6.1 Theoretical Models and ResearchThe traditional parent involv.docx

6.1 Theoretical Models and Research
The traditional parent involvement model for early care and
education programs was a professionally driven parent-
education model, with educators using parents to improve the
child's home environment and to implement what educators
believed to be good educational and parenting practices. This
model was based on the belief that educational and human
service professionals knew what was best for the child and
family, based on their education and expertise. The parent
component of an early care and education program was designed
to teach parents good education-related practices and to
improve the home environment as a place to develop good
behaviors and optimal learning. This practice of parent
involvement was also the accepted approach used by
professionals working with families of children with
developmental delays (Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2005).
To inform our understanding of effective partnerships between
programs and families, it is important to examine approaches
that have been shown to work. To do so, current research
findings on effective family-program partnerships must be
explored. Unfortunately, however, research in effective ways to
enhance family-program partnerships is quite limited,
particularly in early childhood programs.
There are many reasons why there is so little research in this
area. Because there is a variety of ways to involve parents in the
care and education of their children in a program, there is no
agreed-upon definition or measurement of effective parent
involvement. For example, are we looking at parents
volunteering in the program, supporting their children at home,
or effective communication between the home and program
(Hill & Taylor, 2004)? Further, we do not know how one kind
of involvement may positively influence another and thus have

a multiplying, additive effect on children's development and
learning. For example, how might parent involvement in the
early childhood center increase the quality of parenting skills
practiced in the home?
There is also a lack of agreement regarding who should be the
subject of the research. Who should be questioned and given
surveys when studying parent involvement: parents, teachers, or
administrators? This dilemma is compounded by several factors,
including research that indicates teachers tend to evaluate the
involvement of African-American and low-income parents more
negatively than that of European and higher-income parents
(Epstein & Dauber, 1991). Finally, the research available has
been conducted largely in elementary schools and not early
childhood programs. As presented later in this chapter, this is
also a dilemma when examining the various family-program
partnership models. From a research perspective, the more
different an early care or education program is from a
traditional public elementary school, the less valid are these
elementary school-based results for family-program
collaboration in early care and education settings (Hill &
Taylor, 2004).
Policies and Programs That Increase Partnerships Between
Families and Early Care and Education Programs
The evidence we do have strongly supports the benefits of
policies and programs that increase family-program
partnerships. A large body of research has consistently shown
that low-income families are less likely to be involved in their
children's early care and education programs than are middle-
class families; further, early childhood and school programs in
poor neighborhoods are less likely to promote parent
involvement than are programs in middle-class neighborhoods
(Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Hill & Craft, 2003; Hill & Taylor,
2004). Thus, the children who could most benefit from these
partnerships are least likely to receive them. Family-program

partnerships for low-income (and often minority) families in
low-income communities require much more effort and
deliberation than do programs in communities that are more
affluent. For example, these programs must:
provide more information to parents about how they and other
family members can promote appropriate behaviors and learning
achievement in their children.
teach parents and other caregivers specific techniques to use in
working effectively with teachers and other program staff,
including special education specialists. In Chapter 5, the
RERUN process and dialoguing were explained as ways
program staff can work effectively with parents (Gonzalez-
Mena, 2008); these processes can also be used in helping
parents effectively work with staff in early care and education
programs.
provide training for new immigrant parents in the policies,
protocols, and hidden curriculum of the typical American early
care and education program (Bang, 2009). Bang also suggests
teaching functional English to parents who wish to learn.
support training for teachers and other staff in cultural,
economic, and linguistic issues that often prevent low-income
parents from becoming effectively involved in their children's
care and learning in the program (Hill & Taylor, 2004). This
training should occur at the college level, when students are
learning to become teachers and caregivers, and through in-
service training in programs.
Some parents and other adults in the home have very negative
feelings from their own school experiences, either in this
country or in the country from which they emigrated. Early care
and education programs can offset these feelings in a number of
ways; volunteering is one such approach. The best kind of
volunteering occurs when parents and other significant adults
are asked to contribute a project, activity, or lesson to the
students. Making a piñata, sharing a favorite childhood song,
bringing a family's favorite book to read, helping youngsters at

the workbench, and conducting a cooking project in the
classroom are all excellent volunteer activities.
Parents can also be asked to volunteer on the playground, again
providing specific expertise rather than just supervising
students. This might be showing children how to care for
vegetables or harvest the latest crop of tomatoes; demonstrating
how to trim, water, and care for the playground's trees; or
helping a child with a physical disability because the parent has
experience working with special needs children. Finally,
volunteers can help with larger school projects and field trips.
One program successfully involved parents in providing
woodwork instruction, building a playground for one of the
centers, and making puppet stages for each classroom.
Due to a variety of reasons (e.g., busy work schedules, young
children who need to be cared for at home, etc.), some parents
cannot volunteer in their child's program. There are things they
can do from home, such as helping to set up field trips by
phone, making classroom materials, assisting with fundraisers,
or developing the schedule for the next parents' meeting.
Programs can also involve parents and other adults in the home
with a variety of social and educational activities at the center.
These might include celebrations, festivals, or support groups
(e.g., for first-time parents, fathers, or parents of children with
ADHD or autism). Educational programs can classes on
parenting, appropriate discipline, language learning for parents
who do not speak English, budgeting, or job searching.
Simply replicating programs that are effective with middle-class
parents in middle-class communities is not sufficient. Research
shows that early childhood programs must make a particularly
concerted effort in working with families that differ in one or
more ways from typical middle-class American families
(Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Howard, 2007; Hill & Craft, 2003;
Hill & Taylor, 2004).

Theoretical Models
To serve young children well, we need to find ways to work
effectively with their families. This requires an ability to
understand the ever-increasing diversity of families and to be
able to conceptualize and understand positive, dynamic
relationships between families and institutions (Christian,
2007). Previously in this book, we examined the first three
stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory, and discussed how the
relationship between the family, early care and education
program, and community fit within Bronfenbrenner's ecological
systems theory (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Further, in
examining how children develop and learn, Piaget's cognitive
theory and Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory were explored,
along with Maslow's hierarchy of needs. To help understand the
best ways to work effectively with diverse families and to
create constructive family-program partnerships that provide for
the developmental and learning needs of each child, several
theoretical models will be examined. These models reflect our
current understanding of partnerships between the family and
early care and education program, a recognition of the
tremendous diversity of American families, and an
understanding that both families and programs are composed of
unique, dynamic systems (Epstein & Dauber, 1991).
Five of these models will be examined: the family systems
theory; Project Head Start; the ecological systems approach;
Frameworks for School, family and community partnerships;
and the PTA's National Standards for Family-School
Partnerships. While some of these models were developed for
elementary schools, they provide useful ideas for working with
programs that serve children and families, age infant to 5 years
old.
6.2 Family Systems Theory
While families come in all forms, all families also have certain
characteristics in common (Christian, 2007). One way to

examine these common characteristics is to use the family
systems theory. This approach to understanding families is used
extensively in family counseling and therapy and is based on
the work of Ackerman (1959), Jackson (1965), Minuchin
(1974), and Bowen (1978). Family systems theory examines
how all family members influence each other in predictable and
recurring ways (Van Velsor & Cox, 2000). Families are the
primary socialization agent that teaches children how to
function in the larger society; families prepare children for
expectations of how the world works outside the family and how
it will interact with them (Bang, 2009; Ngo, 2006). Family
systems theory focuses on the family unit rather than on
individual family members. It examines the various roles of
individual family members, family dynamics and
communication styles, and how the family responds to stress
(Christian, 2007). This approach enables teachers and
caregivers to examine the family as an organized unit and to
explore reasons members behave as they do under specific
conditions (Fingerman & Bermann, 2000).
Early childhood teachers, directors, and caregivers can use their
understanding of family systems theory to serve families and
their children more effectively. To this end, six characteristics
of the theory are examined: boundaries, roles, rules, hierarchy,
climate, and equilibrium. For each of these characteristics,
family behaviors fall along a continuum, with most families
somewhere in the middle (Christian, 2007).
Boundaries
The concept of boundaries in a family relates to the extent to
which each individual family member operates independently,
and how much they operate as a unit or group (Christian, 2007).
Within this concept, the continuum runs from disengaged to
enmeshed. People in disengaged families value individual
autonomy, with each member acting independently. These
families are also open to new people, information, and ideas. In

enmeshed families, togetherness, belonging, and emotional
connectedness—even conformity—are emphasized. Behaviors of
individual family members in enmeshed families are viewed as
a reflection of the family and not as a characteristic of the
individual (Christian, 2007).
Families tend to fall on a continuum regarding these extremes.
Neither is good or bad (as we discussed in the previous
chapter). Further, a family may change boundaries based on a
variety of circumstances—for example, during times of stress,
families tend to become more enmeshed. Ideas to help early
care and education teachers, caregivers, and directors work
appropriately within each family member's boundaries include
the following:
Understand and recognize different parenting styles and family
boundaries. More importantly, do not make judgments about
parents' care and involvement with their children based on their
styles, or the fact that the family's boundaries are different from
yours.
Avoid stereotypes. Do not make any assumptions about children
and parents; learn the specific backgrounds of each child and
each family in the program.
Recognize that for some families, everything is a family affair.
Thus, when you have a parent conference or a family activity in
the program, you may end up with uncles, aunts, cousins,
friends, and grandparents (Christian, 2007). You may also have
a variety of people dropping off and picking up the child.
(Obviously, you must make sure they are legally allowed to do
so.)
Balance children's activities and curricular experiences to
incorporate both individual and group identity. Regardless of
the family's style, all children need to have the opportunity to
explore their individual uniqueness and to function productively
as part of a group.
Respect families' need for control and involve the whole family

when introducing new ideas and materials. Also, as discussed
earlier, some family members may have had negative school
experiences. Thus, they might transfer these feelings to the
teacher or whomever they feel officially represents the school.
When a conflict arises between the family and the program,
family members may feel frustrated because they cannot seem
to find someone to address the problem to their satisfaction. In
some families, parents will share information (including what
may appear to be confidential) with all family and extended
family members.
Roles
In all families, members have specific roles (Fingerman &
Bermann, 2000). Roles might be a peacemaker, clown, rescuer,
or victim. Each role has certain expectations from others in the
family—the responsible person solves conflicts; the victim gets
blamed for everything (Christian, 2007). These roles can
transfer to work, school, and social settings. A child who is the
peacemaker at home brings these skills to the class; however,
this may prevent other children from learning appropriate social
skills and may limit the child's risk-taking and other natural
childhood behaviors. Obviously, whatever the role a child
brings to the early care and education program, it is critically
important to expose children to all the kinds of learning they
need, including a range of social skills. Ideas for working with
family roles include the following (Christian, 2007):
Give children ample opportunity to role play in structured and
unstructured situations. Dramatic play enables children both to
explore existing roles and to try out new ones.
Observe children carefully. Problems a child experiences in the
program may well be the result of the role they perform at
home. In this case, the child needs opportunities to be
successful in a variety of new and different roles.
Help families recognize their children's many varied strengths.
Send notes home about what the child does well; begin
conferences with the things the child excels at in the program

and on the playground.
Rules
Rules are the scripts we use to live our lives—laws, standards,
traditions, and history. These rules have a powerful impact on
our experiences. For example, people who believe life is
predictable will plan ahead, while those who believe most
things are out of their control tend simply to respond to life as
it happens (Fingerman & Bermann, 2000). Some rules are
spoken; most are not. Most unspoken rules are embedded within
a family's cultural contexts. Sometimes these cultural rules
conflict with the rules and expectations of the program. Rules
can also produce conflicts within families—particularly blended
families and families in which parents come from different
cultural, racial, national, or religious backgrounds.
Sometimes families experiencing conflict need expert
counseling. Early care and education programs can refer these
parents, but they must not overstep their own skills and
professional responsibilities. Specific ideas for working with
families around the concept of rules include the following
(Christian, 2007):
Distinguish between home rules and program rules. When
children challenge you on a program rule, it may be because at
home, the rule is different. Let children know that the rules at
home and in the program may be different, but that this does not
mean those used at home are wrong or bad. In many early
childhood programs, teachers actively engage the classroom
community in creating rules that everyone can support.
Watch for unspoken rules. These are particularly evident in
relationship to gender, power, adults, and authority. While
teachers and caregivers need to be aware of possible conflicts
between home and program rules, program practices should not
necessarily be changed.
Ask families for assistance and input when conflict arises. We
have discussed this at length in the last chapter, including using

the RERUN approach to solving conflicts. Carefully explain
program rules and listen to parents' concerns.
Hierarchy
Hierarchy is about decision-making and control. In some
families, both parents share control, dividing it by their roles; in
others, the authority is culturally specific, based on age, gender,
or income. The authority may be easy to see, or it may be
invisible. Extended families often have untraditional patterns of
authority (Morton, 2000). Every time a family composition
changes—for example, divorce or remarriage—there can be a
shift in the hierarchy, which is confusing to children.
The issue of hierarchy can be addressed by the early care and
education program in two ways: (1) collect information from
parents and other caregivers at the beginning of the year, and
(2) become a keen observer of both children and their families
(Christian, 2007). Specific ideas include the following:
Engage in careful and keen observation. Who signs permission
forms? Who returns phone calls? What role does the child
assume in dramatic play? How do the children respond to male
and female teachers (Bang, 2009; Luz, 2010)?
Note the signs when a family's hierarchy is changing. A child
who suddenly seems unsure of her role in the classroom may
well be experiencing a shift in roles at home. Teachers and
caregivers should be sensitive to the development of hierarchies
emerging in the classroom and playground.
Be sensitive to children whose play always seems to involve
being the boss or the victim. Change activities so children can
try out new and different roles. Work closely with parents and
mental health experts if these roles persist.
Climate
Climate describes the nature of the family's emotional and
physical environment. This is described in terms of how warm
and supportive, or cold and disorganized, the climate may be.
Climate is not determined by income, culture, or education. Is

the home a place where the child feels safe, secure, and loved,
or scared, angry, and unhappy? Ideas for working with families
around the issue of climate include the following:
Provide opportunities to discuss parents' beliefs about children.
This allows staff to support families as they support their
children; it also allows families to learn from each other.
Create a classroom climate that is safe, provides positive
feedback and clear guidelines, and offers a variety of healthy
sensory experiences. Children need to feel that the program is a
warm, wonderful, fun place where they want to be.
Equilibrium
All families, even those with ongoing difficulties and stress,
have a sort of balance, or equilibrium, that tells members what
to expect in family dynamics. When there is change in
equilibrium, either positive or negative, the balance is upset.
This is why change is difficult to maintain (Christian, 2007).
Ideas for working with families around equilibrium include the
following:
Consider inviting a trained family professional to facilitate a
discussion when an event causes a major impact on a member of
a family in the program, such as loss of a job or beginning
higher education. Provide a safe place for families to discuss
the issue and vent their feelings about the change.
Provide as much consistency as possible when there are radical
changes in the family (e.g., a divorce, new baby, or a new
partner for a parent). When such changes occur, it is not a good
time to make major changes in the program or classroom.
Encourage families to plan ways to increase stability and
security for children. Bedtime routines and some regular quality
parent-child one-on-one time are essential for every child,
particularly in a time of confusion and change.
Each family is unique, as is every teacher and caregiver. Both
parents and teachers respond to issues and problems differently.
However, using the family systems theory not only enables staff

to establish relationships with parents and understand family
dynamics, but also provides perspectives and ideas when
conflicts arise—either with the children in the program, or with
their parents or other caregivers. Understanding family systems
theory can provide insights into different ways to work
effectively with diverse families and changing family dynamics.
6.3 Project Head Start
Project Head Start was created in 1965 as part of President
Lyndon Johnson's Great Society programs. It is one of the few
such programs that remain. Head Start developed out of a
national advisory panel of experts convened by President John
F. Kennedy. The underlying belief of the founders of Head Start
was that a high-quality early childhood experience would
prepare low-income children to enter school "ready to learn"
and to be successful within their local public schools. The
framers of Head Start believed that early childhood is a critical
time for future school success (Greenberg, 1969). Because the
program targeted low-income children, it was believed that it
needed to be a comprehensive program including mental,
physical, and dental health; parent involvement and training;
and nutrition and safety (Greenberg, 1969). Project Head Start
also benefited from a cadre of motivated civil rights workers
and the willingness of communities across the nation to donate
efforts, resources, and direct services (Greenberg, 1969).
The initial Head Start philosophy included a comprehensive
approach, including working directly with parents and an
emphasis on social competence. This is a view that focuses on a
child's social and emotional development and disposition to
learning. While Head Start is a federal program with national
standards, the architects of the program insisted that each
program must reflect unique local needs. To address these local
needs, each program must have a Head Start Policy Council, a
local governing group made up of parents and community
volunteers. Larger programs also have center and classroom
committees. Community commitment is required for each
program. Every program is run by a local grantee—school

district, city, county government, single-purpose not-for-profit,
or large-multipurpose agency. These agencies have to generate
20% of their budgets through local resources (in-kind and direct
services).
The architects of Head Start not only believed that parents are
the central socialization agent of their young children, but also
that low-income parents should be empowered and shown how
to provide the care and education their children need to become
successful in school (Greenberg, 1969). One of the initial
architects of Project Head Start was Urie Bronfenbrenner, the
creator of the ecological systems theory discussed throughout
this book (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Initially, Head
Start was designed for children to participate during the year
before kindergarten (usually 4 or 5 years old); later, Early Head
Start was created, which serves pregnant mothers and young
children until they are old enough to enter the regular program.
Head Start's Approach to Parent Partnerships
Many ideas from Project Head Start's approach to working with
families have found their way into the early childhood literature
and have been adopted by other early care and education
programs through the country. In Head Start, parents must be
directly involved in the governance of their local program.
Opportunities for this include membership in classroom and
center committees and the program's policy council. The policy
council's authority includes development and approval of the
annual budget and all program plans, as well as approval of the
programs' hiring and firing decisions. Parents of the program
are also required to help conduct the official annual program
evaluation and to have direct input into the official three-year
review (U.S. Health and Human Services, 2006).
Further, volunteering throughout the program is encouraged and
needed to balance the budget. Because 20% of the budget must
come from the local community, much of this is generated

through parents volunteering their time in the program.
Depending on the program, this includes bus monitors,
classroom volunteers, assisting on field trips, participation in
various committees, and other program-related activities, such
as building a playground.
Local Head Start programs work with parents to help them with
their own education, job training, and job placement. To this
end, parents are encouraged to volunteer and be trained within
the local program, so that they can eventually become
employed. Nationally, 27% of the current Head Start employees
were originally Head Start parents (U.S. Health and Human
Services, 2006). Some of the top managers in local programs
began as Head Start parents.
Creating Community Partnerships
Head Start recognizes that local programs need to work
effectively with a variety of community agencies to meet the
diverse and complex needs of low-income families (U.S. Health
and Human Services, 2006). Not only do local programs provide
training, resources, and information to parents about community
agencies, but they also are required to develop official
partnerships with these agencies. Thus, the administration of the
local program must have a written agreement with local school
districts served by the program, mental health agencies, medical
clinics and hospitals, dentist offices, food banks, employment
and training programs, community colleges, drug rehabilitation
centers, social services agencies, and so on. This way, the local
Head Start program becomes a dynamic hub connecting low-
income parents with a variety of community agencies. These
agencies inform the local program of their services, provide
assistance and information to parents, train staff regarding
services, and work closely with the program to improve services
and meet the needs of the Head Start parents (HHS, 2006).
Kindergarten Transition

Head Start was originally developed to prepare low-income
children to succeed in the local public schools. According to the
federal government, a disproportionate percentage of these
children are minorities (HHS, 2006). Today, all local Head Start
programs are also required to serve children with variety of
developmental delays. A smooth, positive transition from the
local Head Start program to the local public school kindergarten
is critical. Local Head Starts and public schools develop
transition plans where parents and other family members meet
with teachers to pave the way for a successful transition. A
smooth and successful transition is particularly critical for
children who have developmental delays. Poor transitions result
in anxiety, uncertainty, and a sense of vulnerability (Conn-
Powers, Ross-Allen, & Holburn, 1990; DEC Taskforce on
Recommended Practices, 1993).
While some Head Start programs are part of the local public
school, and therefore transition activities are smooth and easy,
many programs are not. Home-based programs function out of
parents' homes (with some organized activities); other programs
are run by cities, county governments, community colleges,
community agencies, and other community not-for-profit
programs. Not-for-profit programs are service organizations that
do not make a profit and do not pay taxes. Often, local
programs serve more than one local school district.
Parental Input into Plans
In Head Start, parents are expected to have direct and indirect
input into their child's care and education. Direct input involves
meeting with teachers at the beginning of the year to plan a
child's educational and behavioral goals. Parents and teachers
develop individual plans to work with their children. While
these plans focus on classroom activities, they may also include
assessments for possible special needs services and ways to
address other possible learning and behavioral challenges.
Parents, teachers, and community workers also address dental,

physical, and mental health needs that the child might have.
Indirect input includes parents' approval of all of the program
plans that affect their children. Teachers in local Head Start
programs are required to visit each child's home several times
each year. This enables parents to discuss the needs of their
children away from the program, where they may feel more at
ease. Other members of the extended family might also have
some input at these meetings. At this time, teachers and social
workers explore additional family needs that the program can
help address, or recommend local community agencies to help
the family.
The approaches that Head Start families use are codified in
specific Head Start Performance Standards. These are federal
standards that require all local programs to be directly involved
with their families; further, program implementation of these
performance standards are reviewed every three years by a
federal program evaluation team (U.S. Health and Human
Services, 2006). There are many other services that local
programs provide for the whole family:
Parenting classes. Examples of parenting classes include
teaching effective discipline procedures, information on local
kindergarten-entry requirements, advice for new immigrant
families on how American schools operate, and information
regarding laws on suspected child abuse and neglect.
Referrals for job training/employment. Many Head Start parents
are underemployed or unemployed. Local Head Start programs
have official agreements with local training and placement
services, so they can provide parents with important
information. Representatives from community colleges and
state, county, and city training and employment programs can
visit the local Head Start and make parents aware of their
services.
Classes on family budgeting. Budgeting is difficult for many
families, including low-income families. Experts in budgeting

(from either the local program or a local community agency)
provide ideas to help Head Start families with this important
practice. These experts also provide ideas to families about
ways to save money, such as using food banks and WIC
programs, buying in bulk, and buying from community gardens.
Classes and referrals for drug and alcohol abuse. Local Head
Start programs have direct connections with local mental health
centers, substance abuse clinics, and other community programs
dedicated to addressing drug and alcohol issues. Because Head
Start is for low-income families, the programs they work with
are sensitive to cost and other barriers that can affect low-
income families.
Classes to learn English. Many Head Start families are new
immigrants who speak a variety of languages other than
English. Parents are very interested in learning English so that
they can function effectively within American society and
support their children as they progress through school. Local
programs work closely with community colleges, language
associations, and community groups to find people able and
willing to teach English to non-English speaking parents.
Training and referrals for domestic violence and other family
issues. Similar to the discussion under alcohol and drug abuse,
local Head Start programs have contact with agencies and
programs that address domestic violence and other family
issues. They can refer parents to these agencies or bring
someone to the center from the program to provide classes.
Classes/activities on Head Start-kindergarten transition.
Kindergarten transition is something all Head Start parents are
interested in learning about, and local Head Start programs have
developed effective programs to address this issue. Many Head
Start programs serve more than one school district, so programs
must be developed for each district being served. Good program
practices include parents visiting the local kindergarten, talking
to the child's prospective teacher, and listening to information
from the district's kindergarten coordinator.
Advice/support for families with children with specific

developmental delays. Classes to help parents work effectively
with children with autism, learning disabilities, ADHD, and
other disabilities might be provided for parents of children who
have disabilities. Additionally, classes could be provided on the
transition of children with disabilities into the local public
schools. This is a very different challenge for these families
than it is for families of children without disabilities.
Specialists from the local public schools who work with
children with disabilities usually provide these classes.
Training in nutrition and low-cost food preparation. Childhood
obesity is a national epidemic; childhood obesity is particularly
high in low-income families and immigrant families. Thus, it is
important that local programs provide parents with information
and advice regarding the negative effects of childhood obesity
and ways to buy and prepare healthy foods for their family.
Classes on discipline. Effective ways to discipline children is a
very popular topic for Head Start parent classes.
Weight loss classes, advice, and referrals. This class might
address obesity issues for children or dieting for parents.
Obesity is an issue for many adults in the United States,
especially low-income adults, for a variety of reasons. These
classes can cover diet, exercise, and lifestyle information.
6.4 Ecological Systems Theory Approach
Focusing on the mesosystem, the second basic structure of
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, enables us to
examine family-program relationships. The mesosystem consists
of linkages between two or more of the child's microsystems,
such as the child's family and early care and education program,
or the family and various community agencies (Bronfenbrenner
& Morris, 1998). According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), the
nature of the influence of the mesosystem on the child depends
on the number and quality of these relationships. Thus, if there
are few linkages between the home and the early care and
education program, in terms of values, experiences, objectives,
and behavioral style, then there will be little positive effect on
the child's development and learning. The more numerous the

qualitative links between the child's microsystems, the more
positive an influence they have on the child's socialization.
If a mother or other caregiver has a positive relationship with
the child's teacher, is welcome and feels important when she
enters her child's early care program, believes the program's
social worker truly cares about the welfare of her child and
family, and knows that when the special education teacher
phones about her child, she is genuinely concerned, then the
child's development and learning will be positively affected. On
the other hand, if the mother simply drops off and picks up her
child at the program, with no other interactions or involvement,
then there is little positive impact (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
There are many ways to examine the qualitative and quantitative
links between the family and the early care and education
program. Two of these are ways the program supports basic
family functions, and the various components of quality early
care and education programs.
Basic Family Functions
What are the basic family functions all families perform, and
how can early care and education programs enhance these
functions? As we have discussed throughout this book, there are
a vast variety of family structures—for example, two parents,
single parents, step-parents, teen parents, grandparents (see
Spotlight: Including Grandparents), and foster and adoptive
parents. None of these structures is necessarily good or bad,
healthy or unhealthy. However, all healthy families perform
basic family functions—how the family cares for its members.
These basic family functions for young children include the
following:
Providing material necessities. This includes shelter, food, and
clothing.
Providing adequate medical and dental care. This includes
making sure children receive immunizations according to the

prescribed schedule.
Supporting learning. Learning is a central task for children;
families need to support the ever-more complex and challenging
learning that all children must achieve.
Providing opportunities for success. As children venture into
the vast social and practical world, they often become frustrated
and disappointed; they may also lose confidence and self-esteem
(Harter, 2006b). A central function of the family is to provide
children with opportunities for success and feelings of
importance and value.
Supporting peer relationships. People are social beings, and
children have to learn appropriate and proactive social skills.
The main way they do this is by developing important and
healthy peer relationships (Harter, 2006b). Parents and other
caregivers need to help and support their children in this
important task.
Harmony and stability. To develop into secure emotional adults,
children need a home base of harmony, warmth, acceptance, and
support.
Socialization. In all societies, the family is the central agent
that makes sure children learn society's values, beliefs,
knowledge, and skills. Further, the family is the central
socializing agent for children to know their own culture's
values, beliefs, expectations, and traditions (Harter, 2006b).
The early care and education program is more effective when it
can help families in as many of these functional areas as
possible, and when the relationships between the family and the
program are positive. Thus, a program might provide job
referrals to parents and other family members, assist them in
finding affordable medical care and dental care, refer parents to
community food banks and food programs, and teach parenting
skills. Or an employee-based program might develop ways that
parents can come to the program during the lunch hour to eat
together and allow children to visit their parents on the job.
While the learning-related functions are the most obvious
examples of this approach, programs can positively influence

many of these areas.
SPOTLIGHT:
Including Grandparents
More than 2.5 million grandparents are raising their
grandchildren in the United States. Other grandparents assist
their own children in raising their grandchildren in some direct
way. Reasons grandparents become the primary caregivers in
the lives of their grandchildren can include drug and alcohol
abuse by parents, divorce, mental and physical illness, child
abuse/neglect, jail, and death. Some of these arrangements are
temporary, while parents complete their education or a military
assignment, recover from an illness, or serve a short jail time.
The challenges are unique and often overwhelming. Children
may have major health or mental health conditions, while some
grandparents are in declining health, lack resources, or are
unaware of available resources in the community. However,
some are also still young with their own children at home;
others are still caring for their own aging parents. Many must
continue to hold jobs to provide for their grandchildren.
Sometimes raising grandchildren isolates grandparents from
their peers in the community. Further, the very situations that
caused the grandparents to have to take on the primary role of
parenting may have created severe physical or psychological
problems for the children (e.g., abuse, drugs, or crime).
Early care and education programs are in a good position to
help grandparents who are parenting for the second time. While
the suggestions here focus on working with grandparents, many
are also effective in working with other adults who help raise
young children in the home. Here are some suggestions for early
care and education programs:

Listen empathetically to grandparents. Introduce them to others
in similar situations; suggest community meetings about
common concerns.
Encourage grandparents to avail themselves of community
resources. Introduce them to food banks and immunization
clinics (for example, for annual flu shots).
Because issues around custody and guardianship can be
common, provide information about where to obtain quality,
low-cost legal advice.
Gather information about community organizations and
resources for children with special needs.
Early care and education programs should provide special
workshops for grandparents. Further, they can respond to
grandparents in their program with the following approaches:
Using the word family instead of parents in communications
Providing printed materials to families that use large, black type
and clear, white backgrounds
Asking grandparents how they would like you to answer
sensitive questions from other children, such as, "Where is
Kyle's mother?"
Looking for ways to include grandparents in the classroom and
program. Grandparents may initially feel out of place among
young, energetic parents.
Being sensitive to comfort needs. Provide adult chairs for
classroom visits and meetings. Provide volunteer opportunities
for adults who might have arthritis and other physical
limitations.
Including grandparent props in dramatic play, images in books,
curricular materials, puzzles, or miniature people. Provide a
variety of assistive devices in the dramatic play area, such as
walkers and canes.
Reading and discussing books that deal with all kinds of
grandparent families, including grandparents as the primary
caregivers in the home, along with grandparents with different
racial and ethnic backgrounds. Create a book library for

families that covers a diversity of topics, including
grandparents.
(Birckmayer, Cohen, Jensen, & Variano, 2005)
However, no program can provide families with all of their
functional needs; rather, the program needs to become a hub for
information, referrals, advice, support, communication, and
understanding.
Quality Early Care and Education
In Chapter 10, we will address in detail characteristics of
quality early care and education programs, discuss research on
quality programs, and examine several methods used to evaluate
and accredit programs. Here, we will describe several
characteristics of early care and education programs that
increase the likelihood of quality interconnections between the
program and the home. According to the Early Care Research
Network, factors that contribute to quality early care and
education programs for young children are the following:
Adequate attention to each individual child. A small adult-child
ratio, along with continuity of care, is critical. Continuity of
care involves the caregiver moving with young children as they
progress from one group to another, for example, from infancy
through age 3.
Encouragement of language and sensory motor development.
Infants and young children need ample language stimulation
within natural social contexts and many opportunities to
manipulate concrete materials and to play with toys.
Attention to health and safety. Cleanliness routines (hand
washing), accident prevention (for example, child-proofing the
house or center), and safe areas to explore and play are
essential.
Professional caregivers. Caregivers and teachers have
experience and degrees/certificates in early childhood
education, turnover is low, and morale is high—necessitating

adequate salaries, benefits, and ongoing training.
Warm and responsive caregivers. Providers engage the children
in active play, problem solving, and social and emotional
development (NICHD Early Care Research Network, 2005).
Additional characteristics, based on our understanding of the
mesosystem, include responsive, respectful, and collaborative
relationships with parents and other caregivers; culturally
responsive care and education; and frequent communication
between the program and the family.
On the opposite end, these are some of the characteristics that
lead to less than optimal care and education of young children
(Fragin, 2000; NICHD, 2005; Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips,
1989):
Inadequate credentials and training of teachers and caregivers
High staff turnover, from 25% to 50% turnover per year.
Poor pay and benefits. As a field, early care and education
teachers and caregivers in the United States are poorly paid,
with few if any benefits. Quality care and continuity of care are
significantly related to worker compensation (Neugebauer,
2004; NICHD, 2005; Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips, 1989).
Programs that do not provide adequate pay and benefits for
teachers and caregivers are less likely to attract and keep
teachers and caregivers with proper training and experience, and
are less able to provide the quality relationships between staff
and families needed to create and maintain effective program-
family partnerships.
On the opposite end, these are some of the characteristics that
lead to less than optimal care and education of young children
(Fragin, 2000; NICHD, 2005; Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips,
1989):
6.5 Frameworks for School, Family, and Community
Partnerships
Several researchers and experts have looked at the way families
and early care and education programs should work together and

developed frameworks to help assist local programs in this
critically important endeavor. With this in mind, we will
examine the frameworks of Douglass Powell and Joyce Epstein.
Powell (1998) proposed some specific ideas to guide early care
and education programs in working with families. These
suggestions are for all programs, whether public school based,
religious, Head Start-Early Head Start, campus child care,
private community, or family/home care.
Early care and education programs must serve whole families,
and not just children. Policies, procedures, and practices must
consider how they affect the family and how they include the
entire family. Parents and staff should have confidence in and
respect for each other. Parents, grandparents, or other adults
need to know that teachers and caregivers are skilled,
knowledgeable, and caring, and thus they need opportunities to
get to know the staff. Teachers and caregivers need training to
be able to include the families' cultural perspectives and to
appreciate and include the families' strengths. When
communicating with the family, programs need to create
individualized approaches. Further, there should be
opportunities for parents and staff to develop shared goals for
each child, based on parents' ideas and wishes and teachers'
knowledge of child development and the program's curriculum.
To facilitate communication and collaboration, teachers and
caregivers need to be available when parents and other family
members are most visible in the program.
Programs need to view parents—and other important adults in
the home—as individuals. Family involvement increases when
parents are seen as whole people with unique needs and
interests that are both similar to that of other parents and also
unique (see Spotlight: Including Grandparents). Thus, programs
must make sure to view parents of similar ethnic, racial,
religious, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds as having unique
interests, needs, and concerns for their children. Critical to

involving family members in the program is finding ways to
help parents see the importance of their involvement to their
child's security, happiness, and academic success. While early
childhood educators and researchers are well aware of the
critical importance of family involvement in the development
and learning of their children, many parents are not. Some are
even told that they are the problem and not the solution
(Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2005). All parents need reassurance,
encouragement, and support in their efforts to work with their
children's early care and education programs.
Education preparation programs (in colleges) should emphasize
teaching students about collaborating with parents, using
current research on effective approaches and field-tested models
as the basis for their training. These programs need to provide a
focus on ways to develop the skills teachers and caregivers need
to work collaboratively with parents and other caregivers, and
to appreciate diverse family backgrounds, especially for
families that differ racially, economically, linguistically, and
culturally from the teacher (Powell, 1998).
To be able to develop effective partnerships with families, early
childhood educators and caregivers need to explore each
family's cultural background. This requires understanding each
family member's roles, traditions, and practices and realizing
that different levels of family participation in the early
childhood program may be due to cultural backgrounds rather
than the parent's desire or effort (Arndt & McGuire-Schwartz,
2008). Also, in some cultures, parents believe teachers should
be respected and revered, and thus the idea of an equal
partnership is particularly difficult for them to comprehend
(Bang, 2009; Luz, 2010; Ngo, 2006).
Some new immigrant parents need specific help in working with
early care and education programs. They need to learn about the
culture of American institutions and programs, which are often
very different from those they are familiar with and those they

attended as children. This includes everything from specific
program policies, to knowing whom to contact at the program
for different kinds of information (Bang, 2009). Many of these
new immigrant parents also need and want to learn English.
However, typical academic English classes taught at community
colleges or community centers can be ineffective; what these
parents want and need is functional instruction that teaches
typical words and phrases used by teachers, caregivers, and
directors in their children's early childhood program (Bang,
2009).
Joyce Epstein's Framework
Epstein (2001) focused on issues of effective program-home
partnerships for many years. She is the director of the Center on
School, Family, and Community Partnerships, and the National
Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS), at Johns Hopkins
University. In 2001, Epstein wrote a handbook called School,
Family, and Community Partnerships. In this book, she lists six
types of program-home partnerships. Like Bronfenbrenner, she
believes there are overlapping spheres of influence on the lives
of children, and that the program, family, and community are all
interconnected. When partners recognize their shared interests
in and responsibilities for children, they work together to create
better programs and opportunities for students (Couchenour &
Chrisman, 2004). In describing her framework for school,
family, and community partnership, Epstein uses specific terms
for each partner (see Think About It: Vocabulary for Program-
Family Partnerships).
According to Epstein, these partnerships should work together
to help prepare children for successful school readiness in math,
literacy, social competence, and other important areas (Epstein,
2007). Epstein's framework to guide the development of
programs that support families and students was designed for K-
12 school programs; however, the framework can be adapted for
early care and education programs that serve children, from
infants to age 5 years old (Epstein, 2007). The six kinds of

program involvement that she recommends are as follows:
Parenting. Offer families assistance with parenting skills, in
understanding child development and approaches to discipline,
and in ways the family can support the child's overall growth
and development. Further, early care and education directors
should provide opportunities to help teachers and caregivers
understand the diverse nature of the families they serve. Family
involvement must be inclusive of a large variety of different
kinds of parents and caregivers.
Communicating. Keep families up to date on program-related
issues and students' progress and other issues (for example,
discipline, the need to assess a child for possible special needs
services, and so on), through effective program-to-home and
home-to-program communications. There are a variety of ways
to do this, but a critical issue is to make sure that information is
provided in the family's home language.
Volunteering. To support children in early care and education,
and to improve family attendance at the program and program-
related activities, programs need to improve outreach and staff
training and adapt their schedules to involve families as
volunteers. Programs must be creative in finding ways to
involve members of families with a variety of schedules and a
history of resistance.
Learning at home. Programs should offer suggestions and
techniques to involve families in a vast array of different
learning activities at home, from structuring quality play
opportunities and visiting community educational resources, to
reading to children and helping them learn basic math concepts
with manipulatives and household items.
Decision making. Include families as participants in program
decisions, governance, and advocacy, through parent
organizations, policy councils, classroom and center

committees, parent advisory boards, and curriculum-related
activities. Opportunities for governance depend on the kind of
early care and education programs a family uses.
Collaborating with the community. Coordinate community
resources for families, children, and the program with
businesses, local agencies, and other groups. Also, the early
care and education program should provide direct services to
the community, such as entertaining seniors at a senior center,
planting flowers to beautify an area of the neighborhood, and
growing vegetables and giving them to the homeless.
6.6 National Parent Teacher Association's National Standards
In 1997, the National PTA used Epstein's six components of
parent involvement to create the National Standards for
Parent/Family Involvement Programs. In 2007, the National
PTA changed the name to National Standards for Family-School
Partnerships and adjusted some of the six items. The changes
shift the focus from what schools should do to involve parents,
to what parents, schools, and communities can do together to
support student success (PTA, 2011). Because the National PTA
is an organization for public K-12 schools, these standards are
written for school-age children and their families. The National
Standards for Family-School Partnerships are listed in
Spotlight: National Standards for Family-School Partnerships.
However, these standards can be adapted for early care and
education programs working with infants and preschool children
(PTA, 2011). These standards are (1) welcoming all families
into the school community, (2) communicating effectively, (3)
supporting student success, (4) speaking up for every child, (5)
sharing power, and (6) collaborating with community
(www.pta.org, 2011).
SPOTLIGHT:
National Standards for Family-School Partnerships
1. Welcoming All Families into the Early Care and Education

Program's Community
Families are active participants in the life of the early care and
education community, and feel welcomed, valued, and
connected to each other, to program staff, and to what children
are learning and doing in the program and in class. There are
two goals under this standard:
Create a welcoming climate in the early care and education
program. When families walk into the program, even if it is
home-based child care, they should feel that it is a place where
they belong. Are there opportunities for families to develop
personal relationships with the director, teachers, and other
staff? Is the atmosphere family-friendly for everyone, including
people of different ethnic and racial backgrounds, parents who
do not speak English, grandparents and fathers? Are there many
ways to volunteer in the program?
Building a respectful, inclusive early care and education
community. All the program policies and rules should reflect,
respect, and value the diversity of the families in the community
the program serves. Do caregivers and teachers value the
contributions of all families, and work together to address
barriers to involvement? Are adaptations made for parents who
have little money and who work during the school day?
2. Communicating Effectively
Families and early care and education staff engage in regular,
meaningful communications about the care and education of
each student. For this standard, there is only one goal: sharing
information between early care and education programs and the
family. All families should feel they are informed on important
issues and events, and that it is easy to communicate with the
director, teachers, and other staff. One approach to achieve this
is the following (Harvard Research Project, 2006/2007):

Accommodate parents' English skills as needed
Communicate with all families, including those who do not
attend meetings and conferences and those who do not respond
to requests
Encourage parents' input and ideas
Offer opportunities to volunteer in the program and on field
trips
Assign home-learning opportunities that require parent-student
interactions
Make sure all parent committees reflect the program's diversity
3. Supporting the Development and Learning of Children
Families and early care and education teachers and caregivers
continuously collaborate to support children's healthy
development and learning, both at home and in the early care or
education program, and have regular opportunities to strengthen
their knowledge, skills, and abilities to do so effectively. For
this standard, the two goals are the following:
Sharing information about children's development and learning.
Families need to be kept fully informed about how well their
children are doing in the program.
Supporting development and learning by engaging families.
Families should have opportunities to learn how to be active
participants in their children's healthy development and learning
at home and in the program. Are families invited to come and
observe in the program? What do teachers, caregivers, and
directors do to help parents learn ways to support and encourage
development and learning at home? What about connecting
families with all sorts of development and learning
opportunities outside the early care and education program?
4. Speaking Up for Every Child

Families are empowered to be advocates for their own and other
children, to make sure that all children are treated fairly, and to
have access to activities, interactions, relationships, and
challenges that will support their optimal growth, development,
and learning. For this standard there are two goals:
Parents and other family members need to understand how the
early care and education program works. Clearly, this differs
depending on whether the program is a religious program, a
public-school preschool program, Head Start, or Early Head
Start. Parents need to know the policies, chain of authority, and
state and federal rules that apply to them and their child. Do
they know their rights? Do they know whom to contact to
resolve issues and answer questions? Are they aware of special
programs, such as special education or parenting classes? If
they have a child with developmental delays, do they know their
rights?
Early care and education program staff need to know how to
support and empower families to maximize their children's
growth and learning in the program. Are parents offered
training and resources on how to monitor and support their
children's progress? Do they know the choices available for
their child, including special education, gifted programs, and
other early care and education programs (e.g., state-funded
preschools and programs for children with developmental
delays)? This is particularly important for families with
children under age 5, because the early childhood field is
extremely diverse, quite complex, and different from state to
state and community to community (Neugebauer, 2008). Finally,
does the early childhood program support parent groups and
community agencies that assist all families?
5. Sharing Power
Families and early care and education program teachers and

caregivers are equal partners in decisions that affect children
and families, and together they inform, influence, and create
policies, practices, and activities. There are two goals for this
standard:
Strengthen the family's voice in shared decision making.
Families must be involved in the early care and education
program's decisions and community decisions that affect their
child. Do they sit at the table and have a vote? What structures
exist to discuss issues of importance to parents, such as who is
eligible for specific programs, how children are placed in
different classrooms, and how teacher selection is made? Are
parents with concerns shunned and ostracized by the program?
Finally, are parents nurtured to become leaders in the program
and in the community?
Building families' social and political connections. Programs
should provide opportunities for parents to connect with each
other around issues of concern, as well as connect with local
policy-makers—politicians, community leaders, early childhood
advocates, support groups, public officials, and church and
business leaders.
6. Collaborating with Community
There is one goal for this standard, and it is that parents and
program leaders need to work closely together with
neighborhood associations, government agencies, businesses,
and colleges to strengthen the early care and education program
that the child attends and to make resources available to
parents, teachers, and staff to build a family-friendly
community. What program-community linkages have been
created? How are they maintained? Have community
partnerships been organized to support the early care and
education program? What are the plans to make the program a
hub of community life, especially for all the families it serves?

How do these community partnerships support children's
development and learning?
The National PTA has developed a series of steps to implement
these standards and a framework to evaluate the success of this
process. These documents can be found on the National PTA
website (www.pta.org).
6.7 The Challenge of Partnerships with Families
Creating effective partnerships between programs and families
is particularly challenging with families that differ from
traditional, middle-class American families (Epstein & Dauber,
1991; Howard, 2007). The diversity of families requires
programs to explore a variety of ways to engage these families
(Hill & Taylor, 2004). This diversity includes gay and lesbian
parents, low-income families, families whose parents do not
speak English as their first language, multiracial families and
transracially adoptive families (families who adopt children of a
different race or ethnicity from the parents), single-parent
families, and blended families (Arndt & McGuire-Swartz,
2004). Of course, these diversities can interact with each other
to create all sorts of combinations (e.g., a teen parent who does
not speak English, or a gay parent with a transracially adopted
child). One form of diversity that has not been addressed stems
from the generational culture of parents, which illustrates
Bronfenbrenner's last domain: the chronosystem. These
generational differences influence the way parents and other
significant caregivers think about gender roles, lifestyles,
culture, and future outlook (Rutherford, 2005). As with all ways
of categorizing people, these are broad generalizations with
obvious variability.
According to Rutherford (2005), the younger end of the Baby
Boomers (now in their 40s) might be first-time parents or
grandparents. They tend to be workaholics who value success
and are career oriented. They often over-commit and need to be
reminded to keep their focus on outcomes. The Gen Xers, born

between 1965 and 1982, value relationships over organizations;
personal touch and immediate feedback are critical, and they
seek a balance between their personal and professional lives.
Millennials, who were born in the mid-1980s, appreciate time
spent with family and personal involvement and tend to have a
generally positive outlook. Their preferred mode of
communication is email and other forms of technology (Howe &
Strauss, 2000).
All families, regardless of their diversity, are embedded within
cultures. Thus, teachers and caregivers must understand how
culture influences families. It is also important for these
teachers and providers to develop their cross-cultural
communication skills.
Cross-Cultural Communication Skills
During the early years, children are developing a strong sense
of their identity, including their cultural identity (Lally, 1995).
Child-rearing practices, beliefs, goals, and values are tied to
culture. When children are raised at home, cared for by
relatives, or a part of a program that reflects the same cultural
values as that of the family, the child's cultural identity
develops in a normal, healthy manner. However, when children
are cared for by people from different cultural backgrounds,
conflict, confusion, and cultural discontinuity can arise (Lally,
1995).
Each of us exists within a variety of cultural contexts (HHS,
2010). We view the world from the perspective of these
contexts (Bowman, 1994). The challenge is to understand that
when we interact with someone from a different cultural
context, we may feel uncomfortable; we may judge them from
our own cultural perspective; and we may not understand why
they behave the way they do (Hall, 1983). Thus, it is critical
that teachers, caregivers, and directors are sensitive to the
different cultural perspectives of the families they work with,

and to conflicts and misunderstandings that might arise due to
cultural differences. However, it is crucial that we do not try to
learn about cultures as static behaviors and attributes practiced
by everyone who belongs within a traditional racial, ethnic,
language, or national group.
Six Areas of Nonverbal Communication
The following are six areas of nonverbal communication that
can result in miscommunication and misunderstanding. These
cultural differences can be seen in both adults and children.
Personal space. We all grow up with a comfort zone regarding
physical proximity while communicating with others—what is
commonly called personal space. Once someone comes too close
to us, we may feel uncomfortable. Most mainstream Americans
prefer a space of about one arm's length. People from some
countries and cultures are more comfortable being much closer
to a person while they are communicating.
Smiling. Smiles are used differently in different cultures. For
example, Americans tend to see smiling as a way to
communicate friendship, comfort, and acceptance; they smile all
the time. Russians and other Europeans view smiling as a much
more authentic behavior, something to be performed when they
are truly happy; anything else is fake (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008).
However, many Vietnamese smile as a way to communicate to
teachers and others in authority that they are good, obedient
students who accept the teacher's authority unequivocally (Binh,
1975).
Eye contact. In some cultures, it is important to look people in
the eye directly when talking to them. People from cultures
where this is the norm become upset when the other person
looks away, thinking they are dishonest. However, in some
Asian cultures, looking into someone's eyes is considered a lack
of respect (Root, Ho, & Sue, 1986). Similarly, some Native
Americans view staring and prolonged eye contact to be

extremely disrespectful (Matheson, 1986). People in other
cultures believe that eye contact is critical when an adult
disciplines a child.
Touch. Anyone who has travelled to Central or South America
knows that people from these cultures greet each other with a
hug and kiss on the cheek. In other cultures, touch is a way of
establishing and maintaining power—those in power can touch
others, but not vice versa. What is appropriate in one culture
can be viewed as harmful or even sexual in another one.
Silence. In some cultures, people are uncomfortable with
silence. Teachers even have the term wait time, which is a
deliberate pause after a question has been asked, to allow
students relaxed time to process the question and formulate an
answer. Other cultures, however, do not need extra time after a
person has spoken, because they naturally leave time as an
indication of having listened to the speaker. In some cultures,
people are apt not to answer questions about themselves, as this
is viewed as bragging (Alderete-Baker, 1998).
Concepts of time. People in highly industrialized societies have
learned to follow the clock and plan ahead using precise time
calculations. Many view carefully following time as essential to
the smooth operation of the workplace, and as respect for the
time of others (Lefley & Pedersen, 1986). Others, of course, not
only are always late, but seem to see doing anything strictly on
time as unimportant: What is done is what is important, not
when it is done.
Related to time is how people communicate facts and
information. In some cultures, a person is expected to engage in
"happy talk" before getting to the point; in others, it is critical
to get to the point immediately. And in some cultures, it is
impolite to say exactly what you mean; the other person needs
to figure it out (Hall, 1983).

Family Strengths and Challenges
All families have unique strengths and challenges. To engage
families in program participation, program staff members need
to find ways to work with families around these strengths and
challenges. For example, one study found that lesbian and gay
parents, like all other parents, want their children to be nurtured
and stimulated to learn, while also wanting environments that
support diversity (Clay, 2007). These parents appreciate
teachers who have experience working with gay and lesbian
families. Similarly, we know that multiracial families and
transracially adoptive families, while wanting the same general
care and support for their children as other families, also expect
program policies, teachers, and activities to be sensitive to
important multiracial issues, including images in curricular
materials and the filling out of federal racial forms (Wardle &
Cruz-Janzen, 2004).
When examining ways to become culturally competent and work
effectively with families of diverse backgrounds, teachers and
caregivers need to examine their own backgrounds, cultures,
education, attitudes, and experiences. How comfortable are they
working with diverse families and children with special needs?
What biases do they have that interfere with working effectively
with all families and children (Arndt & McGuire-Schwartz,
2008)? Once they have explored their own racial and cultural
identities and worldview, teachers and caregivers need to
explore each family's cultural backgrounds. Some teachers find
this easy to do; for others, they enjoy working with children but
may lack confidence working effectively with adults.
Getting Parents Involved
Programs can engage in a variety of activities to develop
positive relationships with families at the beginning of the year,
or when they first enroll their children, and continue throughout
the year (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). Some activities that can be

completed before the school year starts include the following
(Kersey & Masterson, 2009):
Send a personalized card to every child, saying, "See you at
school. You will make lots of friends and have fun" (p. 44).
Have an open house for children and families. Let the families
explore the room, playground, and rest of the center. Help
connect families who have common backgrounds, interests, and
issues. Make sure the open house is at a time when all families
can attend.
Soon after the beginning of the school year, hold a Welcome
Families meeting at a convenient time for all parents. Use this
meeting to solicit ideas from parents about activities and goals
for their children. Provide questionnaires (in all appropriate
languages) to learn about children's interests, strengths, pets,
and hobbies. Also, solicit volunteers by letting parents know all
the possible ways they can volunteer. In the meeting, provide
time for parents to connect and get to know each other. Let
parents know about you—your personality, what you like to do,
and so on.
Many children enter a program while the school year is in
progress. With these families, make sure they fill out the same
questionnaire (in their language), help them make connections
with other parents, and give them a relaxed tour of the facility.
Once parents have become involved with the programs, they
need to be continually engaged and included throughout the
year. Additional activities that can be used to achieve this
include the following (Kersey & Masterson, 2009):
Send home Great Moments certificates. Attach a photo of the
child to the certificate, along with highlighting something the
child has done or made—helped another child, used a new word,
completed a task, etc. Make sure all children receive a
certificate (send out about 3 to 5 a day).
Provide parents a time they can call you to talk about their

child, when it is convenient for them. If a translator is needed,
include him or her in the planning.
Send email communications, reporting positive experiences of
each child.
Record the positive things a child does on a 3x5 card in a
notebook, or in a personal journal for each child. These can then
be shared with a parent at parent-teacher conferences, during
informal interactions between teachers and parents, or at the
end of the school year.
Send home weekend project packs with activities parents can do
with their children. Keep them simple, and make sure both the
instructions and the activity are provided in the language
spoken by the adults in the home.
Create a class newsletter or webpage on the program's website
to engage students in communicating with their families.
Include students' writing, art, photos, and other material.
Specific Challenges in Working with Diverse Families
Because most best practices come out of our dominant cultural
beliefs, and because many early care and education teachers
also come from the dominant culture, special attention must be
devoted to families and children who are different. However,
regardless of diversity, studies indicate that all families have
common goals for their children (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
All families want their children to do well academically and
they want their children to have a successful school experience.
Finally, one of the goals of many parents is for the children to
learn appropriate social skills and to avoid risky behaviors as
they grow up and develop (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
Research has continually documented that impoverished and
minority families are less likely to be involved in their child's
early care and education programs than are white and wealthier
families. Further, early childhood programs in impoverished
communities are less likely to provide active parent
collaboration than are programs in middle-class and wealthy
communities (Boyd-Zaharias & Pate-Bain, 2009; Hill & Taylor,

2004). It is important to note that this lack of involvement is
usually not due to the motivation and concern of these parents,
but to a variety of factors that cause barriers to partnerships.
Because parents in low-income and minority communities are
often affected both by the memory of their own negative school
experiences and by negative feelings regarding their own
abilities as parents and providers, effective partnerships in
high-risk programs need to be radically different from those that
work in more advantaged programs and communities (Hill &
Taylor, 2004). Negative experiences affect parents when their
children begin to attend a program, while memories of positive
school experiences are likely to enhance involvement. Further,
poverty has a direct, negative effect on the involvement of
families in the care and education of their children (Howard,
2007; Hill & Taylor, 2004).
Teachers and caregivers often believe that parents who
volunteer in their child's early care and education program value
education more than parents who do not. Further, teachers and
caregivers tend to think more highly of the involvement of
parents whose children are doing well (academically and
behaviorally) in the program (Hill & Craft, 2003). We also
know that early care and education program polices directly
influence parents' involvement (Epstein & Dauber, 1991) and
that parents will respond positively to a variety of ways to
support their children in early care and education programs (La
Paro, Kraft-Sayre, & Pianta, 2003).
Three Specific Activities to Use with Low-income Families
Like all families, low-income families have incredible variety:
new immigrant families; newly divorced; single mothers;
struggling two-parent families; minority families; and teen
parents trying to finish their high school education. Three
specific kinds of activities that have been effective with low-
income families include building respectful relationships,
engaging families in supporting learning at home, and creating

cultural memoirs (Allen, 2008).
Building Respectful Relationships
Programs need to learn about and incorporate family funds of
knowledge—what families know and pass on to their children.
This approach challenges the deficit model of low-income
families. Through home visits and using families as a resource
for projects, activities, and curricular ideas, teachers build on
family funds of knowledge, which develops trust and a healthy
partnership between the program and the family. Teachers also
learn about all the knowledge and skills students bring to the
program and meet together on a regular basis to determine ways
these family funds of knowledge can be incorporated into the
curriculum and other meaningful learning experiences for
children (Allen, 2008).
To build positive relationships, teachers and caregivers need to
learn specific information about each of their families. This is
best achieved through home visits and open communication.
Further, teachers and other caregivers cannot assume they know
a family simply because they come from the same racial or
ethnic group, or because they have somehow learned some
information about a certain racial and cultural group. The
dynamic cultural contexts to which our families belong are
much more complex than simply belonging to large racial,
ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups.
Engaging Families in Supporting Learning at Home
Another approach that works is program-home reading journals.
To connect with the family, teachers design journals that
children take home with them. These journals are exchanged
throughout the year, two or three times a week. The spiral-
bound notebooks are sent home with carefully chosen children's
books from the library. Parents read the books to their children
(and some children may read these books to their parents), talk
to their children about the books' content, and then write

together in the journal. Teachers then respond to each parent's
journal entries. This approach establishes a deep relationship
between parents and teachers, which supports emergent readers
and writers in the home, without parents or other family
members even coming to the program (Allen, 2008).
Creating Cultural Memoirs
We have discussed throughout this book the issue of cultural
richness and differences. One idea to help families embrace
their identity is to create cultural memoirs. These are records
that answer the question "Who am I as a cultural being, and
what are the influences in my life that have made me who I
am?" Parents, other important family members, and teachers can
engage in this activity. Memoirs are created through the
following activities:
Reading and discussing examples of cultural memoirs. These
are stories that are built around deeply contextualized
information of time and place. Television biopics, radio
broadcasts of historical and cultural biographies, and magazine
bios are short and accessible examples. There are also longer
books, films, and TV programs that focus on the lives of people
embedded within place and time.
Gathering photographs and other cultural artifacts. These can
answer the question "What are my cultural influences in terms
of race, class, gender, ethnicity, geography, nationality,
language, and religion?" Look at old photos, digital files,
newspaper clippings, family and personal diaries, or photo
albums.
Sharing cultural memoirs. Develop a form to present your
multicultural self and to enable parents to do the same: a photo
essay, picture book, scrapbook, poem, or slideshow
presentation. In some programs, parents are invited to share
their memoirs with other parents and with staff. This activity

not only legitimizes the rich cultural contexts of each parent
and family, but it also enables staff to learn about a variety of
cultural contexts and to respect and trust families and children
who are different from them. It also provides a wonderful way
for teachers and other caregivers to explore and share their own
rich cultural backgrounds.
6.8 Working with Fathers
Historically, early care and education programs have viewed
parent communication and involvement as mother
communication and involvement; fathers were often ignored.
Even when fathers attempted to become involved—or were
forced to because they became single parents—they experienced
considerable frustrations. Some fathers still report that staff
members use them simply as a link to their wives or girlfriends
and show a decided preference for communicating with the
child's mother (Cunningham & Dorsey, 2004; Fagan, 1996). A
father can be a biological father, foster/adoptive father, a father
in a blended family, grandfather in a family where grandparents
are raising the children, or any significant male in an extended
family.
Like mothers, fathers can be engaged, loving and exhibit
effective parenting skills, while others have poor parenting
skills and may be too authoritarian (Baumrind, 1971; Wright,
1998). There are a variety of barriers that make it difficult for
fathers to become involved in the care and education of their
children. One particular challenge is that many early
childhood/special education specialists are simply more
comfortable communicating with mothers. While many women
now work full time, the image of the mother as the child's
caregiver and the primary contact with the early care and
education program still persists (Coltrane, 2004; Cunningham &
Dorsey, 2004).
Today, there is increased awareness of the importance of father
involvement in the lives of children. Married fathers spend
more time with their children than they did in the past

(Coltrane, 2004), more fathers are becoming primary caregivers
while their wives work outside the home, and even with regular
jobs outside the home, many fathers are likely to care for their
children when their wives work (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).
Fathers who have good parenting skills and are actively
involved with their children help reduce gender stereotypes and
foster greater cognitive skills, self-control, and empathy in both
preschoolers and adolescents (Coltrane, 2004). School-age
children whose fathers participate in program activities are
more likely to receive high grades and participate in
extracurricular activities (U.S. Department of Education, 1997).
Further, children whose fathers are directly involved in their
early care and education programs are less likely to be expelled
or suspended, or to engage in violent and antisocial behaviors,
and are more likely to do better in academic activities (Horn,
1998). When fathers become involved in their children's early
childhood programs, they are also likely to become involved in
their school programs.

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