The document provides an overview of general chemistry topics including units and measurement, atomic structure, electron configurations, bonding, states of matter, chemical processes, nuclear chemistry, pH, electrochemistry, gases, and methods of separation. It defines key terms and concepts, provides examples and diagrams, and includes practice problems and quizzes on these fundamental chemistry subjects.

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General chemistry is the study of matter, energy and the
interactions between them. This is an overview of General
Chemistry topics, such as acids and bases, atomic
structure, the periodic table, chemical bonds, and
chemical reactions.

3. Units and Measurement
Chemistry is a science that relies on experimentation, which often involves taking
measurements and performing calculations based on those measurements. This
means it is important to be familiar with the units of measurement and ways of
converting between different units.
Room temperature:
The range is typically between 20 °C ( ) and 27 °C ( )
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𝑭 =
𝟗
𝟓
𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐 𝑪 =
𝟓
𝟗
(𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
CONVERSION OF UNITS OF TEMPERATURE
Example
Convert 68 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius:
T(°C) = (68°F - 32) × 5/9 = 20 °C
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273

5. Atomic Structure
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Atoms are composed of ………, ………., and ………. Protons and neutrons
form the nucleus of the atom, with electrons moving around this core. The
study of atomic structure involves understanding the composition of atoms,
isotopes, and ions.

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ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
VALENCE ELECTRONS
The electrons in the outermost Shell are the valence electrons-the
electrons on an atom that can be gained or lost in a chemical
reaction. Valence electron can be defined as an electron on the
outermost energy level in an atom.
Gallium has the following electron configuration.
Ga: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
The 4s and 4p electrons can be lost in a chemical reaction, but not
the electrons in the filled 3d subshell. Gallium therefore has three
valence electrons.

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HAFNIUM DIAGONAL RULE for Electron Configuration

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Quantum Mechanical Model
The quantum mechanical model is the most advanced and accurate model
of the atom, used today by chemists and physicists.
In this model, electrons do not exist as tiny points inside the atom, but
instead surround the nucleus in a form resembling a cloud

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ENERGY AND MATTER
CHANGING STATES OF MATTER
There are three states of matter that we know about: solids,
liquids and gases. Each of these states is made up of
particles that move by different amounts.
All solids, liquids and gases are made of particles. The only
difference between them is how much energy the particles
have. If you give the particles energy; or take energy away
from them; then you can change their state.
If you heat up a solid - you give it some energy. This causes
the particles to move more and the solid to change into a
liquid, or melt. If the liquid is heated then it may evaporate
and turn into a gas.
Taking energy away from a gas (cooling it down) may cause
it to turn into a liquid - or condense. Further cooling of the
liquid may cause it to turn into a solid - or freeze.

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CHEMISTRY TERM PHASE CHANGE
Fusion/Melting
Freezing
Vaporization/Boiling
Condensation
Sublimation
Deposition
Solid to a Liquid
Liquid to a Solid
Liquid to a Gas
Gas to a Liquid
Solid to a Gas
Gas to a Solid
OVERVIEW
Source: sciencewithme.com

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1. What are solids, liquids and gases made out of ?
2. Are the particles moving or still ?
3. Do the gas particles move more or less than in a liquid ?
4. Do the gas particles move more or less than in a solid ?
5. A change from a solid to a liquid is called what ?
6. A change from a liquid to a gas is called what ?
7. A change from a gas to a liquid is called what ?
8. A change from a liquid to a solid is calles what ?
QUIZ N°1

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1. Liquid particles are always doing what?
2. If liquid particles are heated do they move more or less?
3. If you give heat energy to a liquid will it change into a gas or a
solid?
4. What is the name of the process when a liquid changes into a gas?
5. If liquid particles lose energy do they move more or less?
6. When a liquid loses energy will it change into a gas or a solid?
7. What is the name of the process when a liquid changes into a solid?
8. Which particles have the most energy a solid, liquid or a gas?
QUIZ N°2

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ENERGY AND MATTER
CHEMICAL PROCCESES IN LIFE
How do living things get and use energy?

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Source: www.sciencewithme.com

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QUIZ 3

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NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons
in each atom but different number of neutrons
ISOTOPES OF CARBON

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Source: http://pediaa.com/difference-between-stable-and-unstable-isotopes/
STABLE ISOTOPES VS UNSTABLE ISOTOPES

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Half Life
Stable Isotopes: The half-life of a stable isotope is very long or it
doesn’t have a half-life at all.
Unstable Isotopes: The half-life of unstable isotope is short and can be
calculate easily.
Problem #1: The half-life of Zn-71 is 2.4 minutes. If one had 100.0 g at
the beginning, how many grams would be left after 7.2 minutes has
elapsed?
Solution:
7.2 / 2.4 = 3 half-lives
(1/2)3 = 0.125 (the amount remaining after 3 half-lives)
100.0 g x 0.125 = 12.5 g remaining
Source: https://www.chemteam.info/Radioactivity/Radioactivity-Half-Life-
probs1-10.html

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Problem #1: Pd-100 has a half-life of 3.6 days. If one had 6.02 x 1023
atoms at the start, how many atoms would be present after 20.0 days?
Problem #2: Os-182 has a half-life of 21.5 hours. How many grams of
a 10.0 gram sample would have decayed after exactly three half-lives?
Problem #3: After 24.0 days, 2.00 milligrams of an original 128.0
milligram sample remain. What is the half-life of the sample?
Problem #5: U-238 has a half-life of 4.46 x 109 years. How much U-
238 should be present in a sample 2.5 x 109 years old, if 2.00 grams
was present initially?

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pH
The pH of a solution is a measure of the molar concentration of hydrogen
ions in the solution and as such is a measure of the acidity or basicity of
the solution. The letters pH stand for "power of hydrogen" and the
numerical value is defined as the negative base 10 logarithm of the molar
concentration of hydrogen ions.
NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
pH = -log10[H+]
pH of common
substances

24. Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry primarily is concerned with oxidation-reduction reactions or redox
reactions. These reactions produce ions and may be harnessed to produce electrodes
and batteries. Electrochemistry is used to predict whether or not a reaction will occur
and in which direction electrons will flow.
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TYPES OF BATTERIES
Primary batteries are disposable because their electrochemical reaction cannot
be reversed.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable, because their electrochemical reaction
can be reversed by applying a certain voltage to the battery in the opposite
directrion of the discharge.

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CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms and molecules join together through ionic and covalent bonding. Related topics
include electronegativity, oxidation numbers, and Lewis electron dot structure.
The Covalent bond
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Source: https://sites.google.com/site/internationalgcsechemistry/year-9-topics/covalent-
substances/covalent-bonding
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Metallic Bonding
A metallic bond is the attraction of a metallic catión for delocalized
electrons. The shared valance electrons are mobile in a usually
stable crystalline structure.
Source:http://www.yourdictionary.com/metallic-bond
Delocalized = free floating

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OVERVIEW OF BONDINGS
Bonding and structure explains the properties of a substance

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GASES
MOLE
The mole is a unit of measurement used to express amounts of
a chemical substance that contains as many elementary
entities (e.g.atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are
atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12, the isotope of carbon
with relative atomic mass of exactly 12 by definition.

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GAS PRESSURE
What causes pressure in a gas?
If molecules move faster and collide more often, they have more force.
Pressure increases!
When you shake a can of soda, the gas molecules move faster, pressure
increases, when opened the higher pressure ‘explodes’ with the soda
making a big mess.
Source: https://delishably.com/beverages/Help-My-Bottle-Of-Sodas-All-Shaken-Up-Preventing-
Coke-Explosions

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AVOGADRO’S LAW

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General equation of state for ideal gases
p Pressure [Pa]
V Volume [m3]
m Mass [kg]
M Molar mass [kg kmol-1]
R General gas constant [kJ kmol-1 K-1]
T Absolute temperature [K]
N Number of particules
NA Avogadro constant
Source: https://www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com/en/know-how/introduction-to-vacuum-
technology/fundamentals/general-gas-equation/

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METHODS OF SEPARATION IN SUBSTANCE
Source: Zumdahi, DeCoste, World of Chemistry, 2002, page 40
FILTRATION

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CENTRIFUGING
Spin sample very rapidly: denser materials go to bottom (outside)
To use this method, materials need to have different density
Example: Separate blood into serum and plasma
Serum (clear)
Plasma (contains red blood cells ‘ RBCs’)
Check for anemia (lack of iron)
METHODS OF SEPARATION IN SUBSTANCES

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DECANTATION
We use decantation to separate two liquids with different
density, such as oil and wáter.
METHODS OF SEPARATION IN SUBSTANCES

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DISTILLATION
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in
their volatiles in a boiling liquid mixture. This method works because
the substances that we are separating have different boiling points
Source: http://crudeoildatsuhata.blogspot.com/2018/06/crude-oil-distillation.html
METHODS OF SEPARATION IN SUBSTANCES

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The Most Important Chemical Compounds
We are living in a world filled with chemical compounds, some of them
being the most important things we use on a regular basis. Here are a
few of the thousands of compounds that are most useful in our daily
routines:
• Water (H2O) – No explanation is needed as to how important water
is in our life. Basically, water is something that could help us survive
even if we don’t have anything else.
• Sodium Chloride or Table Salt (NaCl) – Salt is used not only in
cooking, but in cleaning as well. In fact, it is said that there are more
than 14,000 specific uses for salt all in all.
• Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate or Baking Soda (NaHCO3) –
Baking soda does not only have benefits around the kitchen, but is
also used in beauty and health. It can be used as a cleaning and
whitening agent, and is a great deodorizer as well.

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• Methane (CH4) – Methane is a natural gas that is used to refine
crude oil. It is also used as a reactant to produce other substances
such as chloromethanes and ammonia.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – Carbon dioxide is used in the content of
fire extinguishers and in the production of dry ice. It is also used in the
production of carbonated drinks.
• Citric Acid (C6H8O7) – An organic compound, it is usually found in
citrus fruits. It is used for culinary and medicinal purposes.
• Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) – Sodium nitrate is used in the food and
agriculture industry. It is also the prime ingredient in fertilizers.
• Ammonia (NH3) – Ammonia reacts with acids to produce salts. It is
used in a lot of cleaning products.
The Most Important Chemical Compounds

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• Sucrose or Table Sugar (C12H22O11) – Sucrose is used mainly in
cooking and as a sweetener.
• Sodium Hypochlorite or Bleach (NaClO) – Bleach is used as a stain
remover, disinfectant and deodorant. It is also used to treat water and to
reduce skin damage.
• Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) – This is used as a germicidal agent and
is the only one of its kind that is composed of oxygen and water. It is an
alternative to bleach and is a potent disinfectant. It is also used in
personal hygiene products like mouthwash and toothpaste, and is used
to lighten hair. It is also used to sanitize meat and other food products.
• Acetone ((CH3)2CO) – Acetone has a number of medical and cosmetic
uses, the most popular being as a nail polish remover. It is also a popular
solvent and is used for other domestic and laboratory processes.
The Most Important Chemical Compounds

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REVIEW

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[1] General gas equation
[https://www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com/en/know-how/introduction-to-vacuum-technology/fundamentals/general-gas-
equation/
[2] Half-Life Problems #1 - 10
[Online] Available:
https://www.chemteam.info/Radioactivity/Radioactivity-Half-Life-probs1-10.html
[3] The Most Important Chemical Compounds
[Online] Available:
https://www.famousscientists.org/the-most-important-chemical-compounds/
[4] Temperature Conversion Table
[Online] Available:
http://allmeasures.com/temperature.html
[5] Circuit Design with VHDL
Volnei A. Pedroni
[6] A Brief History of VHDL
[Online] Available:
https://www.doulos.com/knowhow/vhdl_designers_guide/a_brief_history_of_vhdl/
[7] Rapid Prototyping Of Digital Systems Sopc Edition
-James O. Hamblen
-Tyson S. Hall
-Michael D. Furman
[8] General Chemistry Topics by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.
[Online] Available:
https://www.thoughtco.com/general-chemistry-topics-607571 23/10/2018 Taller 2018

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