Plant propagation can occur through sexual or asexual means. Sexual propagation uses seeds while asexual propagation involves vegetative reproduction techniques without seeds, including cuttings, grafting, layering, and micropropagation. Cuttings require specific conditions like humidity and rooting hormones to successfully grow roots. Grafting and budding combine scion cultivars with rootstocks to control size or allow propagation of difficult to root plants. Layering induces roots to form on intact or nearly intact plants. Micropropagation is a rapid, efficient method using specialized equipment and facilities that is useful for mass producing clones. Propagation by seed is the most natural and inexpensive method and is important for large scale agriculture.

1. Plant Propagation

2. Plant propagation...
• Sexual methods - seed propagation
• Asexual methods
–rooting cuttings
–layering; air layering
–grafting
–specialized structures
–tissue culture; micropropagation
“the art and science of multiplying
plants by sexual or asexual means.”

3. Asexual propagation...
“vegetative reproduction, i.e.,
multiplication that does not
involve the seed cycle - clonal
propagation.”

4. Clone...
A genetically identical assemblage of
individuals produced from a plant
entirely by vegetative means.
Hartmann and Kester

5. Benefits of clonal propagation...
• Some plants produce few (if any) viable seeds.
• Clonal progeny are highly uniform in all characters.
• Outcrossing plants produce highly variable progeny.
• Plants may have extended juvenile period.
• Cloning allows for combining genotypes in one plant.
• Seeds may have lengthy and complex dormancies.

6. Cutting propagation...
• Cutting capable of regenerating roots (or
shoots) from adventitious meristem.
• Cuttings defined by size and location on
parent plant:
–stem tip
–nodal
–root
–leaf
• Cuttings also defined by condition of growth:
–softwood, semihardwood, hardwood

7. Conditions required for rooting cuttings...
• Hardwood and root cuttings require well
drained medium, but little moisture control.
• Leafy cuttings require high humidity to
prevent excessive dehydration:
–intermittent mist systems.
–poly tents or cold frames.
–fog.
• Medium into which cuttings are stuck must be
disease free, well drained, and light.
• Auxin application now standard treatment.

8. Examples of cutting propagation...
Species Cutting Type
African violet, begonia leaf cuttings
Many woody shrubs stem tip cuttings (softwood)
brambles root cuttings
Willow, poplars dormant hardwood cuttings

9. Grafting and budding...
• Can graft scion cultivar onto size controlling rootstock.
• Many difficult to root plants are graft compatible.
• Grafting defined by season and type of tissue.
–budding (T-budding, inverted T, patch)
–wedge, veneer, whip and tongue, cleft, etc.
• Scion cultivar may be changed on mature trees (top
working)
“The vascular cambium can regenerate the vascular
connections between the scion and rootstock resulting in
a complete plant composed of more than one genotype.”

10. Grafted and budded plants...
Species Graft/bud Type
apples chip, T-bud, cleft
conifers side veneer
pecans patch
roses T-bud (shield)
grapes modified wedge

11. Layering...
• Air layering - interrupt cambium and cover wound with
moistened medium. Ficus elastica, Magnolia
• Simple layering - low hanging branch covered with soil (with
or without wounding) - many shrubs
• Tip layering - tips of plants (brambles) at certain times of
year (rat-tail condition) develop roots where they touch the
soil Blackberries, raspberries
• Mound layering - soil mounded to cover base of specially
pruned young tree (also referred to as stool layering) Apple
rootstocks
“Layering involves inducing roots on an intact
(or nearly so) plant .”

12. Air Layering

13. Specialized
Structures
Modified Stems
bulb, corm, tuber, rhizome
pseudobulb, runner
Modified Roots
tuberous root

14. Propagation by specialized structures...
Species Structure
tulip, onion, Easter lily bulb
potato, Jerusalem artichoke tuber
Iris, lily-of-the valley rhizome
Gladiolus, Crocus corm
strawberry, Ajuga runner
Dahlia, sweet potato tuberous root

15. Apomixis...
“the development of an embryo within a seed or
flowering structure from a source other than the
egg, resulting in the formation of an embryo
(sometimes in addition to the sexual embryo) that
is a clone of the maternal parent. Examples
include polyembryony in citrus and crabapples,
and the formation of bulbils in garlic.”
“an exception to the rule of nonclonal embryony.”

16. Micropropagation...
• Micropropagation is rapid, continuous, and efficient.
• Specialized equipment, facilities, and technically trained
personnel are required.
• Steps can be taken to obtain and maintain certified pest-
free plants.
• Cost effective if large numbers of a given clone are
produced.
• Widely used for orchids, ferns, many interior foliage
plants, rootstocks, etc.
“Micropropagation has many synonyms - tissue
culture, mass propagation, in vitro culture,
cloning.”

17. Plants amenable to micropropagation...
Flowering pot plants - Begonia, African violets, orchids
Interior foliage plants - ferns, Syngonium, Ficus,
Diffenbachia
Woody ornamentals - red maples, Rhododendrons,
Nandina
Forest trees - Poplar, birch, loblolly pine
Fruit trees - apple, cherry, pear (many rootstocks)
Vegetable crops - potato, celery, tomato, onion (male
sterile)
Plantation crops - banana, date palm, coffee

18. Types of development in vitro...
Proliferation of axillary buds from shoot tip cultures.
Differentiation of adventitious shoots from leaves,
stems, or roots.
Formation and proliferation of somatic embryos.
Seed germination - orchids.
Development of haploid plants from anthers or ovules.
Protoplast fusion and somatic hybrid development.

19. Propagation by seeds...
• Seeds are widely available, inexpensive, and easy to
handle.
• Hybrid seeds are more expensive, but may have
production benefits that offset the cost.
• Large scale agriculture (including vegetable crop
production) is dependent upon seed propagation.
• Seeds (especially seeds of woody plants) may have
complex dormancies that impede germination.
“Propagation by seeds is the major method by
which plants reproduce in nature and one of the
most efficient and widely used propagation
methods for cultivated crops.”
Hartmann and Kester