetaas,
4800 m. Above that, up to 5200 m, the vegetation gradually 2002), but in this study the main aim is to compare elevational
becomes open and the cover and number of species of mosses species richness patterns for different plant groups that are all
and lichens often exceed the cover and richness of flowering treated in the same way so as to highlight similarities or
plants (Beug & Miehe, 1999). differences in where maximum species richnesses are found.
Any differences in the optimal altitudes for species richness for
the different groups are probably not an artefact of the
Data sources
interpolation method used. In addition, bryophytes are rarely
For quantifying the richness patterns of mosses and liverworts found at the lowermost elevations, and because interpolations
in Nepal we used the data on elevational ranges published in will have their largest effect on the observed pattern at the
Mosses of Nepal (Kattel & Adhikari, 1992) and Liverworts of lowermost and uppermost elevations, the use of interpolation
Nepal (Kattel, 2002). The maximum and minimum altitudes will probably not have a significant impact on the resulting
known for each species are given and endemic species are also bryophyte richness patterns.
noted. Elevational limits are given for 368 liverwort and To describe the species richness patterns in relation to
480 moss taxa, from which in a few cases varieties or altitude, a generalized additive model (GAM) with a cubic
subspecies are considered as separate taxa. In this study we smooth spline (Hastie & Tibshirani, 1990), as implemented in
use the term ‘species richness’ for the number of taxa. The R 2.2.1 (R Development Core Team, 2004) was used. The
exact number of endemic mosses and liverworts growing in GAM approach is especially useful for data exploration as it
Nepal is not known. Chaudhary (1998) reported about makes no a priori assumptions about the type of relationship
30 endemic bryophyte species in Nepal, of which only four being modelled. The GAM approach contrasts with the
were mosses. Kattel (2002) lists a slightly higher number of generalized linear model approach where a priori assumptions
endemic bryophytes, with 33 endemic liverwort species and about the relationships being modelled (e.g. a symmetrical
three mosses. Knowledge about bryophytes in Nepal is humped relationship) are required. Richness patterns for
continually increasing. Species new to Nepal are being mosses, liverworts, vascular plants and ferns were regressed
regularly reported (e.g. Zhu & Long, 2003; Long, 2005, against altitude and plotted for comparison.
2006; Wilbraham & Long, 2005) and previously undescribed Initially, species richness data were considered to follow a
species are also being found in Nepal (e.g. Ochra, 1989; Poisson distribution as is usual for variables with discrete
Furuki & Long, 1994; Long, 1999; Grolle et al., 2003). values (McCullagh & Nelder, 1989). However, a quasi-Poisson
Taxonomic revisions (Schill & Long, 2003; Long et al., 2006) distribution was used because of overdispersion. The propor-
and the resolution of synonyms and erroneous records (e.g. tion of endemic vs. non-endemic liverworts was assumed to
Long, 1995) are also improving knowledge about the follow a binomial distribution with the number of endemics as
composition of Nepal’s moss and liverwort floras. At present successes and the number of non-endemics as failures. For the
there are no published checklists and altitudinal distributional quasi-Poisson analyses a logarithmic link was used, and for the
data that update Kattel & Adhikari (1992) and Kattel (2002). binomial analyses a logit link was used.
Given the current state of knowledge about Nepalese Rapoport’s elevational rule was evaluated by correlating
bryophytes, these two monographs (Kattel & Adhikari, mean species altitudinal ranges for all species found in each
1992; Kattel, 2002) are considered adequate for this broad- 100-m elevational interval with altitude. This has been
scale study of species richness patterns in relation to altitude criticized on several grounds (Colwell & Lees, 2000). In an
and for comparison with richness patterns in other plant attempt to allow for possible artefacts we compared our
groups (D.G. Long, personal communication). Data for fern observed correlations with the results from Monte Carlo
and vascular plant species richness were obtained from simulations under a null model. The null model was made by
Bhattarai et al. (2004) and Vetaas & Grytnes (2002), randomly choosing one of the feasible observed altitudinal
respectively. ranges for each of the observed mid-points taking into account
Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915 1909
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
4. O. Grau, J.-A. Grytnes and H. J. B. Birks
the boundary constraints. This approach is the same as Model
3 in Colwell & Hurtt (1994). The simulation was run 9999
times and for each permutation the same correlation between
200
mean altitudinal range and altitude was calculated. A one-
sided test was performed based on these simulations because
Rapoport’s rule predicts a positive correlation between mean
Species richness of mosses
150
altitudinal range and altitude. An empirical P-value was
derived from the number of simulations with a positive
correlation larger than (or equal to) the observed value.
100
Due to difficulties in separating the effect of interpolation
and undersampling from the mid-domain effect (Grytnes &
Vetaas, 2002; Zapata et al., 2003), no specific randomizations
50
were performed to test for this in this study. The mid-domain
effect is therefore only discussed briefly in the discussion and
compared with the simulations made in Grytnes & Vetaas
0
(2002) for vascular plants along the same gradient. Although
this is not optimal, we refrain from ‘guessing’ how complete 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
the biological sampling has been in this case. As a result, the Altitude (m)
assumptions and simulations made in Grytnes & Vetaas (2002) Figure 2 Moss richness in relation to altitude (m) in Nepal. The
may therefore be as reliable as anything else, given the current fitted line represents a GAM model with a cubic smooth spline.
state of knowledge of bryophyte recording in Nepal.
1200
RESULTS 200
Both moss and liverwort species richness have a clear humped
1000
relationship with altitude, with a very marked maximum at
middle altitudes (Figs 1 & 2). Mosses have highest richness
150
800
values at around 2500 m, whereas non-endemic liverworts
Species richness
reach their maximum at a slightly higher altitude, at around
2700 m. Endemic liverworts show their maximum richness at
600
100
even higher altitudes, at about 3300 m.
When comparing species richness of liverwort, moss, fern
400
and vascular plant with each other (Fig. 3), all show a
50
200
20
0
150
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Altitude (m)
15
Figure 3 Fern (º), moss (h) and liverwort (D) richness (values
on the left-hand axis) and vascular plant richness ( , values on the
100
Species richness
right-hand axis) in relation to altitude (m) in Nepal. The fitted
lines represent a GAM model with a cubic smooth spline.
10
markedly humped relationship with altitude. This may be a
50
result of underlying ecological patterns or it may, at least
5
partly, be a result of using interpolation with data that are
undersampled. We therefore focus most on the relative
location of the peak in species richness when comparing the
0
0
altitudinal patterns of the different plant groups. Maximum
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 species richness for vascular plants is between 1500 and
Altitude (m)
2500 m. Fern species richness peaks at 1900 m, mosses at
Figure 1 Non-endemic liverwort richness (·, values on the left- 2500 m and liverworts at 2800 m (if endemic and non-
hand axis) and endemic liverwort richness (º, values on the right- endemic taxa are not distinguished). There is a strong
hand axis) in relation to altitude (m) in Nepal. The fitted lines correlation between richness for the different groups (Table 1),
represent a GAM model with a cubic smooth spline. being highest between mosses and liverworts and lowest
1910 Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
5. Altitudinal species richness patterns of bryophytes in Nepal
Table 1 Correlation between species richness along the altitudinal
gradient of Nepal for different groups of plants. All correlations
2500
(Pearson’s product moment correlation) are statistically signifi-
cant (P < 0.05).
Mean altitudinal range
Mosses Liverworts Ferns
2000
Liverworts 0.89 – –
Ferns 0.68 0.34 –
Vascular plants 0.74 0.59 0.74
1500
between ferns and liverworts. The maximum elevation for
mosses is achieved by Grimmia somervillii at 5100 m (Kattel &
Adhikari, 1992). The highest elevation for liverworts is
achieved by Anastrophyllum assimile, which reaches 5450 m
(Kattel, 2002).
The proportion of endemic to non-endemic liverworts is
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
highest around 4250 m, with a steady increase starting at Altitude (m)
around 1200 m, where the first endemic species is found
(Fig. 4). The decrease in the proportion of endemics at the Figure 5 Liverwort altitudinal range (m) versus altitude (m) in
Nepal. The fitted line represents an ordinary least square (OLS)
highest altitudes is a consequence of the lack of endemic
linear regression.
liverworts over 5000 m.
According to our data, the altitudinal ranges of liverworts
a marginal P-value makes it impossible to accept or reject
show a statistically significant increase with altitude as assessed
unambiguously the relevance of Rapoport’s rule on Nepalese
by classical statistical tests (Fig. 5) (r = 0.63, P < 0.01)
liverworts. Since this P-value was very close to the chosen
supporting Rapoport’s elevational rule. In the lower altitudinal
significance level at 0.05, we performed a jack-knife (leave-one-
bands, the average altitudinal range is around 1500 m, whereas
out) analysis to investigate if the P-value was due to a single
the species found in the highest altitudinal bands have an
species. This was done by repeating the permutation analysis
average altitudinal range greater than 2000 m. At first glance
leaving out one species at the time (to reduce computing time
such results appear to support Rapoport’s elevational rule.
we did 999 permutations for each species). For two of the
However, after running the Monte Carlo simulations, it is
species the P-value became lower than what is observed for all
found that such a significant positive correlation between
species [one of these was barely below 0.05 (0.042)]. For all the
elevational ranges and altitude could have been obtained by
remaining species the P-values from the jack-knife analyses
chance, because the empirically derived P-value is 0.063. Such
were higher than the P-value for all species. Mosses showed no
significant positive correlation between mean altitude ranges
and altitude (plot not shown, r = )0.07, P > 0.1), and the
permutations confirmed this with an empirical P-value of
0.20
0.616. Thus, moss richness does not support Rapoport’s
elevational rule either.
0.15
Proportion of endemics
DISCUSSION
Mid-elevation peak in species richness
0.10
Bryophyte richness varies strongly with altitude in Nepal
(Figs 1 & 2), similarly to the pattern observed for vascular
0.05
plants (Grytnes & Vetaas, 2002; Oommen & Shanker, 2005;
Bhattarai & Vetaas, 2006) and ferns (Bhattarai et al., 2004). In
all cases, the patterns show a mid-elevation peak in species
richness. A hump-shaped relationship of bryophyte richness
0.00
with altitude has also been found in other areas, such as in the
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 tropics (Gradstein & Pocs, 1989; Wolf, 1993). Andrew et al.
Altitude (m)
(2003) also reported a unimodal response in some mountains
Figure 4 Proportion of endemic versus non-endemic liverwort in Tasmania, although it was not general for all sites studied.
species in relation to altitude (m) in Nepal. The fitted line rep- When comparing our results to the cross-section of the
resents a GAM model with a cubic smooth spline. vegetation in the altitudinal belts of Central Nepal described by
Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915 1911
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
6. O. Grau, J.-A. Grytnes and H. J. B. Birks
Beug & Miehe (1999), ferns have their maximum richness temperature and PET values, resulting in higher water stress.
100 m below the altitude where the lower cloud-forest belt The decrease in species richness at high altitudes is probably
starts; moss richness peaks exactly at the altitude where the due to ecophysiological constraints, such as reduced growing
middle cloud-forest belt starts and liverwort richness peaks season, low temperatures, frost susceptibility and low energy
about 200 m below the lower limit of the upper cloud-forest ¨
(Brown, 2001; Korner, 2003).
belt. According to data from Bhattarai et al. (2004), vascular One additionally possible important factor for the low
plants in Nepal have a maximum richness at around 14–17°C species richness at high altitudes is that a high proportion of
mean annual temperature and 250–330 growing days, whereas the Nepalese bryophytes have been described as epiphytes or
ferns have a maximum richness at around 15°C mean annual are associated with logs and fallen trees (Kattel, 2002; H.J.B.
temperature and 300 growing days. Based on climatic data Birks, personal observation). Forests in the Nepalese foothills
from Bhattarai et al. (2004), we estimate that maximum (2500–4000 m) provide a range of habitats for mosses and
species richness for mosses occurs at around 13°C and 265 liverworts including rocks, logs, trunks, branches, twigs and
growing days, whereas maximum liverwort richness occurs at leaves, all of which support bryophytes, especially in the zone
around 10°C and 225 growing days. of strongest summer rain (up to 4000 mm) between 2500 and
Maximum liverwort richness is found at lower mean annual 3600 m (Beug & Miehe, 1999). The timberline in the Nepalese
temperatures. This coincides with a short growing-season Himalaya is around 4000–4300 m (Bhattarai & Vetaas, 2006).
length and high moisture. Liverworts are particularly prevalent At this altitude there is a low bryophyte richness, which
in moist and cool habitats (Turner et al., 2006), and our suggests that the lack of forests and trees and hence the absence
findings support this. The fact that liverworts may require of important habitats may be an important reason for the
more moisture and can withstand a shorter growing season decreasing bryophyte species richness, as occurs with ferns
and low temperatures could be a possible explanation for the (Beug & Miehe, 1999; Bhattarai et al., 2004). A marked
altitudinal differences in the species richness peaks of mosses decrease in bryophyte richness towards the lowlands has also
and liverworts. been found in other vegetation types in Nepal (Bhattarai &
In order to understand how climate may explain bryophyte Vetaas, 2003, 2006; Bhattarai et al., 2004). The very small
richness patterns, it is interesting to relate climate to the number of species found in the lowlands may be due to
evolutionary adaptations of bryophytes. According to Oliver inadequate sampling or, more likely, to habitat loss. Defores-
et al. (2000), the evolution of terrestrial plants might be a tation in the lower part of Nepal started after the control of
result of changes in desiccation tolerance; as species evolved, malaria (Bhattarai et al., 2004), which contributed to extensive
vegetative desiccation tolerance was lost as increased growth habitat loss. However, several plant-hunting expeditions were
rates, structural and morphological complexity and mecha- undertaken prior to extensive deforestation (Bhattarai et al.,
nisms that conserve water within the plant and maintain 2004). In general, the richness and abundance of bryophytes
efficient carbon fixation were selected for. Oliver et al. (2000), decrease dramatically in the lowlands of Himalaya. We
after compiling several recent studies, proposed that liverworts hypothesize that the low bryophyte richness observed here is
were the most primitive group of land plants, and closely not only caused by habitat loss and inadequate sampling, but
related to mosses, whereas mosses were the evolutionary step may also have other explanations, for example unfavourable
prior to tracheophytes, such as ferns and vascular plants. macro- or microclimate, including high PET conditions
Assuming that the driving force of terrestrial plant evolution resulting in lower water availability.
involved coping better with water stress, vascular plants should If the mid-domain effect was the sole important variable it
be better adapted to water conservation than ferns, which in would predict that all species groups should show the same
turn should be better adapted than mosses, which in turn pattern. This is not seen in this study, indicating that the mid-
should be better adapted than liverworts. Such different domain effect alone cannot explain the observed patterns.
adaptations to water stress may provide some explanations Grytnes & Vetaas (2002) argued that hard boundaries, an
for maximum species richness occurring at decreasing alti- underlying monotonic trend in species richness, incomplete
tudes, starting with liverworts at highest elevations, followed sampling and the interpolation method may, in combination,
by mosses and finally ferns and vascular plants towards lower underestimate species number at the gradient extremes, which
altitudes. The order of appearance from higher to lower may help to explain the observed pattern in species richness
altitude may reflect the order in which plant species evolved in along the altitudinal gradient in the Nepalese Himalaya
the past according to the phylogeny presented by Oliver et al. (Grytnes & Vetaas, 2002). However, the clear peaks in species
(2000). The presumably less-evolved adaptation to water stress richness observed for bryophytes do not correspond to any of
in liverworts is associated with higher species richness in areas the simulations made in Grytnes & Vetaas (2002), again
where potential evapotranspiration (PET), the number of indicating that the mid-domain effect may not be important in
growing days and the mean annual temperature are low, creating the observed patterns for bryophytes. At broad scales,
resulting in high moisture. On the other hand, the progres- the influence of the mid-domain effect may be limited and
sively better adaptations of mosses, ferns and vascular plants to overshadowed by area, temperature or energy-related factors,
water stress allow them to have peak richness at altitudes with whereas at intermediate scales the mid-domain effect might
gradually higher number of growing days, mean annual offer a better explanation (Oommen & Shanker, 2005).
1912 Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
7. Altitudinal species richness patterns of bryophytes in Nepal
Differences in scale might be the reason why in some studies
Rapoport’s elevational rule
the mid-domain effect provides more powerful explanations
for observed richness patterns than climatic factors or vice In some studies, Rapoport’s rule has been reported to apply to
versa. trees, seaweeds, arthropods, marine and terrestrial molluscs,
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals (Pianka, 1989;
Stevens, 1989; Gaston, 2003; Almeida-Neto et al., 2006;
Endemism
Hausdorf, 2006; Morin & Chuine, 2006). However, Bhattarai
There is no overlap between the peak of maximum endemic & Vetaas (2006) studied tree species richness in Nepal and
liverwort species at 3300 m and the maximum of non-endemic found no support for Rapoport’s elevational rule since
liverwort species at 2700 m, with a striking 600 m difference altitudinal ranges were narrow at both ends of the gradient
between the peaks (Fig. 1). Similar results have been found for and wide at middle elevations. Although altitudinal ranges
endemic and non-endemic vascular plant species in Nepal increase towards higher altitudes according to our data
(Vetaas & Grytnes, 2002) and for ferns in Costa Rica (Kluge & (Fig. 5), this study gives no clear support for Rapoport’s rule
Kessler, 2006). as proposed by Stevens (1992). The Monte Carlo simulations,
A high degree of isolation generally creates endemism. which compared the observed correlations for this rule with a
Isolation is obviously more pronounced at higher altitudes, as null model, showed that such a pattern, which coincides with
the high peaks may function as islands in a ‘sea’ of lowlands. the predictions from Rapoport’s rule, could have been
In the Nepalese lowlands the environment is more similar to obtained randomly. The null model proposed no significant
the regions surrounding it and species may freely expand their difference in elevational ranges of mosses and liverworts with
ranges. The vegetation in the lowlands has been strongly altitude, and since we found a 6.3% probability that the null
influenced by human activity, and endemics may have been model corresponds to our empirical data we cannot say that
differentially extirpated compared with widespread species. Rapoport’s rule is supported for the Nepalese liverworts. In
Glaciation may add to the isolation effects at higher altitudes addition, the shift between non-endemic and endemic liver-
and may have acted as a dispersal barrier, and enhanced the wort species (Fig. 1) also does not support Rapoport’s
physical barriers created by the mountains, thereby providing elevational rule (Stevens, 1992), which proposes that endemic
a mechanism for increased isolation (Vetaas & Grytnes, 2002). species should increase towards the lowlands because, by
In addition, for vascular plants it is known that broad-scale definition, they have a narrow geographical range.
climatic dynamics can facilitate hybridization between pre- In any case, species ranges result from complex interactions
viously isolated populations, followed by polyploidy, which among many factors ranging from physiological traits to the
may result in new species adapted to conditions following complex history of speciation and dispersal, and constraints
climatic change (Stebbins, 1984). It has been proposed that resulting from continent shape (Webb & Gaston, 2003). No
polyploids have a greater resistance to the severe conditions general trends appear to exist for Rapoport’s rule for all
found at high elevations, which may have promoted biological organisms, suggesting that the factors determining
endemism at higher altitudes (Vetaas & Grytnes, 2002). There range size are complex and remain poorly understood.
is a high polyploidy ratio among neoendemic vascular plant
species both in the Himalaya and elsewhere (Kadota, 1987;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sakya & Joshi, 1990; Nayar, 1996; Solitis et al., 1996).
Natcheva & Cronberg (2004) report the existence of We are indebted to Dr David Long (Royal Botanic Garden
polyploidy in hepatics, and suggested that several isolating Edinburgh) for helpful discussions about Nepalese bryophytes.
mechanisms that are recognized in flowering plants may Oriol Grau thanks the European Union and the Bjerknes
possibly also occur in bryophytes. Bischler & Boisselier- Centre for Climate Research (Bergen) for a Marie Curie
Dubayle (1993) showed that polyploidy also occurs in Fellowship, which made this study possible. John Birks
liverworts with restricted ranges. For these reasons, the same acknowledges Jesus College, Oxford for a Visiting Senior
processes that favour polyploidy in vascular plants may also Research Fellowship during the final work on this manuscript.
influence the number of endemic bryophytes at higher This is publication A161 from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate
altitudes in the Himalaya. Research, Bergen.
On the other hand, it is interesting to note that the highest
proportion of endemics (Fig. 4) is found at approximately
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regional species richness in neotropical birds. The American Oriol Grau is a doctoral student at the Department of Plant
Naturalist, 149, 875–902. Biology, University of Barcelona. His research interests are
Rahbek, C. (2005) The role of spatial scale and the perception of vegetation dynamics, plant ecology and biogeography in alpine
large-scale species-richness patterns. Ecology Letters, 8, 224–239. and subarctic regions.
Rey Benayas, J.M.R. (1995) Patterns of diversity in the strata of
boreal montane forest in British Columbia. Journal of John-Arvid Grytnes is a post-doctoral researcher at the
Vegetation Science, 6, 95–98. University of Bergen. His research interests are all aspects of
Sakya, S.R. & Joshi, K.K. (1990) Karyomorphological studies in species richness patterns at different spatial scales. Current
some Primula species of Nepal Himalaya. Cytologia, 55, projects focus mostly on elevational richness patterns and
571–579. problems in quantifying and interpreting these patterns.
Schill, D. & Long, D.G. (2003) A revision of Anastrophyllum John Birks is a botanist at the University of Bergen and
(Spruce) Steph. (Jungermanniales, Lophoziaceae) in the University College London with research interests in Quater-
Himalayan Region and Western China. Journal of the Hat- nary palaeoecology, quantitative methods, community ecol-
tori Botanical Laboratory, 94, 115–157. ogy, vegetation dynamics, biogeography and alpine botany
Solitis, D.E., Kuzoff, R.K., Conti, E., Gornall, R. & Ferguson, (http://www.eecrg.uib.no/personal_pages/).
I.K. (1996) MatK and rbcL gene sequence data indicate that
Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) is polyphyletic. American Journal
of Botany, 83, 371–382. Editor: Nicholas J. Gotelli
Journal of Biogeography 34, 1907–1915 1915
ª 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd