The document provides information about mountains, wetlands, soils, and comparative and superlative adjectives. It begins with objectives for a 3rd class lesson including learning parts of mountains, the preposition "than", and forming phrases with comparatives and superlatives. It then defines types of wetlands like marshes, swamps, and bogs. Several sections describe different soil types and orders. The document also explains how to form regular and irregular comparative and superlative adjectives in English. Examples are provided throughout to illustrate these grammar points.

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3RD CLASS

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OBJECTIVES
• Learn the parts of a mountain for its subsequent
usage in hydrology speeches.
• Learn the use of the preposition than.
• Be able to form simple phrases and sentences
using comparative and superlatives .
• Get to know the soil related vocabulary to
express ideas using comparative and
superlatives.
THRID CLASS

3. 3
Source: http://valemounttrails.com/cranberry-
marshstarratt-wildlife-management-area/
Source:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/
swamp/
Dominated by trees and other woody
plants.
Dominated by herbaceous plants.
MARSH
SWAMP
WETLANDS

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Source: A bog in the high Andes, Ecuador with club-mosses
https://www.videoblocks.com/video/a-bog-in-the-high-andes-
ecuador-with-club-mosses-hl7q9wsimrzk2dr
ANDEAN WETLAND: BOGS (BOFEDALES)

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MANGROVES OF TUMBES, PERU
Source:
http://www.7wonders.org/america/peru/tumbes/mangroves/
ECOSYSTEMS IN PERU

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CAN YOU TELL IF IT IS A SWAMP OR A MARSH?
Source: https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/places-
we-protect/morgan-swamp-preserve/

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Tumbes “Forests and Mangrove Swamp”
Source: http://www.viajescolon.com.pe/special-programs/tumbes-
forests-and-mangrove-swamp/

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Inshore: at sea but close to the shore.
Example: both mackerel and bluefish have returned to inshore waters by now
EXTRA VOCABULARY: INSHORE AND OFFSHORE

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Offshore:
Definition 1: situated at sea some distance from the shore.
Definition 2: This huge stretch of coastline is dominated by offshore barrier
islands
made, situated, or conducting business abroad, especially in order to take
advantage of lower costs or less stringent regulation.
“deposits in offshore accounts”
Offshore Oil and Gas: Offshore plattforms and drilling rigs
EXTRA VOCABULARY: INSHORE AND OFFSHORE

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THE COMPARATIVE AND THE SUPERLATIVE
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two
objects they modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in
sentences where two nouns are compared, in this pattern:
Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).
The second item of comparison can be omitted if it is clear from the context
(final example below).
Examples
• My house is larger than hers.
• This box is smaller than the one I lost.
• Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.
• The rock flew higher than the roof.
• Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is
understood)

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SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper
or lower limit of a quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest).
They are used in sentences where a subject is compared to a group of
objects.
Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).
The group that is being compared with can be omitted if it is clear from the
context (final example below).
Examples:
• My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.
• This is the smallest box I've ever seen.
• Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race.
• We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all
the rocks" is understood)

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FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
The form depends on the number of syllables in the original adjective.
TWO SYLLABLES
Adjective Comparative Superlative
tall taller tallest
fat fatter fattest
big bigger biggest
sad sadder saddest
Adjective Comparative Superlative
happy happier happiest
simple simpler simplest
busy busier busiest
tilted more tilted most tilted
tangled more tangled most tangled

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THREE OR MORE SYLLABLES
Adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative by
putting more in front of the adjective, and the superlative by
putting most in front.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
important more important most important
expensive more expensive most expensive

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IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
These very common adjectives have completely irregular comparative
and superlative forms
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much more most
far further / farther furthest / farthest

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Source: Parts of a Mountain Nomenclature Cards
http://www.montessoriforeveryone.com/Parts-of-a-Mountain-Nomenclature-
Cards_p_197.html
PARTS OF A MOUNTAIN

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More Irregular Adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative Example
bad worse the worst
Historians say that Hitler was worse than
Mussolini.
He was one of the worst dictators the
world has ever seen.
far further the furthest
Mars is further from the Sun than
Earth.
Pluto is the furthest world from the Sun.
good better the best
Her English was better than the
teacher's.
She was the best English speaker in the
class.
old (age) older / elder
the oldest
the eldest
My sister Karen is older than me.
My elder sister Karen is the eldest in our
family.

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The peak of Mount Everest is 8,850 meters (29,035 feet)
above sea level. No other mountain on Earth has a higher
altitude. However, some mountains might be considered
"taller" (with taller being "the total vertical distance between
their base and their summit").
Mount Everest: Highest Altitude

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Everest from Gokyo Ri: A clear-sky view of the
Mount Everest summit through a telephoto lens
from the summit of Gokyo Ri. Image copyright
iStockphoto / Grazyna Niedzieska.

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Mauna Kea: Tallest Mountain
Tallest Mountain: The base of Mauna Kea is about 6000
meters below sea level, and the summit is about 4000
meters above sea level. The distance between the foot of the
mountain and the summit is about 10,000 meters. This makes
Mauna Kea the "tallest" mountain in the world.

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Astronomical Observatories on Mauna Kea: The summit of Mauna Kea
holds other distinctions. In addition to being the summit of the world's
"tallest" mountain, it is also the home of the world's largest astronomical
observatory. At an elevation of nearly 14,000 feet above sea level, the
observatory is above 40% of Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere above
the mountain is extremely dry and almost cloud-free. This makes it an ideal
location for an observatory. And, yes, that is snow on the ground in Hawaii -
the altitude is high enough and cold enough to accumulate snow. Photo
copyright iStockphoto / GeorgeBurba.

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Chimborazo: Highest Above Earth's Center
Highest Above Earth's Center: The Earth does not have the shape of a
perfect sphere. Instead, its diameter is greatest near the equator. In
the diagram above, the gray dashed line is a perfect circle, and the
solid blue line represents the shape of the earth (exaggerated a bit to
make its departure from spherical obvious). Chimborazo is located
near the equator where Earth's diameter is greatest. This makes the
summit of Chimborazo the highest point above the center of the Earth.

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Snow at the Equator? Photo of Chimborazo mountain,
Ecuador. Even though the mountain is very close to the
equator, it is high enough to support a year-round snow
cap. Image copyright iStockphoto / ache1978.

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Examples of Mountain ranges:
Mahalangur Himal (part of Greater Himalayas) – Asia: Nepal, India,
China, Pakistan, Bhutan; highest point: Everest, 8848 meters above sea
level.
Andes – South America: Argentina, Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Colombia, Venezuela; highest point: Aconcagua, 6962 meters above sea
level.
Alaska Range – North America: United States; highest point: Denali,
6194 meters above sea level.
MOUNTAINS: Landforms that rise high above the natural formations
around them
A mountain height above sea level is called ELEVATION
A mountain range also known as mountain barrier, belt or system is a
geographic área containing numerous geologically related mountains. A
mountain system or system of mountain ranges, sometimes is used to
combine several geological features that are geographically related.

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Source. Lanforms
MOUNTAINS AND HILLS

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TYPES OF SLOPES

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CONTOUR MAP or TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
Very closely spaced
contour lines
represent a steep
slope and
conversely, widely
spaced contours
represent very gentle
slopes
How to determine Steep vs Gentle Slope?

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Source: https://kathleenhalme.com/explore/topographical-drawing-topo/
How to read a topographic map

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HOW TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS WORK
Contour Lines
Source: https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outdoor-
activities/hiking/how-to-read-a-topographic-map2.htm

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THE HIMALAYA
The Himalaya range is the ……….. Mountain system in the
world. The name “Himalaya” comes from the Sanskrit
language and means “the House of Snow,” or “the Snowy
Range.” It consists of several parallel ranges.

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EXAMPLES
Today is the worst day I've had in a long time.
You play tennis better than I do.
This is the least expensive sweater in the store.
This sweater is less expensive than that one.
I ran pretty far yesterday, but I ran even farther today.
EXERCISES
wide
The Amazon River is ………………… river in the world.
big
In 2010 a dog called Giant George was given the title of …….. dog in the world.
high
Mount Everest is ………… mountain in the world.
But it isn't ………….. mountain in the world.
Tall
Mount Mauna Kea…………………………………..
Happy
In 2013 Australia was named ………………..country in the world.

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Source: https://www.slideshare.net/RioneDrevale/fpt-2093-
soilscienceweek10soiltaxonomy

32. 32
Andosol soil is one type of volcanic soil that formed due to
the existence of volcanism in volcanoes. Andosol soil is very
fertile and good for plants.

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Histosols are organic soil materials that
either: (1) are saturated with water for at
least 30 days per year unless drained and
have a minimum thickness of 40-60 cm
depending on fiber content; or (2)
constitute at least 2/3 of the total soil
thickness to a root-restrictive layer. (USDA-
NRCS image)

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Lixisol soil profile from Ghana, showing a
typical clay-rich subsurface layer.
Source:
https://www.britannica.com/science/Cambi
sol/images-videos

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Inceptisols range from weakly
developed soils to those
having various diagnostic
horizons and features but not
meeting the criteria of other
soil orders. In the latter case,
diagnostic features may be
buried or too deep for
classification in another soil
order. (USDA-NRCS image)
Source:
https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/so
il-orders/inceptisols

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Leptosol
one of the 30 soil groups in the classification
system of the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO). Leptosols are soils with a
very shallow profile depth (indicating little
influence of soil-forming processes), and they
often contain large amounts of gravel.
Source:
https://www.britannica.com/science/Leptosol

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FACTS ABOUT SOIL
Soil is a non-renewable resource.
It takes a long time to form.
It’s really hard to balance the proper chemistry in particule size.
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6899076/

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SAND, SILT AND CLAY
(large) Of the three components, sand particles are the …………….

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https://www.123rf.com/photo_79381703_stock-vector-soil-layers-soil-
formation-and-soil-horizons-soil-is-a-mixture-of-plant-residue-and-fine-
mineral-par.html
SOIL LAYERS

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Source: https://www.123rf.com/photo_74953262_stock-vector-soil-
horizons-and-
layers.html?fromid=TERmcGNycFFKTTFPcnhTZGtBY3JpQT09
SOIL HORIZONS AND LAYERS

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Silty Clay: (large) Silt has ………. particles ….. clay and is mainly
inorganic in nature.
(higher) A silty clay soil has a …… percentage of clay …. silt.
Comparative practice

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REFERENCES
Across Inshore Waters
https://www.saltwatersportsman.com/across-inshore-waters
The comparative and the superlative
https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/comparative-and-
superlative/
Highest Mountain in the World-Depending upon how you define "highest
mountain," Mount Everest has some rivals!
https://geology.com/records/highest-mountain-in-the-world.shtml
Landforms
https://www.slideshare.net/maribeliglesias64/landforms-36252181
Types and Distribution of Soil in Indonesia
https://steemit.com/esteem/@zainuddin88/types-and-distribution-of-soil-in-
indonesia-20f655f466edd
The 12 soil order
https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-orders/histosols