This document discusses women's empowerment in India. It provides context on the patriarchal structure that governs communities and hinders women's rights. While policies exist, there are gaps in implementation at the local level. Rural women face greater inequality in health, education, decision-making and economic opportunities compared to urban women. Factors like caste, class, education and age further impact women's empowerment. Government initiatives aim to promote women's rights, but face challenges of corruption and lack of resources. Overall, empowering women requires addressing discrimination and the social constructs that restrict women's access, choices and status in society.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................7
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2..........................................................................................................................................12
2. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................13
2.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................13
2.2 SCOPE ....................................................................................................................................14
2.2.1 WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND SECURITY IN INDIA ..........................................................................14
Women’s Rights:.......................................................................................................................14
Women’s Security:....................................................................................................................15
Trafficking of Women and Girls:.................................................................................................17
2.2.2 WOMEN'S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES IN INDIA..................................................................17
Women’s Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights:..........................................................................19
2.2.3 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA..............................................................................................19
Historical Context:.....................................................................................................................19
Reservation at the Panchayat Level: ...........................................................................................20
Caste and ClassPolitics:.............................................................................................................20
33% Reservation for Women:.....................................................................................................21
2.3 METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................22
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH...........................22
KEY OUTCOMES ...........................................................................................................................26
Child Marriage, Trafficking of Women and Children:....................................................................26
Child Labor:...............................................................................................................................26
Exploitative Social Practices: ......................................................................................................26
Gender Violence:.......................................................................................................................27
Food Security:...........................................................................................................................27
Health Insurance for the Poor: ...................................................................................................27
Disabled Persons:......................................................................................................................27

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Land Accessfor Tribals and the Poor:..........................................................................................27
Improved FarmingPractices:......................................................................................................27
Economic Empowerment:..........................................................................................................28
Political Empowerment:.............................................................................................................28
2.1.4 NEED OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT .....................................................................................28
Chapter 3.............................................................................................................................................29
3. ORGANIZATION PROFILE...........................................................................................................30
DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY(DRDA) ..........................................................................30
3.1 OBJECTIVE:..........................................................................................................................30
3.2 PURPOSE:............................................................................................................................30
3.3 MISSION/VISION STATEMENT OF DRDA .......................................................................31
3.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF DRDA ......................................................................................................32
3.5 DUTIES OF DRDA :.............................................................................................................32
3.6 MAIN ACTIVITIES / FUNCTIONS OF DRDA.......................................................................34
3.7 LIST OF SERVICES BEING PROVIDED BY DRDA. ...............................................................35
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).............................................................36
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)..................................................................36
Housing Schemes :- ...................................................................................................................36
Total Sanitation Campaign Programme (TSCP) ............................................................................37
Memberof ParliamentLocal AreaDevelopmentScheme(LokSabha/RajyaSabha) - MPLAD (LS/RS
................................................................................................................................................37
Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP) ......................................................................37
ORGANIZATIONAL DESCRIPTION...................................................................................................38
The staff positions of the DRDA at district level...........................................................................38
CHAPTER 4..........................................................................................................................................40
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION.....................................................................................41
4.1 Gender Differences in Education.............................................................................................42
4.2 Gender Differentials in Adult Literacy......................................................................................44
4.3 Employment...........................................................................................................................45
Women’s and Men’s Employment Status....................................................................................45

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4.4 Married women and decision making......................................................................................47
4.5 Spousal violence.....................................................................................................................49
4.6 Gender,Women’sEmpowerment,AndSelectedHealth,Nutrition,AndDemographic Outcomes
....................................................................................................................................................50
4.7 DRDA(stats)............................................................................................................................51
Schemesimplementing................................................................................................................51
4.8 Self Help Groups.....................................................................................................................53
SHG-BANK LINKAGES (UNDER NABARD REFINANCES SCHEME).....................................................53
4.9 Swayamsidha Scheme.............................................................................................................54
4.10 Measures for Women’s Empowerment.................................................................................58
The Constitution of India - Provisions Relating to Women...........................................................58
Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans.......................................................................58
CHAPTER 5..........................................................................................................................................60
5. FINDINGS AND SUGESSIONS.....................................................................................................62
5.1 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA – MILESTONES & CHALLENGES........................................62
5.1.1 GDI: Inter State Comparison ..............................................................................................65
5.1.2 Beijingconference 1995 indicatorsof womenempowerment,qualitative &quantitative
Qualitative:...............................................................................................................................65
5.1.3 Education:........................................................................................................................67
5.1.4 Health:.............................................................................................................................68
5.1.5 Political Participation:........................................................................................................69
5.1.6 Decision-Making:..............................................................................................................73
5.1.7 Self Help Groups: ..............................................................................................................74
5.1.8 Violence:..........................................................................................................................75
5.1.9 Women and Work:............................................................................................................76
5.1.10 Women and Reforms:......................................................................................................76
5.1.11 Ownership of Land:.........................................................................................................77
5.1.12 State Initiatives:..............................................................................................................78
5.1.13 National Institute of Public Finance & Policy Gender Analysis of the Budget.......................79
5.2 International PoliciesandIndia’sConstitutional Provisions,PoliciesandProgrammes for Women
....................................................................................................................................................80

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5.2.1 UN Human Rights Instruments...........................................................................................80
5.2.2 Commitments at UN Conferences......................................................................................81
5.2.3 Constitution of India Guarantees .......................................................................................81
5.3 SCHEMES FOR ASSISTANCE .....................................................................................................83
5.3.1 Ministry of Women and Child Development.......................................................................83
5.3.2 Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB...................................................................................84
Other Schemes.........................................................................................................................84
5.3.3 Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education.................................84
5.3.4 Ministry of Rural Development..........................................................................................85
5.3.5 Ministry of Urban Development........................................................................................86
5.3.6 Ministry of Textiles............................................................................................................86
5.3.7 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation .............................................................86
5.3.8 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.....................................................................87
5.3.9 Ministry of Tribal Affairs....................................................................................................87
5.3.10 Ministry of Science and Technology .................................................................................88
5.3.11 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.............................................................................88
5.3.12 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation...........................................................................89
5.3.13 Ministry of Labour & Employment...................................................................................89
5.3.14 Ministry of Minority Affairs..............................................................................................90
5.3.15 Ministry of ConsumerAffairs, FoodandPublicDistribution, Departmentof Foodand Public
Distribution...............................................................................................................................90
5.3.16 Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises ............................................................91
5.3.17 Ministry of Law and Justice..............................................................................................91
5.3.18 Policy Documents............................................................................................................91
5.3.19 International Documents.................................................................................................92
5.4 The Objectives of the National Policy for Empowerment of Women include............................92
5.5 Critical Areas of Concern.........................................................................................................93
A. Women and Poverty..............................................................................................................93
B. Education and Training of Women..........................................................................................93
C. Women and Health...............................................................................................................94
D. Violence against Women.......................................................................................................94

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E. Women andArmed Conflict...................................................................................................94
F. Women and Economy ...........................................................................................................94
G. Women in Power and Decision-making..................................................................................95
H. Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women.....................................................95
I. Human Rights of Women....................................................................................................95
J. Women and the Media.........................................................................................................95
K. Women and the Environment ................................................................................................96
L.Women’s Empowerment........................................................................................................96
5.6 Programmes for Women........................................................................................................96
5.6.1Working Women’s Hostels.................................................................................................97
5.6.2 Legislative Reforms...........................................................................................................97
5.6.3 Status of Major International Human Rights Instruments.....................................................98
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................98
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................99
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1- Organizational Description(The staff positions of the DRDA at District level)……………..37
Table 2- Field office(One for cluster of 5-7 Mandals)……………………………………………….38
Table 3- Women and Men Employment status ………………………………………………………45
Table 4- Self help groups………………………………………………………………………………52
Table 5- SHG-Bank linkages(under NABARD refinances scheme)…………………………………52
Table 6- Swayamsidha Scheme all over India………………………………………………………..53
Table 7- Some indicators depicting the progress in the situation of Indian women……………...…55
Table 8- perspectives on Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans……………………....58
LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 1- Trends in the sex ratio(females per 1,000 males) age 0-6 years, india…………………….40
Chart 2- Percentage of boys and girls attending school in the 2005-06 year……….……………….42
Chart 3- Percentage literate among women and men age 15-49 by age….………………………….43

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Chart 4- percentage of married women and men age 15-49 employed for cash……………….…...47

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Women’s empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include
geographical location (urban/rural), educational status, social status (caste and class), and age.
Policies on women’s empowerment exist at the national, state, and local (Panchayat) levels in many
sectors, including health, education, economic opportunities, gender-based violence, and political
participation. However, there are significant gaps between policy advancements and actual practice
at the community level.
One key factor for the gap in implementation of laws and policies to address discrimination,
economic disadvantages, and violence against women at the community level is the largely
patriarchal structure that governs the community and households in much of India. As such, women
and girls have restricted mobility, access to education, access to health facilities, and lower decision-
making power, and experience higher rates of violence. Political participation is also hindered at the
Panchayat (local governing bodies) level and at the state and national levels, despite existing
reservations for women.
The impact of the patriarchal structure can be seen in rural and urban India, although women’s
empowerment in rural India is much less visible than in urban areas. This is of particular concern,
since much of India is rural despite the high rate of urbanization and expansion of cities. Rural
women, as opposed to women in urban settings, face inequality at much higher rates, and in all
spheres of life. Urban women and, in particular, urban educated women enjoy relatively higher
access to economic opportunities, health and education, and experience less domestic violence.
Women (both urban and rural) who have some level of education have higher decision-making
power in the household and the community. Furthermore, the level of women’s education also has a
direct implication on maternal mortality rates, and nutrition and health indicators among children.
Among rural women, there are further divisions that hinder women’s empowerment. The most
notable ones are education levels and caste and class divisions. Women from lower castes (the
scheduled castes, other backward castes, and tribal communities) are particularly vulnerable to
maternal mortality and infant mortality. They are often unable to access health and educational
services, lack decision-making power, and face higher levels of violence. Among women of lower

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caste and class, some level of education has shown to have a positive impact on women’s
empowerment indicators.
Social divisions among urban women also have a similar impact on empowerment
indicators. Upper class and educated women have better access to health, education, and economic
opportunities, whereas lower class, less educated women in urban settings enjoy these rights
significantly less. Due to rapid urbanization and lack of economic opportunities in other parts of the
country, cities also house sprawling slum areas. Slums are informal sprawls, and most times lack
basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and health facilities. Additionally, slum dwellers
mostly work in unorganized and informal sectors, making them vulnerable to raids by the state, abuse
by employers, and other forms of insecurity. Women and children in slums are among the most
vulnerable to violence and abuse, and are deprived of their basic human rights.
As a result of a vibrant women’s movement in the last 50 years, policies to advance human
rights for women in India are substantial and forward-thinking, such as the Domestic Violence Act
(2005), and the 73rd
and 74th
Amendments to the Constitution that provide reservations for women to
enter politics at the Panchayat level. There are multiple national and state level governmental and
non-governmental mechanisms such as the Women’s Commission to advance these policies, and the
implementation of these policies is decentralized to state and district-level authorities and
organizations that include local non-governmental organizations.
The policy/practice gap in India cuts across all sectors and initiatives as a result of rampant
corruption and lack of good governance practices. State-level governments claim a lack of resources,
and the resources they do receive are highly susceptible to corruption. Financial corruption hinders
the government’s ability to invest in social capital, including initiatives to advance women’s
empowerment. Since the 1990’s India has put in place processes and legislative acts such as the
Right to Information Act (2005) for information disclosure to increase transparency and hold
government officials accountable. Mistrust of political institutions and leaders remains high in the
society with corruption and graft allegations often covering media headlines.

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In addition to corruption and inadequate resources for implementation of initiatives at the
community level, women’s empowerment in India is negatively impacted by the pervasive
discrimination of women in the family and the community. Discrimination against women in most
parts of India (particularly the north) emerges from the social and religious construct of women’s role
and their status. As such, in many parts of India, women are considered to be less than men,
occupying a lower status in the family and community, which consequentially restricts equal
opportunity in women and girls’ access to education, economic possibilities, and mobility.
Discrimination also limits women’s choices and freedom. These choices are further
dependent on structural factors like caste and class.
Empowerment for women in India requires a crosscutting approach and one which addresses
the diversity of social structures that govern women’s lives. Identity politics in India is a very critical
political instrument, which is both used and abused throughout political and social institutions. There
are numerous social movements fighting for the rights of the marginalized, such as the Dalit rights
movement, the tribal rights movement, etc. These movements have achieved many gains in assuring
representation of the traditionally marginalized communities into mainstream society. Women’s
rights within these movements are largely unarticulated and thus reinforce inequalities within the
very structures from which they are demanding inclusion. Empowerment approaches for women
therefore is not only about providing services, but also about recognizing their lived realities of
multiple layers of discrimination that hinder their access to services.
Similarly, access to education for girls in some of the northern states like Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab does not only rely on proximity of schools. Access to education is part of a larger structural
concern, including the practice of son preference, which creates inherent discriminatory practices.
Education initiatives therefore cannot rely solely on building educational infrastructure, but also need
to address some of the root causes of discrimination against women and girls which affect the
decisions made by parents.
Women’s security, decision-making power, and mobility are three indicators for women’s
empowerment. In India, and more so for rural and less educated women, these three indicators are
significantly low. Data from the NFHS-3 survey on women’s decision-making power shows that

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only about one third of the women interviewed took decisions on their own regarding household
issues and their health. Decision-making power among employed urban women was higher than
among rural and less educated women. The survey also found that older married women had more
decision-making power than the younger married women. Younger women and girls experience an
additional layer of discrimination as a result of their age.
Data on women’s mobility in India indicates the lack of choices women have, and that urban
and educated women have more mobility choices than rural women. The data shows that about half
the women interviewed had the freedom to go to the market or a health facility alone. Seventy-nine
percent of urban women from the highest education brackets and only about 40 percent of rural
women without education were allowed to go to the market alone.
Mobility restrictions for women are dependent upon how the family and community view
women’s rights. They also, however, are intrinsically dependent on the prevailing levels of violence
against women in the household and the community. Abuse and violence towards women is
predominantly perpetrated within the household, and marital violence is among the most accepted by
both men and women. Wife beating, slapping, rape, dowry related deaths, feudal violence towards
tribal and lower caste women, trafficking, sexual abuse, and street violence permeate the Indian
social fabric, and create one of the most serious obstacles in achieving women’s empowerment.
The gap in policy and practice in women’s empowerment is most visible when it comes to
the level and kinds of violence women face in India. Despite the policies, laws6, and initiatives by
civil society institutions, violence against women in India is widespread and the consequences for
perpetrators rarely match the crime. Enforcement of laws and sentencing of perpetrators are long and
arduous processes, and the gaps in these processes are further widened by corruption.
Another gap in implementing laws and policies on violence against women is the
inaccessibility of information on victims' rights among rural and less educated women. Additionally,
social stigma and the fear of abandonment by the family play a big role in women and girls’ ability or
inability to access laws and policies to address sexual and physical violence.

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CHAPTER 2
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

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2. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 OBJECTIVES
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants
equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in
favour of women.
The goal is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women. Specifically,
the objectives include..
Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development
of women to enable them to realize their full potential.
The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women
on equal basis with men in all spheres – political, economic, social, cultural and civil
Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political and economic
life of the nation
Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational
guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security
and public office etc.
Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women
Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement
of both men and women.
Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.
Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child; and
Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly women’s
organizations.

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2.2 SCOPE
Mainstreaming the gender perspective is essential to achieve parity between men and
women where mainstreaming is a process of assessing the implications for women and men in
respect of any planned action in all areas and at all levels.
2.2.1 WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND SECURITY IN INDIA
Women’sRights:
Policies relating to women's rights have had a positive trajectory in the past few decades
with the central government articulating many progressive measures to advance gender equality in
social, economic, and political arenas. The Government of India (GoI) has two main bodies to
advance gender equality: the Ministry of Women and Child Development and the National
Commission for Women, which is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Women and
Child Development.7
Both bodies work on national- and state-level legal and social policies to
advance gender equality. The Ministry has widely implemented local-level micro-finance schemes to
advance economic opportunities for rural women. The National Commission for Women has been
instrumental in creating legislative changes, and has set up Complaint and Investigate Cells at the
state level. The Grievance Cells receive complaints of gender-based violence and are mandated to
investigate, provide referrals and counseling, and ultimately report on such cases.
With a vibrant women’s rights movement in India, there are continuous demands for better
laws, provisions, and accountability for implementation. Most recent examples include the change in
India’s rape laws, where in 2006 marital rape was recognized. Currently, women’s rights activists are
demanding better provisions in Sections 375 and 376 of the Indian Penal Code. Since then, there
have been multiple challenges by the women’s movement leading to small but significant
amendments. The 2005 Domestic Violence Act provides protection from violence in the household
from not only male perpetrators, but also female perpetrators like mothers-in-law and other female
members in extended families.
There also have been gains in women's inheritance rights, yet challenges remain in
implementation. Social biases and lack of enforcement continue to hinder the full realization of

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Indian inheritance laws. Inheritance laws and property distribution fall under the Hindu and Muslim
personal laws, both of which exempt agricultural land. For a country with a predominantly agro-
based economy, women’s inability to inherit agricultural land exacerbates feminization of poverty
and neglects women’s welfare.
Like all other spheres of social change in India, there is an undeniable gap between policy and
practice. More notably, the deeply entrenched social hierarchies based on class, caste, ethnic, and
communal divisions leave many communities on the margins with little knowledge of their rights and
even less protection from local, state, and national governmental policies.
Inequality between men and women runs across the board, including in education, economic
opportunities, representation in governance, and other state and private institutions. Additionally,
women in India face high rates of violence. Some recent statistics on women include:
1. India ranks 18th among the highest maternal mortality rates in the world with 540 deaths for
every 100,000 births
2. Only 48% of adult Indian women are literate
3. Among rural women, 36.1% have experienced physical violence in their adult lives
4. 66% of women who have experienced physical violence in their lifetimes are divorced,
widowed, or deserted
5. Lower caste and tribal women are among those who experience the highest levels of physical
violence
6. 85.3% of women reporting violence claimed that their current husbands were the perpetrators
7. According to the most recent Demographic and Health Survey analysis, only 43% of
currently married women (between ages 15-49) are employed as compared to 99% of men.
Women’sSecurity:
The multiple forms of violence experienced in the household, at the community level, and in
some instances by the state, threaten women’s security in India. In many parts of North India son
preference is a widely practiced phenomenon. Son preference has direct linkages to sex-selective
abortion (illegal across India; however, enforcement by both police and some doctors is still lacking),
and discrimination of girl children in access to health, nutrition, and education. Research conducted

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by the International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW) found that, although not universal,
particularly in households where there is more than one daughter there are significant differences in
nutrition and health levels between male and female children.
Additionally, at the household level, incest, rape and domestic violence continue to hinder
women’s development across India. Forty percent of all sexual abuse cases in India are incest, and
94% of the incest cases had a known member of the household as the perpetrator.
Dowry related deaths, domestic violence, gang rape of lower caste women by upper caste
men, and physical violence by the police towards tribal women all contribute to women’s insecurity
in India. The class and caste structure inadvertently put poor women from lower class and tribal
communities at the most risk of violence. Class and caste divisions also create grave challenges to
poor, lower caste, and tribal women in accessing justice and retribution as victims and survivors of
violence.
Women and girls in urban India are also at high risk of gender-based violence. In Delhi, the
country’s capital, a scan of daily newspapers reveals shocking numbers of cases of violence against
women. The National Crime Bureau claims that a woman is raped every 29 minutes in Delhi. Street
violence in urban centers is a growing concern for young women and girls, who are increasingly
moving away from rural areas for economic opportunities and higher education. Particularly women
and girls from the northeast region of India living in urban centers such as Delhi have reported
experiencing social discrimination and marginalization, and many times physical violence. In 2005,
according to the North East Support Centre, among the 100,000 people from the northeast living in
Delhi 86% had reported racial discrimination and 41% of cases were sexual abuse cases.
The northeast states of India are a volatile region, with a number of active insurgencies. The
GoI has continuously deployed state troops to fight the insurgents, who predominantly follow the
Maoist ideology. This region, because of its physical and cultural proximity to Myanmar, China, and
Bhutan, has for the most part been ignored by the central government, thereby fuelling the insurgents'
demand for development and autonomy. In the northeast (as in most conflict-ridden regions) women
bear the brunt of war from both sides. There have been numerous instances of violence perpetrated
by state security forces against local and tribal women.

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TraffickingofWomenandGirls:
India is both a source and destination for trafficked women and girls into prostitution and
bonded labour. While exact numbers of trafficked women and girls are difficult to ascertain, there
have been figures projected by various national and international NGOs. Anti -trafficking measures
in India have increased with India’s commitment to international human rights protocols, and
through strict legal provisions at the national level. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act 1956 (ITPA)
is the widely used law to prosecute traffickers, but also is invoked to target prostitution.
Sex work is a debated subject in the women’s movement in India. The anti-prostitution law is
seen by many to criminalize and further marginalize women who are in the sex trade. Women’s
rights organizations, activists, and organizations such as the Durbar Mahila Samanway Committee (a
nationwide sex workers’ collective) have long supported legalization of the sex trade in India. The
debate over legalization of sex work continues today and sex-work supporters are lobbying to change
the ITPA for better rehabilitation measures for those who have been rescued during brothel and street
raids. The ITPA also does not give adequate measures for those who are trafficked for purposes other
than sex work, and disproportionately targets women, making them further vulnerable to poverty and
exploitation.
2.2.2 WOMEN'S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES IN INDIA
India is one of the world’s fastest growing economies, with women mainly from the middle class
increasingly entering the workforce. Urban centres like Delhi and Bangalore have seen an influx of young
women from semi- urban and rural parts of the country, living alone and redefining themselves.25
However, the
story of economic empowerment for women is not a singular narrative; rather it is located in a complex set of
caste, class, religious, and ethnic identities.
The Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum in 2009 ranked India 114th
out of
134 countries for inequality between men and women in the economy, politics, health, and education.26
On
equal economic opportunities and women’s participation in the labour force, India ranked 127th
and 122nd
respectively.27
The number of women in the workforce varies greatly from state to state: 21% in Delhi; 23% in
Punjab; 65% in Manipur; 71% Chhattisgarh; 76% in Arunachal Pradesh. 28
The diversity of women’s
economic opportunities between states is due to the cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity of each state.

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Northern states like Delhi and Punjab lag far behind on gender equality measures, including the alarming sex
ratio between men and women (due to son preference and sex-selective abortion), low female literacy levels,
and high rates of gender-based violence.
In rural India, women’s economic opportunities remain restricted by social, cultural, and religious
barriers. Most notably inheritance laws embedded in Hindu and Shariat civil codes continue to marginalize
women in the household and the larger community. Rural women, particularly of lower caste and class, have
the lowest literacy rates, and therefore do not have the capacity to negotiate pay or contracts and most often
engage in the unorganized sector, self-employment, or in small scale industry. Self-help groups (SHGs) are a
widely practiced model for social and economic mobility by NGOs and the government. SHGs provide women
with the opportunity to manage loans and savings that can be used by members for varying needs. SHGs also
are used to promote social change among the members and the community at large. Members of SHGs have
used their experiences as leverage to enter other local institutions such as the Panchayat Khap.
Rural, low caste, and tribal women also make up 70% of domestic workers in India, a sector which is
largely unregulated and unorganized. India’s growing economy has allowed for many upper and middle-class
women to enter the workforce, and while poor rural women have little access to education and training, there is
a high demand for domestic workers in urban hubs.
Domestic workers are mostly illiterate, with little or no negotiating power for wage equity, and are highly
vulnerable to exploitation and sexual and physical abuse.
There is a movement at the policy level to organize domestic workers and to create laws to regulate
minimum wage, working hours, and other measures such as life and health insurance. Currently a national-
level Taskforce on Domestic Workers has been formed that will present recommendations to the central
government on better enforcement of rights for the many undocumented domestic workers in India.
Women are also very visible in the construction sector in India, and like domestic workers are largely
unorganized and rely on daily wagers. Women construction workers are mostly poor and illiterate and have
little negotiating power. This sector is also unregulated and highly vulnerable to exploitation. Women workers
also earn significantly less than men, although women are the ones who do most of the backbreaking work like
carrying bricks and other heavy materials on site.
On the other end of the spectrum, while India has one of the highest percentages of professional women
in the world, those who occupy managerial positions are under 3%. Most women work in low administrative
positions, and many of the young women migrating to urban centres mostly work in service and retail
industries, although more and more women are entering the IT and other technical sectors.

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Women’sEconomic,Social,andCultural Rights:
The movement to assure women’s economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) as basic human rights is
just emerging in India. The movement aims to locate women’s rights within the larger human rights
framework, and by doing so moves away from looking at women’s issues only within the framework of
violence against women and reproductive rights. ESCR attempts to look at the broader issues facing women,
namely poverty, housing, unemployment, education, water, food security, trade, etc.
While the human rights movement on ESCR is largely contained at the international policy level,
there are emerging social movements around the world. In the Indian context, projects like the Programme on
Women’s Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (PWESCR), for example, is creating linkages between the
international human rights movement and the local articulation of women’s rights. PWESCR aims to build a
women’s rights movement in India that creates equality in all spheres of women’s lives. By empowering
women economically and socially, ESCR provides for a broader discourse on rights that moves women’s
rights from a victim-centered approach to one that cuts across other fundamental human rights issues.
Women’s economic opportunity in India is a rapidly changing landscape. Women are increasingly
entering the workforce—particularly women professionals—and are creating change, but there remains a large
number of invisible women workers in unorganized and volatile sectors. However, organizing at the local
level, albeit small, is widespread. Implementation of national and state level policies lags behind in ensuring
that women workers have equal pay and are free from exploitation.
2.2.3 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA
Historical Context:
During the independence movement, women were visible and active as nationalists, and as symbols of
“Mother India”. Gandhi, in particular, was instrumental in creating space for women through his non-violence
(and some would argue feminized) mode of protest. Gandhi’s legendary salt march initially excluded women,
but due to demands from women nationalists he later realized the power of women organizers at the local
level. His inclusion of women, however, was not located within a gender equality framework, but was a means
to achieving a stronger and unified Indian state. The inclusion of women in the nationalist movement was also
to debunk the British colonial assertion of “needing to save the poor, vulnerable women” of pre-independence
India.
As in many nationalist movements, women in India took part in the struggle, in turn propelling a
women’s rights movement. And, as seen historically in many post-colonial countries, the nationalist women’s
movement in India was confronted by the rebuilding of a patriarchal nationalist state. Women revolutionaries

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gave way to their male counterparts who (as a result of Partition politics) created a strong, male, and Hindu
"New India".
The first post- independence Lok Sabha (the People’s Council or the Parliament) had 4.4% women. The
period between the early 1940’s and late 1970’s saw an emergence of the Indian women’s movement, but it
was not until the 1980s that the women’s movement gained real momentum.
Reservationatthe Panchayat Level:
In 1976 the Committee on the Status of Women in India was established and published a report
recommending an increase in elected women at the grassroots level, which led to the introduction of the 33.3%
reservation at the Panchayat level in 1988. It was only in 1993 that an amendment in the constitution made the
proposed reservation at the Panchayat (village level governing councils) a reality.
In the last two decades since the reservation for women in elected Panchayats was passed, many studies have
been conducted to look at the impact of this policy. A survey conducted in 2008 yielded that women made up
close to 50% of all the village councils across the India. The number of women representatives has certainly
increased at the grassroots level; however, questions still remain regarding their decision-making power within
the councils. A study in West Bengal and Rajasthan by the Institute of Management Studies (Calcutta) and the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) found that where women Panchayat members were active, there
were more robust programs on water, irrigation, and infrastructure. The study conclusively states that in
Panchayats where women were present policies were more beneficial to the community than in Panchayats
where women were absent. A study by The Accountability Initiative also states that in Panchayats with female
presidents, the participation of women in the larger council rose close to 3% in one year.40
The reason for the
increase in women’s participation is correlated to two possible factors: first, women representatives
exemplified new possibilities for change; and second, women leaders took up issues that would have a positive
impact on the community as a whole.
Casteand ClassPolitics:
The complexities of politics in India are embedded in class, caste, and religious identities. An analysis
by International Idea of women in the Indian Parliament between 1991 and1996 found that among the small
number of women Parliamentarians, a disproportionate number represented the Brahmin caste (the higher caste
in the Hindu caste system). Most local governments remain largely patriarchal and caste- based institutions,
hindering inclusive governance. Furthermore, social mobility remains a privilege of members of higher classes
and caste, although this is dramatically changing as a result of reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Tribes (ST) in politics and education.

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For women politicians, class, age, and caste all have significant impact in their political lives. India is
one of the few countries in the world that has elected a woman leader. Indira Gandhi was among the very few
women leaders in the world during her time in office. However, her role as the Prime Minister was not seen as
a win for the women’s movement in India. She was the granddaughter of Jawaharlal Nehru and represented the
political dynasty of her family. Additionally, her controversial political moves during the declared period of
Emergency (1975-1977) suppressed dissent, forcing many of the radical women’s rights movements to go
underground. In 2007 India elected its first female President, Ms. Pratibha Patil. While the President holds a
mostly ceremonial role in Indian politics, Ms. Patil’s election was deemed a symbolic move towards a more
equitable representation of women at the highest levels of government.
Although representation of women and members of the lower castes in Indian politics is rapidly
changing, complexities of caste politics continue to govern representation. An interesting case study is that of
Mayawati, the Chief Minister of Utter Pradesh. Mayawati, a woman and a member of the Dalit caste, was the
youngest Chief Minister when first elected, and the only woman Dalit to be elected as a Chief Minister.
Although Mayawati represents transcendence of India's caste system, her political career is regrettably tainted
with corruption charges, extravagant spending, and little positive impact on the realities of caste and class
barriers for men and women in her State.
33% ReservationforWomen:
The Women’s Bill in April 2010, which gives 33.3% reservation for women in all levels of Indian
politics, took 14 years after its introduction to finally pass by the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of parliament).
It is yet to be passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of parliament). The reservation bill will ensure 181 out
of the 543 seats at the Parliament level, and 1,370 seats out of the 4,109 seats at the State Assembly level. This
is a historic move in the Indian political landscape, as currently women occupy less than 10% of seats in the
national Parliament.
The Women’s Bill will also significantly change the demographics of class and caste among women
politicians in leadership positions in the Indian political structure. It will create a path for women from lower
classes and castes (who are currently confined to local-level governance) to enter state and national level
governments. In addition to the existing reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, one third of the
SC and ST candidates must be women. Other Backward Class (OBC) members are not included in the
reservation due to the wide disagreement about who constitutes OBC and a lack of existing data on the OBC
population.

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The two main arguments against the bill are that it will only benefit elite women (particularly in national
level politics) and that there should be reservations for Dalit, minorities (particularly Muslim women), and
OBCs. However, supporters of the bill do not agree with creating quotas within the existing 33% women quota
in parliament, as SC and ST quotas already exist.
The bill mandates that all political parties reserve one third of their electoral ticket for women, including
in the already mandated reservations for SC and STs. This will inadvertently create spaces for lower caste and
class women to enter state and national level politics. The passage and implementation of the Women’s Bill,
and its impact on the existing gender, class, and caste barriers, is yet to be realized, but one thing is clear:
India’s politics is moving closer to equitable inclusion than ever before.
2.3 METHODOLOGY
WOMENEMPOWERMENT THROUGHSELFHELPGROUPS IN ANDHRAPRADESH
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up the theme of women’s empowerment as
one of the strategies to tackle the socio – economic poverty. Self Help movement through savings
has been taken up as a mass movement by women– a path chosen by them to shape their destiny
for better. Development Agenda of the State in the last few years placing the people, especially
women in the fore -front has enabled formation of a large number of Self Help Groups (SHGs)
throughout the State and majority of women are saving one rupee a day. The State government is
consciously making an effort to assist SHGs by providing Revolving Fund / Matching grant under
various programmes.
SHGs - A MOVEMENTIN ANDHRA PRADESH:
There are about 4.65 lakhs women SHGs in Andhra Pradesh covering nearly 61.70 lakhs poor
women. Andhra Pradesh alone has about half of SHGs organized in the Country. The SHGs are
also popularly called DWCRA Groups, ant this name became popular after the DWCRA
programme (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas) through which women’s groups
were assisted initially. The SHGs are not only resorting to thrift but also are taking small loans out
of the corpus available with the group. The group corpus consists of savings, government
assistance and also bank loan. Members use the loan out of group corpus for their personal needs

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initially. However in the long run such loans are utilised for income generation activities. Since inception
an amount of Rs.1556.90 crores is mobilized as corpus by these groups.
MICRO CREDIT TO SHG:
Micro credit summit conducted in 1997 in Washington resolved to reach 100 million
poor women by 2005 all over the world. In Andhra Pradesh alone, 61.70 lakh women were
covered under micro credit with a saving of a rupee per day and the financial institutions
extending loans upto 4 times to the amount of group savings. From the year 1997 to January
2003, Banks extended a loan of Rs.1345 crores to SHG and the recovery of loans is more than
95%. Recently commercial banks have reduced interest rate on the loans extended to SHGs from
12% to 9%.
BUILDING INSTITUTIONS FOR SHGs:
Women’s savings movement started in 1993 as an off shoot of total literacy campaigns
successfully conducted by the pro-active government initiatives in the southern part of Andhra
Pradesh, poor women agitated against sale of arrack, organized themselves into ‘Thrift and Credit
groups’ with one rupee saving in a day had now turned into a mass movement in which 61.70
lakh members saved more than Rs.887.47 crores which is rotated internally and lent amongst the
members twice in a year as per the interest rates fixed by the groups. Such amounts are used for their
daily consumption needs and also for production of goods for sales to earn incomes.
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF SHGS:
60% of the women take up economic activities related to agriculture and allied
activities. Land lease for growing agricultural crop is a common practice in the 9 Telangana
districts. Vegetable and Flower cultivation, food crops and pulses, oil seeds cultivation are
taken up on leased lands. Similarly rearing of calves, ram lamb, chicks, piggery and duckery, dairy,
value addition to milk and milk products are preferred by women agricultural labourers. Illiterate and
unskilled women engage in small business activities. Nearly 20% of the SHG members are
artisans and engaged in making handicrafts and handloom products.
Public private partnership method is adopted in promoting economic opportunities to SHG

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members by appointing them as dealers for the sale of products manufactured by companies like
Hindustan Levers Limited, TVS, TTK-Prestige, Colgate-Palmolive, Philips etc. Companies in
return train SHGs in finance management, enterprise development, packaging, branding and
pricing of products. This partnership is a win win model.
Andhra Pradesh is now engaged in intense pursuit of development prgrammes utilizing
information technology (IT) and to strategize as to how the benefits of IT could be taken to rural
areas.
SHGs are encouraged to get PCs and software for accessing information and
developing their business. Their products are photographed, scanned and displayed on websites.
These are put on the portals of e-commerce companies. Handicrafts, herbal medicines and
cosmetics, hand woven and embroidered curtains, toys, paintings etc., are thus finding national and
international markets. This would not have been possible, but for the internet. The members are
enabled to take a mobile telephone and use it not only for the sales but as a public telephone.
IMPACT OF SHG:
Various organisations evaluated SHGs. NGOs universities, National Bank for Agricultural
& Rural Development (NABARD) and ORG-Marg. Some of the salient features are.
 98% of the members make savings regularly as the norms prescribed by the groups.
 All the groups meet at least once in a month to discuss various social issues related to their
day to day life.
 98% of eligible members adopt small family norms.
 100% children of SHG members are able to access immunization services against the 6
diseases.
 30% of the members have access to safe cooking fuels (LPG) under the Government
promoted scheme popularly known as “DEEPAM”.
 80% of the total SHGs have accessed financial assistance from banks and repayment is
98%.
 10,000 SHG members were elected to the local bodies (3 term Panchayat Raj Institutions) in
1997 November elections.

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 Members are engaged in 450 varieties of income generating activities.
 Additional family incomes to member range from Rs.1000-3000 per annum depending on
the income generating activities.
 Increase in self confidence and self esteem
 Increase in awareness levels about the society and community. Voluntary participation
in community activities like laying roads, planting trees conserving environment, construction
of water harvesting structures, donations to the victims of natural calamities helping to
reduce crime against girls & women, campaign against eradication of social evils like
dowry, child marriages, untouchability, AIDS, rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned children,
counseling adolescent girls, support to widows and destitutes are a few to mention.
SHG members learning from the past experiences are walking through the present are marching
ahead for a bright future. Government of Andhra Pradesh has rightly realized that the
involvement of the rural poor women in development will speed up attainment of
Swarnandhrapradesh and realising the Vision indeed!
Social,Legal, Politicaland EconomicEmpowerment
The women Self Help Groups (SHGs) hold regular weekly meetings, save and repay
regularly, and use trained bookkeepers for proper bookkeeping. All SHG members abide by the
principles of saying no to child marriages, child labor, domestic violence and wasteful expenditures.
The weekly meetings provide a platform for sharing and discussing broad social, legal,
political and economic issues that affect their lives. Issues range from entitlements to land, access to
NREGA and PDS, whether teachers and health workers are actually doing the work allotted to them,
and women's own rights in the case of domestic violence.
The women discuss family planning, the number of children they should have, and the spacing
between births, indicating a significant change in their ability to exercise reproductive choice within
the household. They have also not hesitated to take up difficult issues like domestic violence, the
trafficking of women and children, and the jogini system of exploitation.

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KEY OUTCOMES
While this is a continuous and evolving process, these poor women’s groups have made a
number of gains in a variety of spheres:
ChildMarriage,TraffickingofWomenandChildren:
Women’s groups have been able to prevent over 5000 child marriages. A study by the
Center for Economic and Social Studies in Hyderabad finds that the incidence of child marriage has
declined among project participants. Groups have also started campaigns against the trafficking of
women and girl children with the support of police, the revenue administration and NGOs.
ChildLabor:
In a bid to reduce child labor, new residential schools have been set up in six districts to
provide quality education to girl child laborers. Over 40,000 girls are now enrolled in these schools.
According to an impact evaluation, these schools have outperformed other public schools in terms of
regular attendance, academic results and facilities provided to students, leading to a fall in the drop
out rate from 14.8% in 2001 to 4.3% in 2005-2006.
ExploitativeSocialPractices:
Groups have achieved considerable success in eradicating exploitative social practices such
as the “jogini” (temple concubine) system. Says a Community Activist, from Mahabubnagar District:
“I was made a jogini when I was eleven years old by my parents. Joining the SHG gave me
confidence and, despite opposition, I got married to lead a normal life. There are still thousands of
joginis still operating in and around my community, whom we are trying to rehabilitate. As the
children of these jogini mothers are considered illegitimate by the village, we are going to conduct
DNA tests for four thousand of them to determine who their father is and ask them for support. We
want to ensure that these children are proud of their mothers and lead a normal life”.

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GenderViolence:
Women’s groups discuss sensitive issues such as gender violence, and make
special efforts to identify victims and help them to start new livelihoods.
FoodSecurity:
The project has helped to improve food security of the poor. Over half a million
households in six districts have benefited from access to food grains and other essential commodities
of good quality at relatively lower prices, provided on a credit basis. Destitute women, especially
elderly widows, are being helped by a special program through which community members
contribute a fistful of rice to a common pool which is then distributed among these women.
HealthInsuranceforthe Poor:
Over 21,000 households have been covered with health insurance on a pilot basis. The
community managed risk fund aims to provide quick financial support to meet families’ health
expenditure, including during emergencies. 1.2 million women SHG members have purchased life
insurance cover.
DisabledPersons:
Over 160,000 disabled persons have been mobilized into some 17,500 SHGs and have
received support to start new livelihoods.
Land AccessforTribalsandthePoor:
The project has facilitated the resolution of several land issues affecting the poor including
the restoration of illegally occupied land. Para legals have been trained, and efforts are on to establish
a land rights center for tribal areas in association with the Law College at Hyderabad, and organize
lok adalats (public courts).
ImprovedFarmingPractices:
In a forward-looking move, women’s groups have also developed a local movement against
the indiscriminate use of pesticides, covering 186,000 acres by 2006-07. By replacing chemical and

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other external inputs with local knowledge and natural methods of pest management, they are
reducing the cost of cultivation. Cost savings have ranged from about US$40 to US$120 per acre
leading to a 75% increase in the income of a farmer. This has also had positive effects on farmers’
health status.
EconomicEmpowerment:
Social empowerment issues have become the basis for the subsequent economic
empowerment of women. The program enables women’s organizations to develop the skills to
negotiate with market institutions and develop other financial services.
Political Empowerment:
Grassroots leaders developed through the program have contested local
government elections; 32000 candidates have filed their nominations for a variety of positions, and
9500 women from SHGs.
2.1.4 NEEDOF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
 Our constitution, in its Fundamental Rights, has provisions for equality, social justice and
protection of women. These goals are yet to be realized. Women continue to be
discriminated, exploited and exposed to inequalities at various levels.
 By empowerment women would be able to develop self – esteem and confidence, realize
their potential and enhance their collective bargaining power.
 Women empowerment can be viewed as a contribution of several inter- related and
mutually reinforcing competent.
 Awareness building about women’s situations, discrimination, rights and opportunities will
act as a step towards gender equality.
 Capacity building and skill development, especially the ability to plan, make decisions,
organize, manage and execute will enable to deal with people and institutions in the course of
business.
 Participation and greater control and decision making power in the home, community
and society will develop leadership qualities.
 Action is needed at all levels to bring about greater quality between men and women.

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Chapter 3
ORGANIZATION PROFILE

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3. ORGANIZATION PROFILE
DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY(DRDA)
DRDAs are established for effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes in rural areas
at the district level. It is an institution that acts as a delivery agency to support and facilitate the
development process. The role of the DRDA is to plan for effective implementation of anti-poverty
programmes; coordinating with other agencies like Governmental, non-Governmental, technical and
financial for successful programme implementation. They enable the poor rural community to
participate in the decision making process.
3.1 OBJECTIVE:
 The Primary objective of the DRDA is to effectively manage the anti-
poverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact
effectively with other agencies/L ine Departments.
3.2 PURPOSE:
 To implement the Rural Development Programmes of the Ministry
of Rural Development in the U.T of Pondicherry through the
Block Development Offices strictly in accordance with the guidelines
 To Plan for effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes
 To execute the plans for the benefit of the target groups either
directly or through others in co-ordination with the existing agencies
engaged in this direction in the field whether
Private/Public/Cooperative/Corporation/Agency/ Banks (Co-
operative Banks, Commercial Banks) Department of the State and
Central Government etc.

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 To liaison with other agencies-Governmental, Non-Governmental,
Technical and Financial for successful programme implementation
and to secure inter-sectoral and inter-departmental coordination and
cooperation for reducing poverty in the Gu n t u r district of Andhra
Pradesh.
 To enable the community and the rural poor to participate in
the decision making process,
 To oversee the implementation of Rural Development Programmes
and to ensure that the benefits specifically earmarked for certain
target groups (SC/ST, women and disabled) reach them. DRDA will
also take necessary steps to achieve the prescribed norms.
 To review the progress of the execution of these activities as well
as effectiveness of the benefits directed towards the target groups.
 To ensure adherence to guidelines, quality, equity and
efficiency; reporting to the prescribed authorities on the
implementation; and promoting transparency in decision making and
implementation.
3.3 MISSION/VISION STATEMENT OF DRDA
To constantly strive to give the rural poor of the Guntur district,Andhra
pradesh, the information, Education, Financial and Physical means to better
their standard of living and quality of life. To foster the economic and social
development of the rural areas of the district and to strengthen infrastructure,
employment and entrepreneurial opportunities of the ordinary person in quick,
efficient, transparent, just and equitable and sustainable manner, always by
trying to understand their genuine needs.

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3.4 BRIEFHISTORYOF DRDA
This agency was created originally to implement the Integrated Rural Development
Programme(IRDP). Subsequently the DRDAs were entrusted with number of programmes of both
state and central governments.
Since its inception the District Rural Development Agency(DRDA) has been the
principal organ at the District level to oversee the implementation of different Central Government
anti-poverty programmes. It is also taking up State Government Programmes.
From 1st
April,1999 a new Centrally Sponsored Scheme for strengthening the DRDAs has
been introduced. This scheme, which is funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and States, aims at
strengthening and professionalizing the DRDAs for effective functioning of the organization.
3.5 DUTIES OF DRDA:
1. Tooversee theimplementation ofthe following Rural Development.
2. Monitor the performance of the Rural Development Programmes,
Area Development and Energy Programmes and take corrective action.
3. Collect the Action Plan proposals under all schemes from the
Block Development Offices and finalise the District Action Plan in
February of each year.
4. Conduct the Governing Body meeting once in six months to
approve the Action Plan, other proposals and for ratification of
works carried out in the previous year without approval, for policy
directions and for approval of audited and unaudited statement of
accounts of DRDA
5. Conduct meetings, Conferences and arrange for discussions for
creation of awareness among the public and sharing of experiences

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6. Submit 1st and 2nd installment proposals to GOI along with
Utilization Certificates for expenditure incurred for getting funds
under various Rural Development programmes.
7. Funds received under all schemes will be reallocated among the
Block Development Offices based on their needs and released within
15 days after receipt of funds from GOI.
8. Applications received under SGSY will be verified and eligible SHGs
will be released with Revolving Fund and subsidy
9. Regular training Programmes will be arranged for the Self Group
members in the activities chosen by them and through
reputed institutions and agencies/Govt. Departments.
10. Arrangements will be made for provision of marketing linkages
and infrastructure support to the SHGs.
11. Applications received from the Block Development Offices under IAY
will be scrutinized and sanction will be issued for issue of work
order by the Block Development Offices.
12. Estimates received under Civil works viz., in SGRY, TSC and MPLADs
work will be scrutinized and sanction will be issued.
13. Popularize the use of Energy Conserving Devices among the public.
14. Monthly Progress Reports are collected and compiled and a
consolidated Report under each scheme is sent to GOI. Quarterly
Reports and Annual Reports are also sent to GOI.
15. Conduct of regular inspection at the Project Director level, Project

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Officer level and at the APO level to assess the progress under various
schemes.
16. Conduct of District Level SGSY Committee meeting, District
Committee on TSC meeting Vigilance and Monitoring Committee
meetings and District Advisory Committee meeting on IREP (once in
three months)
17. Conduct of BPL Survey at the beginning of every Five Year Plan as
per the guidelines of Ministry of Rural Development and prepare
the list of Below Poverty Line Population (BPL).
3.6 MAIN ACTIVITIES / FUNCTIONS OF DRDA
1. Effective implementation of the Rural Development Programmes (Viz.,
SGSY, SGRY, IAY, PMGY and TSC) through the Block
Developm ent Offices in accordance with the guidelines.
2. Implementation of the MPLAD (LS/RS) scheme
3. To prepare and implement area based Integrated Rural Energy
Programme (IREP) through which the optimum mix of all types of Energy
sources is utilised for meeting Energy needs of Rural People for
subsistence and productive purpose.
4. To keep the Block level agencies informed of the basic
parameters, the requirements of the programmes and the tasks to
be performed under the Programmes.
5. To co-ordinate and oversee the surveys , preparation of the perspective

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plans and Action Plans of the blocks and finally prepare a District Plan.
6. To conduct the BPL Survey for identification of BPL population for
targeting under various rural development programmes.
7. To evaluate and monitor the programme to ensure its effectiveness.
8. To secure inter sectoral and inter–departmental co-ordination and co-
operation.
9. To give publicity to the achievements made under the programme and
disseminate knowledge and build up awareness about the programme.
10. To send periodical returns to the GOI & State Govt., in the prescribed
formats.
3.7 LIST OF SERVICES BEING PROVIDED BY DRDA.
DRDA is implementing various Rural Development Programmes in
Guntur, Andhra pradeshas per the guidelines of the Ministry of Rural
Development.Sustained efforts are being taken by the District Rural
Development Agency, Guntur to implement rural development schemes
successfully in the rural areas giving high priority to the disadvantaged sections
of the society.
The Centrally sponsored /Plan Schemes implemented by DRDA are as follows:-
1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
2. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

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3. Housing Schemes :- a) Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)
b) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)
4. Total Sanitation Campaign Programme (TSCP)
5. MPLAD (Lok Sabha/ Rajya Sabha) Scheme.
6. Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
Poverty is an obstruction to a dignified life. Self Employment is a significant
step to have sustained incomes and remove the shackles of poverty.
DRDA provides self employment to rural poor by organizing them into
SHGs , motivating to savings habit providing skill upgradation training
and bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the poverty line
by providing them subsidy and bank credit so as to enable them to
undertake economic activities and earn regular income.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)
Provides additional and supplementary wage employment to rural poor
especially to the agricultural labourers and thereby ensures food
security and improve nutritional levels. Creates durable Community,
Social and Economic assets and provides infrastructure in the rural
areas and thereby increases opportunities of employment through access
to the market oriented economy.
Housing Schemes :- a) Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) &
b) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)

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Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. For a normal
citizen, owning a house provides significant economic security and dignity in
society. DRDA implements two housing schemes viz., Indira Awaas
Yojana and the Pradhan Mantri Gramodya Yojana and provides subsidy
for construction of houses to the rural poor.
Total SanitationCampaignProgramme(TSCP)
Individual Health and hygiene is largely dependent on adequate
availability of drinking water and proper sanitation. There is, therefore, a
direct relationship between water, sanitation and health. DRDA coverage in
rural areas and bring about an improvement in the general quality of life
in the rural areas. Encourages cost effective and appropriate technologies in
Sanitation by providing incentive subsidy for construction of individual
household toilets.
MemberofParliamentLocal AreaDevelopment Scheme (Lok Sabha/ Rajya Sabha) - MPLAD
(LS/RS)
Undertakes area development works as per the recommendations of the Honrable
Member of Parliament (LS/RS).
Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)
Popularize the use of non-conventional energy sources like solar wind,
bio-energy and the devices such as Solar Water Heating system, Solar Cooker,
Solar Street Light and Biogas plant etc., in the U.T of Pondicherry by providing
subsidy as per the guidelines of Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources.
(MNES)

38. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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ORGANIZATIONAL DESCRIPTION
The staff positions of the DRDA at district level
S.N
o
STAFF POSITION REMARKS
1 Project Director
 Each district has its own District Rural
Development Agency, headed by a project
director who is of the rank of an Additional
District Magistrate.
 The Project Director is a senior scale officer of
All India Services or a senior officer of the State
Service, eligible for appointment to the All India
Services.
 He/ She is overall in-charge of the activities of
the DRDA and responsible for interaction with
the District/State administration as well as with
Government of India.
 The PD is exclusively for DRDA work.
2
Two Subject Specialists (Could
be from
Agriculture,horticulture,animal,
husbandry,business,service
sector)
Each district to identify the specialization required as per
the livelihood opportunities in the district. The subject
specialists to be taken from the pool of APOs and DPMs
depending on their expertise, or on contract or on
deputation from the Governments line department,
3
One district
coordinator(Institutional and
Capacity Building)
To be selected from the pool of APOs or DPMs
4
One District
Coordinator(Microfinance,Com
munity,Investment Fund)
To be selected from the pool of APOs or DPMs
5 Administrative Officer
6 Finance Manager
7 Monitoring and Learning officer

39. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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39
Field office (One for a cluster of 5-7 Mandals)
S.No POSITIONS
CAPABILITIES AND
EXPERIENCE
ROLES
1
Area
coordinator(AC) (To
be selected from
APOs(DRDA),DPM
S(SERP)
 To work with the CBOs
 Ability to nurture the
HGs,VOs,MSs
 Ability to guide and
mentor
CCs,MBKs,MTCs.etc
Take decitions relating to
the project implementation
as per AWFP in the 5-7
Mandals covered by the
office
2
Micro Finance(MF)
Coordinator(To be
selected from
APMs,EO(DWCRA)
Experience in Micro finance and
Auditing
 Support the AC on
all the MF related
activities
 Preparation of
micro plan,SHG-
bank Linkages
3
Livelihood
Coordnator(To be
selected from Las or
EO(DWCRA)
 To have expertise in
implementing CIF
component of the project
 To have knowledge in
promoting the livelihoods
of the poor
Implement CIF component
Promote programmes
related to the livelihood of
the poor
Each DRDA has the following wings
Self-employment wing
Women’s wing
Wage employment wing
Accounts wing
Monitoring and Evaluation wing

40. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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40
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION

41. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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41
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
A fundamental indicator of gender inequality in India, and arguably, one of the most power-
ful, is a preference for sons so strong that it is manifested as limiting the birth and survival of
girls. The 2001 census data for India revealed a sharp decline in the sex ratio for the population
age 0-6, from 945 females in 1991 to 927 females per 1,000 males. The trend in the sex ratio of
the under-seven population based on National Family Health Survey data for the period
1992-93 to 2005-06 also provides evidence of continued decline and shows that in 2005-06 the
under-seven sex ratio had fallen further to 918 females per 1,000 males.
 Trend data based on the three NFHS surveys provide strong evidence of declines in the sex
ratio (females per 1,000 males) of the population age 0-6 and in the sex ratio at birth for
births in the five years preceding each survey.
 Females are under-represented among births and over-represented among births that die.
 Sex ratios at birth decline with wealth, suggesting that sex selection of births is more
common among wealthier than poorer households.
 Ultrasound tests are being widely used for sex selection, with sex selection being more
evident for the wealthiest women than for women in the other wealth quintiles.
 Sex ratios of all last births and last births of sterilized women show clearly that couples
typically stop having children once they have the desired number of sons.
 The child mortality rate, defined as the number of deaths to children age 1-4 years per 1,000
children reaching age 1 year, is 61% higher for girls than for boys.
934
926
918
910
915
920
925
930
935
940
NHFS-1(1992-93) NHFS-2(1998-99) NHFS-3(2005-06)
Chart1-Trends in the sex ratio(females per 1,000
males) age 0-6 years, india
Trends in the sex ratio(females per
1,000 males) age 0-6 years, india

42. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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4.1 Gender Differences in Education
Eliminating gender differences in access to education and educational attainment are key elements on
the path to attaining gender equality and reducing the disempowerment of women. In recognition of
the pivotal role of education in development and of persistent gender inequalities in access to
education, the elimination of gender disparity in primary education is one of the Millennium
Development Goals.
The achievement of universal primary education has been a key goal of Indian planning since
Independence. However, increasing access to primary schooling still leaves the twin questions
of educational quality and school retention unanswered. Continued economic development
cannot be sustained with a population that has merely completed primary school; it needs a
dependable supply of highly educated and skilled human capital for which a high level of
educational attainment of both women and men is necessary. However, ensuring a continued
supply of skilled human capital to sustain economic growth is only one objective of reducing
gender inequalities in educational attainment: the other is that education, particularly higher
education of women, is a key enabler of demographic change, family welfare, and better
health and nutrition of women and their families. Higher education has the potential to
empower women with knowledge and ways of understanding and manipulating the world
around them. Education of women has been shown to be associated with lower fertility, infant
mortality, and better child health and nutrition.
Children’s school attendance
 Only two-thirds of girls and three-fourths of boys age 6-17 years are attending school. The
sex ratio of children attending school is 889 girls per 1,000 boys.
 There is gender equality in school attendance in urban areas; but, in rural areas, the female
disadvantage in education is marked and increases with age.
 Age-appropriate school attendance is lower than any school attendance for both boys and
girls. However, boys and girls who are in school are about equally likely to be in an age-
inappropriate class.
 School dropout beyond primary school is a major problem for both girls and boys.

43. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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Literacy and educational attainment among adults ..
 The percentage of adults who are literate is much lower in rural than in urban areas;
nonetheless, even in urban areas one-fourth of women and more than one-tenth of men are
not literate. Gender disparity in literacy is much greater in rural than in urban areas and
declines sharply with household wealth.
 Forty-one percent of women and 18% of men age 15-
Educational attainment remains very low: even among the 20-29 age group, only 27% of
women and 39% of men have 10 or more years of education.
 The percentage of ever-married women with 10 or more years of education has risen very
slowly from 11% in NFHS-1 to 17% in NFHS-3.
75
85
80
49
66
81
70
34
6-17 years 6-10 years 11-14 years 15-17 years
Chart 2 showing percentage of boys and girls attending school in the
2005-06 year,NHFS-3,India
Boys Girls

44. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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44
4.2 Gender Differentials in Adult Literacy
Literacy , i.e., the ability to read and write, is the foundation of education. NFHS-3 shows
that only 55% of women and 78% of men are literate in India. Literacy has, however, been
increasing over time for both women and men as measured by chances across age groups. In fact,
literacy among women is almost twice as high in the 15-19 age group than in the age-group 45-49
that is 30 years older. Nonetheless, even in the youngest age group, one in four women and one in ten
men are not literate.
74
64
55
48
43
40 38
89
84
81
76
70 69 68
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
Chart 3 showing percentage literate amongwomen and men age 15-
49 by age, NFHS-3,india
Women Men

45. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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45
4.3 Employment
In addition to education, employment can also be an important source of empowerment for
women. Employment, particularly for cash and in the formal sector, can empower women by
providing financial independence, alternative sources of social identity, and exposure to
power structures independent of kin networks (Dixon-Mueller, 1993). Nonetheless, early ages
at marriage and child bearing and limited access to education limit women’s ability to
participate in the labour market, particularly in the formal sectors. By contrast, male gender
roles are compatible with employment and men are typically expected to be employed and be
breadwinners for their families. Not surprisingly, men dominate most formal labour markets.
This chapter describes women’s and men’s labour force participation in order to highlight
gender inequalities in access to employment and types of employment. NFHS-3 found that,
among all women age 15-49, 43% had been employed at any time in the past 12 months with
the majority of them being currently employed. By contrast, 87% of men in the same age group
have been employed in the past 12 months. In the rest of this chapter and report, men and
women referred to as ‘employed’ are those who have been employed at any time in the past 12
months.
Women’sandMen’sEmploymentStatus
Employment according to marital status Since women are much more likely to be
constrained by marriage and child bearing and rearing than men, Table provides information
on women’s and men’s employment within each marital category.
Among women, employment varies greatly by marital status. Women who are divorced,
separated, deserted, or widowed are much more likely to be employed than currently married
women; never married women are least likely to be employed. For men, employment varies
little between those who are currently married and those who were formerly married;
however, never married men are, as expected, less likely than ever-married men to be
employed. Nonetheless, the proportion of never married men who are employed is almost
twice as high, at 66%, as the proportion of never married women who are employed, at 37%.

46. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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46
Employment by residence Women’s employment is likely to be affected by residence, since
agricultural work, which accounts for most employment in rural areas, is typically more
compatible with women’s other responsibilities as well as with low levels of education and
skill development. In fact, NFHS-3 finds that women are about two-thirds more likely to be
employed in rural than in urban areas. Table shows that employment is higher in rural
than in urban areas in every marital category, although the differential by residence is greatest,
at 23 percentage points, among currently married and never married women. Among men, the
differential by residence in employment is negligible across marital categories, with the
highest variation, at only 4 percentage points, being among the never married.
Women Men
Married
Divorced/
Seperated/
Deserted
Widowed
Never
married
Total Married
Divorced/
Seperated/
Deserted
Widowed
Never
married
Total
Residence
Urban 27.1 66.4 63.4 29 29.3 98.8 94.8 97.7 63.9 84
Rural 49.8 71.5 70.9 42.1 49.4 98.8 94.2 98.5 68.1 88.7
Age
15-19 31.4 60.4 56.8 34 33.4 87.6 100 0 49.3 50.4
20-29 37 64.4 68.6 42.2 38.5 98.5 98.8 100 82 90.3
30-39 48.8 76 75.8 58.7 50.6 99.3 93.8 98.7 95.6 99
40-49 47.7 70 64 58.3 49.7 98.8 91.2 97.7 85.3 98.5
Education in years of study
None 55.4 77.5 75.2 58.6 57 99.2 94.2 98.7 95.5 98.6
0-4
years
45.7 68.6 71.5 55.7 48.8 99.2 88.2 97.5 92.6 97.6
5-9
years
30.9 61.9 51.8 37.3 33.6 99 96.6 97.4 70.4 87.2
10-11
years
21.5 44.1 47.1 22.3 22.3 99.1 99.8 100 50.2 74.7
12+
years
29.8 60.4 67.8 31.3 31 97.5 92.8 100 56.3 79.7

47. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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47
Wealth quintile
Lowest 61.5 83.8
82.
3
58.4 62.4 99.1 89.1 99.9 78.3 93.8
Second 53.8 70.7
76.
2
50.6 54.4 98.9 93.9 96.5 74.5 91.2
Middle 47 71.8
69.
8
42.2 47.3 98.8 96.6 98.3 70.4 88.5
Fourth 32.7 60.9
60.
9
30.8 33.5 98.8 96.7 97.3 67.1 85.9
Highest 21.5 52.1
44.
1
22.4 22.5 98.6 99.5 99.4 53.2 78.8
Total 42.8 69.7
68.
6
36.8 42.8 98.8 94.4 98.3 66.3 87
4.4 Married women and decision making
Empowerment literally means “to invest with power”. However, in the context of women’s
empowerment the term has come to denote women’s increased control over their own lives,
bodies, and environments. Further, the concept of empowerment encompasses “a growing
intrinsic capability—greater self-confidence and an inner transformation of one’s
consciousness that enables one to overcome external barriers…” (Sen and Batliwala, 2000).
Greater control and increased capabilities to overcome barriers all translate into increased
agency or the ability to make and implement choices. An important indicator of agency is
decision making power.
In this chapter, indicators of married women’s participation in various types of decisions typically
made in households are examined. Decisions asked about are decisions about the use of women’s
own earnings and husbands‟ earnings, decisions regarding small and large purchases, and other types
of personal or household decisions.
 Among those who have earnings, more women (1 in 5) than men (1 in 18) do not have a
major say in how their own earnings are used and fewer women (about 7 in 10) than men
(about 9 in 10 men) have a major say in how their spouses’ earnings are used.
 Women’s control over own earnings increases with education and wealth, but men’s control

48. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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48
decisions about the use of spouses’ earnings increases with education and wealth for women;
for men, by contrast, it does not vary by education and declines with wealth.
 About one in five currently married women who earn, earn at least as much as their
husbands.
 Women who earn about the same as their husbands are more likely to have a major say in the
use of their husbands’ earnings than both women who earn less than their husbands and who
earn more than their husbands.
Less than two in three currently married women participate, alone or jointly, in decisions about their
own health care, large household purchases, purchases for daily need, and visits to her family and
relatives. The regression analysis shows:
 The number of decisions women make alone varies nonlinearly with education and
does not vary with wealth;
 The number of decisions women make jointly varies positively with education and
nonlinearly with wealth; and
 For women, having earnings that they control is associated with greater participation in
decisions; however, having earnings without a major say in their use is negatively associated
with the number of decisions made jointly and, unexpectedly, positively associated with the
number of decisions made mainly alone.
24
57
81
28
66
94
Alone Jointly Alone or Jointly
Chart 4-percentage of currently married (2005-06)women and men
age 15-49 employed for cash by whether they have the main say in
the use of their earnings,NFHS-3,India
Women Men

49. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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4.5 Spousal violence
 About two in five currently married women age 15-49 have experienced spousal violence in
their current marriage, and among women who have ever experienced such violence, more
than two in three have experienced violence in the past year.
 Slapping is the most common form of spousal physical violence.
 Recent experience of spousal violence varies little by marital duration, but, as expected, ever
experience of spousal violence increases with marital duration.
 Women who report both physical and sexual violence are more likely to have injuries and are
subject to more severe forms of physical violence than women who have experienced
physical but no sexual violence.
 Women who make household decisions jointly with their husbands, including decisions about
the use of their own earnings, are less likely to experience spousal violence than women who
do not have a major say in these decisions or who make the decisions mainly alone.
 Although women who agree that wife beating is justified have a higher prevalence of
violence, one out of three women who do not agree that wife beating is justified have also
experienced violence.
 Higher education and wealth consistently lower women’s risk of spousal violence; and
husbands’ consumption of alcohol and having a mother who was beaten by her spouse
significantly increase the risk.
 The prevalence of violence is higher for women whose mothers’ experienced spousal
violence than for women who have husbands whose mothers experienced spousal violence.
 Prevalence of spousal violence is higher for women who are employed than women who are
not; however, controlling for wealth and education, employment for cash is related positively
only to emotional violence; it is unrelated to physical violence and is associated with lower
odds of sexual violence (OR=0.85).

50. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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4.6 Gender, Women’s Empowerment, And Selected Health, Nutrition, And
Demographic Outcomes
Child vaccination and nutritional status
 Girlsare lesslikely to be fully immunized than boys and this differential is evident even when
hood of being
fully immunized increases with mothers’ education; but girls benefit more than boys from
having a mother who is highly educated.
 Havingmotherswhomainly alone decide the use of their husbands’ earnings increases a girls’
but not a boys’ likelihood of being fully immunized.
 Two out of five children age 0-35 months are underweight, with boys and girls about equally
likely to be underweight.
 A higher proportion of children are underweight if their mother
o is employed than if she is not; however, this association is explained away by poverty which
affects both underweight and women’s employment.
o has experiencedspousal violence than if she has not. Controlling for wealth, this association is
explained away for girls, but remains significant for boys.
Adult nutritional status
 More than one in three women and men age 15-49 are too thin. Among couples, wives are
more likely than husbands to be too thin.
 Controlling for wealth and education, employment, not having a main say in decisions about
large household purchases, and experiencing spousal physical or sexual violence are all
negativelyassociatedwithwomen’snutritionalstatus. However,womenwhohave the main say
alone on the use of their earnings are less likely to be too thin than other employed women.
 Modern contraceptive use among currently married women
 Controlling for number of children ever born and other relevant factors, the likelihood of
women using a modern contraceptive method is
 higherforwomenwhoare employed,particularlyforcash,andforwomenwho make decisions
mainly alone about large household purchases; and
 lower for women who experience both spousal physical and sexual violence.

51. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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4.7 DRDA(stats)
To overcome the issues and empower women DRDA came into existence and implementing so
many programs. The District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) help the Rural Development
Department in implementation, monitoring and evaluation of various Rural Development
Programmes at district level. These DRDAs are registered societies under the Registration of
Societies Act.
Some of the services are..
 Eradicating poverty in rural areas.
 Empower grass root level people’s organizations
 Mobilize self-help groups of poor women
 Co-ordinating voluntary efforts in poverty eradication
 Ameliorate deterioration of natural resources and enable common property resource
management by stakeholders.
 Developing skills in rural communities to handle self-employment programmes and micro-
enterprises.
 Enabling technology to be accessible to rural areas
 Narrowing down gap between urban-rural Sectors and achieve a urban-rural continue
Schemes implementing
The D.R.D.A. is playing crucial role to bring the various Government Sponsoring Schemes to the
door step of the poor people residing at villages. Following are the variousCentral
Government schemes monitoring by DRDA

52. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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 S.G.S.Y
 S.G.S.Y Special projects
 National Old Age Pension Scheme
 National Family Benefit Scheme
 Krishi Shramik Samajik Suraksha Youjana
The Government of India introduced a Life Insurance Coverage cum Social Security
Scheme for Poor Agriculture Labourers as Pilot Project in 50 District in the Country and 3 District in
the State from November, 2002. The West Godavari District is one of the Pilot Project District for
implementing the KSSSY Scheme.
The following State Government schemes are also implementing the District.
 State Matching Grant
 Deepam
 Gruhamitra
 Self Employment Generation
 Additional Old Age Pensions
 Weavers Old Age Pensions
Further the Government of Andhra Pradesh has merged the Youth Welfare and CMEY and
directed the C.E.O., SETWEL to work under the control of P.D., D.R.D.A. The Government of
Andhra Pradesh emphasizing the Convergency of Self Employment Schemes and established
Employment Generation Mission under the Chairmenship of Hon’ble Chief Minister at State Level,
The District Collector at District Level the Collected designated as Chairman for Employment
Generation Committee and P.D., D.R.D.A. as Special Officer, Employment Generation for
monitoring and implementing the various Self Employment Schemes in the District

53. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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4.8 Self Help Groups
District Total No.of Members 2,90,380
No.of Groups Amount(Rs.in lakhs)
(A).Thrift 22025 5680.06
(B).R.F/M.G 12288 1699.26
(C).SHG-Bank Loans 15950 3803.23
(D).IRDP/SGSY 703 640.46
(E).R.F/M.G matching loan 2613 391.95
CORPUS(A+B+C+D) 12214.96
SHG-BANKLINKAGES (UNDERNABARD REFINANCESSCHEME)
S.NO YEAR NO.OF.GROUPS
TOTAL
AMOUNT(IN
LAKHS)
AVERAGE PER
GROUP(RS IN
LAKHS)
1 1999-2000 930 130.20 0.15
2 2000-2001 2240 529.60 0.23
3 2001-2002 7714 1773.08 0.22
4 2002-2003 5066 1370.35 0.27
5 TOTAL 15950 3803.23 0.24
6
% GROUPS
COVERED SO
FAR
72%