Chapter 2 of the project management document discusses organizational influences and the project life cycle. It emphasizes how organizational culture, communication, structure, and stakeholders shape project management practices and success. It also outlines the roles and dynamics of project teams, the governance framework, and the significance of managing stakeholder expectations throughout the project life cycle.

1. Project Management
1
Prepared by - Niranjana K R for Alliance
University
Chapter 2: Organizational Influences And Project Life Cycle
Faculty: Niranjana K R
B.E., QA Professional, Six Sigma Black Belt, LA for ISO 9001 and AS 9100 Rev C, Member of PMI & QCFI

2. Chapter 2: Introduction
• Projects and project management take place in an environment that is
broader than that of the project itself. In this context :-
– How a project work is carried out in alignment with the organization’s goals and
managed in accordance with the organization’s established policies?
– How organizational influences affect the methods used for staffing, managing ,
and executing the project?
– What is the influence of stakeholders on the project and its governance?
• The project team’s structure and membership, and
• Different approaches to the phasing and relationship of activities within the
project’s life cycle.
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3. Chapter 2: Topics
•The following major sections are discussed:
2.1 Organizational Influences on Project
Management
2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance
2.3 Project Team
2.4 Project Life Cycle
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4. 2.1 Organizational Influences on Project Management (1 of 2)
2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles
2.1.2 Organizational Communications
2.1.3 Organizational Structures
2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
2.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors
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5. 2.1 Organizational Influences on Project Management (2 of 2)
• An organization’s culture, style, and structure influence how
its projects are performed.
• The level of Project Management Maturity and its project
management system can also influence the project.
• Due to involvement of external entities such as a Joint venture
or partnering agreement , the project will be influenced by
more than one organization.
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6. 2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles (1 of 3)
• Organizations are systematic arrangements of entities (Person
and/or departments) aimed at accomplishing a purpose, which may
involve undertaking projects.
• Organization’s culture and style affect how it conducts projects.
• Cultures and styles are group phenomena known as cultural norms,
which develop over time.
• Norms are established approaches for, :
a. Initiating and planning projects,
b. The means considered acceptable for getting the work done, and
c. Recognized authorities who make or influence decisions.
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7. 2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles (2 of 3)
• Organizational culture is shaped by common experiences of members of the
organization.
• Organizations develop unique cultures over time by practice and common usage.
• Here is a list of common experiences, but not limited to:
– Shared vision, mission, values, beliefs, and expectations;
– Regulations, policies, methods and procedures;
– Motivation and reward system;
– Risk Tolerance;
– View of leadership, hierarchy, and authority relationships;
– Code of conduct, work ethic, and work hours; and
– Operating environments.
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8. 2.1.1 Organizational Cultures and Styles (3 of 3)
• Cultures and styles are learned and shared
• May have a strong influence on a project’s ability to meet its
objectives.
• Project Manager must understand and manage these to
complete a project successfully!
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9. 2.1.2 Organizational Communications
• Project Management success in an organization is highly dependent on an
effective organizational communication style,
– Key influencer – globalization of PM profession
• Organizational communications capabilities have great influence on how
projects are conducted.
• Electronic communications (email, video and web conferencing etc.) have
helped in achieving two communications between project stakeholders
and project teams.
• Efficient communication facilitates decision making.
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10. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures ( 1 of 12)
• Many org. Structures include strategic, middle management
and operational levels. The PM may interact with all three
levels depending on factors such as:
– Strategic importance of the project,
– Capacity of stakeholders to exert influence on the project,
– Degree of project management maturity,
– Project management systems , and
– Organizational communications.
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11. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures ( 2 of 12)
• This interaction determines project characteristics
such as;
– Project manager’s level of authority,
– Resource availability and management,
– Entity controlling the project budget,
– Project manager’s role and
– Project team composition.
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12. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (3 of 12)
• Organizational structure is an enterprise environmental factor,
which can affect,-
– The availability of resources, and
– Influence how projects are conducted.
• Organizational structures range from Functional to Project
specific, with variety of matrix structures in between.
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13. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (4 of 12)
• Functional organization
– Each employee has a superior
– Staff members at the top level are
grouped by specialty, such as,
• Production
• Marketing,
• Engineering, and
• Accounting
– Specialties may be further
subdivided into focused functional
units, such as,
• Mechanical and
• Electrical Engineering
– Each department will do its project
work independently of other
departments.
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14. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (5 of 12)
• Matrix organization
– Reflects a blend of functional and
projectized characteristics
– Depending on he relative level of power
and influence between functional and
project managers, it is classified as,-
• Weak
• Balanced, or
• Strong
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15. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (6 of 12)
• Weak matrix org.
– Characteristics derived from functional
org.
– The role of PM is more of a coordinator
or expediter.
– Expediter is staff assistant and
communications coordinator.
– Expediter cannot enforce or make
decisions.
– Project coordinators have power to
make some decisions, have some
authority, and report to higher-level
manager.
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16. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (7 of 12)
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• Strong matrix org.
– Have many characteristics of the
projectized organization,
– Have full-time project managers
with considerable authority,
– Have full-time project
administrative staff.

17. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (8 of 12)
• Balanced Matrix organization
– Recognizes the need for PM,
– Does not provide the full
authority to PM over project
and project funding.
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18. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (9 of 12)
• Projectized organization
– Team members are often co-located,
– Most of the organization’s resources
are involved in project work, and
– Project managers have a great deal of
independence and authority.
– Virtual collaboration techniques are
used to accomplish the benefits of co-
located teams.
– Projectized organizations have org.
Units called departments,
– They can either report directly to PM
or provide support services to the
various projects. Prepared by - Niranjana K R 18

19. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (10 of 12)
• Composite organization
– Has all above structures
– Ex: A Functional org. May create a
special project team to handle a critical
project.
– Has characteristics of projectized org.
– Team might include full-time staff from
different functional departments,
– May develop its own set of operating
procedures,
– May even operate outside of the
standard, formalized reporting structure
during the project.
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20. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (11 of 12)
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Table 2-1 shows key project-related characteristics of the major types of organizational structures.

21. 2.1.3 Organizational Structures (12 of 12)
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22. 2.1.4 Organizational Process Assets
• Organizational process assets are:
– Plans – Ex: Project plan, Risk data, and earned value data etc.,
– Processes – Ex: QMS documentation,
– Policies – Ex : Org. Policies,
– Procedures, Ex: Procedures related to PM and interlinked processes,
– Knowledge bases – Ex: Lessons learned and historical information.
• They include any artefact, practice, or knowledge from any or
all of the organizations involved in the project.
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23. 2.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors (1 of 2)
• Enterprise environmental factors are conditions, not under the
control of project teams, that influence, constrain, or direct the
project.
• These factors are :-
– Organizational culture, structure, and governance;
– Geographical distribution of facilities and resources;
– Government or industry standards (e.g., regulatory agency regulations,
codes of conduct, product standards, quality standards, and workmanship
standards);
– Infrastructure (e.g., facilities and capital equipments);
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24. 2.1.5 Enterprise Environmental Factors (2 of 2)
• Enterprise environmental factors (continued..) :-
– Existing human resources (e.g., skills, discipline, and knowledge, such as, design, development, legal,
contracting, and purchasing);
– Personnel administration (e.g., staffing and retention guidelines, employee performance reviews and
training records, reward and overtime policy, and time tracking);
– Company work authorization systems;
– Marketplace conditions;
– Stakeholder risk tolerances;
– Political climate;
– Organization’s established communication channels;
– Commercial databases (e.g., standardized cost estimating data, industry risk study information, and
risk databases); and
– Project Management Information System (e.g., an automated tool, such as scheduling software tool, a
configuration management system, an information collection and distribution system, or web
interfaces to other online automated systems).
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25. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance (1 of 9)
• A Stakeholder is an individual, group, or organization who may affect, be affected by or
perceive itself to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project.
– Stakeholders may be actively involved in the project.
– They are interested in successful completion of the project.
• Stakeholder identification is a continuous process throughout the entire project life
cycle.
• Different stakeholders may have competing expectations that might create conflicts
within the project.
• They may also exert influence over the project, its deliverables, and the project team to
achieve a set of outcomes that satisfy strategic business objectives or other needs.
• Understanding their relative degree of influence on a project, and balancing their
demands, needs, and expectations are critical to the success of the project.
• The PM is responsible to manage stakeholder expectations (both positive and negative)
and manage them.
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26. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance(2 of 9 )
Examples of Project Stakeholders
• A Sponsor
– Is the person or group who provide resources and support for
the project.
– Is accountable for enabling success.
– He/she may be external or internal to the project manager’s
organization.
– From initial conception through project closure, the sponsor
promotes the project.
– Acts as a spokesperson to higher levels of management to
gather support throughout the organization and promotes the
benefits of the project.
– Helps in getting formal authorization.
– Involves in the development of scope and charter.
– Acts as an escalation path for matters which cannot be
resolved by PM.
– They may also involve in project change management, such as ,
scope changes, phase-end reviews.
– Provide go/no-go decisions where appropriate.
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27. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance(3 of 9)
Examples of Project Stakeholders
• A Customers and users -
– Customers are the persons or organizations who will
approve and manage the project’s product, service, or
result.
– Users are the persons or organizations who will use
the project’s product, service, or result.
– Both may be internal or external and exist in multiple
layers.
• Ex.:- The customers for a new pharmaceutical
product could include the doctors who
prescribe it, the patients who use it and the
insurance who pay for it.
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28. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance(4 of 9 )
Examples of Project Stakeholders
• Sellers -
– Sellers are also called vendors, suppliers, or
contractors, are external companies that enter into a
contractual agreement to provide components or
services necessary for the project.
• Business Partners –
– They are external organizations that have a special
relationship with the enterprise, sometimes attained
through a certification process.
– They provide specialized expertise or fill a specified
role such as installation, customization, training or
support.
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29. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance(5 of 9)
Examples of Project Stakeholders
• Organizational groups -
– Are internal stakeholders who are affected by the
activities of the project team.
– Ex.- Marketing and sales, HR, Legal, finance,
operations, manufacturing and customer
service.
• Functional Managers –
– They are key individuals who play a management role
within an administrative or functional area of the
business.
– Ex. – HR, Finance, accounting or procurement.
– They may provide subject matter expertise, or
– Their function may provide services to the project.
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30. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance(6 of 9)
Examples of Project Stakeholders
• Other Stakeholders -
– Additional stakeholders, such as procurement entities,
financial institutions, government regulations, subject
matter experts, consultants may have a financial
interest in the project, contribute inputs to the
project, or have an interest in the outcome of the
project.
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31. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance (7 of 9)
• Project governance, is an oversight function, aligned with the organization’s governance
model and that encompasses the project life cycle.
• It helps in ensuring the alignment of the project with stakeholder’s needs or objectives.
• This alignment is critical to ,
– The successful management of stakeholder engagement, and
– The achievement of organizational objectives.
• Project governance enables;
– Organizations to consistently manage projects,
– Maximize the value of project outcomes, and
– Align the projects with business strategy.
• Project governance provides a framework in which the project manager and sponsors can
make decisions that satisfy both stakeholder needs and expectations
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32. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance (8 of 9)
• Project governance, framework include:
– Project success and deliverable acceptance criteria;
– Process to identify, escalate, and resolve issues that arise during the project;
– Relationship among the project team, organizational groups, and external stakeholders;
– Project organization chart that identifies project roles;
– Processes and procedures for the communication of information;
– Project decision-making process;
– Guidelines for aligning project governance and organizational strategy;
– Project life cycle approach;
– Process for stage gate or phase reviews;
– Process for review and approval for changes to budget, scope, quality and schedule which are beyond the authority of
the PM; and
– Process to align internal stakeholders with project process requirements.
• Project governance approach should be described in the Project Management Plan.
• Additional limitations for Project governance – Budget and time.
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33. 2.2 Project Stakeholders and Governance (9 of 9)
Project Success –
• The success of the project should be measured in terms of completing the
project within the constraints of scope, time, cost, quality, resources, and
risk as approved between the project managers and senior management.
• To ensure realization of benefits for the undertaken project, a test period
(such as soft launch in services) can be part of total project time, before
handing over to the permanent operations.
• It is the last baselines approved by the authorized stakeholders.
• The PM is responsible and accountable for setting realistic and achievable
boundaries for the project and to accomplish the project within the
approved baselines.
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34. 2.3 Project Team (1 of 5)
• Project team consists of Project Manager (PM) and the group
of individuals.
• There are other team members also who carry out work.
• Team consists of members with specific subject matter
knowledge (domain expertise) or with specific skill set.
• Structure and characteristics of a project team can vary.
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35. 2.3 Project Team (2 of 5)
• Project teams have roles such as:
– Project Management Staff
– Project Staff
– Supporting experts
– User or customer representatives
– Sellers
– Business partner members
– Business partners
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36. 2.3 Project Team (3 of 5)
2.3.1 Composition of Project Teams
• Project team composition can vary based on project scope, organizational
culture, and location.
• Project Team members can be – Dedicated or Part-time.
• Dedicated and part-time compositions may exist in any of the
organizational structure.
• Dedicated project teams are often seen in projectized organizations,
where most of the organization's resources are involved in project work
and project managers have a great deal of independence and authority.
• Part-time project teams are common within functional organizations, and
matrix organizations.
• Matrix organizations use both dedicated and part-time project teams.
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37. 2.3 Project Team (4 of 5)
2.3.1 Composition of Project Teams
• Project team composition may also vary based on organizational structure. Ex.- Partnership
based project.
– A project may be established as a partnership, joint venture, consortium or alliance among several
organizations through contracts or agreements.
– In this structure, one organization takes the lead and assigns a project manager to coordinate the
efforts among the partners.
• Advantages -
– Partnership based organizations can offer flexibility at lower cost.
– Helps in exploiting industrial synergies, to undertake ventures that one partner could not afford
alone or for other political and strategic reasons.
• Disadvantages –
– PM has lower degree of control over team members,
– Need strong mechanism for governance, communication, and monitoring progress.
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38. 2.3 Project Team (5 of 5)
2.3.1 Composition of Project Teams
• Project team composition may also vary based on the geographic location of its members.
Ex.- Virtual Project Teams.
– Virtual teams have members located in different locations or countries and use communication
technologies for their collaboration.
– Collaborative tools are, -
• Shared workspaces,
• Video conferences
– Such teams can exist with any type of organizational structure and team composition.
– When resources are located onsite or offsite or both, depending on the project activities, Virtual
teams are formed.
– PM leading a virtual team needs to accommodate difference in culture, working hours, time zones,
local conditions, and languages.
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39. 2.4 Project Life Cycle
2.4.1 Characteristics of the Project Life Cycle
2.4.2 Project Phases
2.4.2.1 Phase-to-Phase Relationships
2.4.2.2 Predictive Life Cycles
2.4.2.3 Iterative and Incremental Life Cycles
2.4.2.4 Adaptive Life Cycles
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40. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (1 of 12)
• The project life cycle can be determined or shaped by the unique aspects
of the organization, industry, or technology employed.
• The life cycle provides the basic framework for managing the project,
regardless of the specific work involved.
• A life cycle must be documented within a methodology, in the project
management plan.
• A project lifecycle is the series of phases that a project passes through
from its initiation to its closure.
• The phases are sequential and their names and number are determined
by the management and control needs of the organization or
organizations involved in the project, nature of the project, and its area of
application.
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41. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (2 of 12)
• The phases can be broken down by –
– Functional or partial objectives,
– Intermediate results or deliverables,
– Specific milestones within the overall scope of work, or
– Financial availability.
• Phases are time bound, with a start and end or control point.
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42. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (3 of 12)
• The project life cycle can range along a continuum from
predictive or plan-driven approaches at one end to adaptive
or change-driven approaches at the other.
• In a predictive life cycle, the product and deliverables are
defined at the beginning of the project and any changes to
scope are carefully managed.
• In adaptive life cycle, the product is developed over multiple
iterations and detailed scope is defined for each iteration only
as the iteration begins.
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43. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (4 of 12)
• Projects vary in size and
complexity. All projects
can be mapped to a
generic Project life cycle
structure.
– Starting the project,
– Organizing and preparing,
– Carrying out the project
work, and
– Closing the project.
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44. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (5 of 12)
Characteristics of Project Life Cycle
• The generic life cycle structure is used for communications with
upper management and stakeholders.
• This can provide a common frame of reference for comparing
projects which can be dissimilar in nature.
• Project life cycle is independent from the life cycle of the
product produced by or modified by the project.
• Project should take life cycle phase of the product into
consideration.
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45. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (6 of 12)
Characteristics of Project Life Cycle
• This high-level view can provide a common frame of reference
for comparing projects, even if they are dissimilar in nature.
• Cost and staffing levels are low at the start, peak as the work is
carried out, and drop rapidly as the project draws close. (Fig
2.8)
• A project may require significant expenditures to secure
needed resources early in its life cycle, or be fully staffed from
the beginning. In this case Fig 2.8 may not be applicable.
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46. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (7 of 12)
• Risk and uncertainty are greatest at the start
of the project (Fig 2.9). They decrease over
the life of the project as decisions are
reached and deliverables are accepted.
• The ability to influence the final
characteristics of the project’s product,
without significantly impacting cost, is
highest at the start of the project and
decrease as the project progresses towards
completion.
• Fig 2.9 illustrates that the cost of making
changes and correcting errors typically
increases substantially as the project
approaches completion.
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47. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (8 of 12)
• A project may be divided into any number of phases.
• A project phase is a collection of logically related project activities that culminates in
the completion of one or more deliverables.
• A phase in a project may be linked to a phase of another project depending on the
deliverables.
• Project phases are completed sequentially, but can overlap in some project
situations.
• Different phases have a different duration or effort.
• The phase structure allows the project to be segmented into logical subsets for ease
of management, planning, and control.
• The number of phases, the need for phases, and the degree of control applied
depends on the size, complexity, and potential impact of the project.
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48. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (9 of 12)
• Regardless of the number of phases comprising a project, all phases have similar
characteristics:
– The work has a distinct focus that differs from any other phase.
– Achieving the primary deliverables or objectives of the phase requires controls or
processes unique to the phase or its activities.
– The closure of a phase ends with some form of transfer or hand-off, or Knowledge
transfer (KT), of the work product produced as the phase deliverable.
– A phase end represents a natural point to reassess the activities underway and to
change or terminate the project if necessary.
– This point is also referred to as a stage gate, milestone, phase review, phase gate or kill
point.
– Generally, the closure of a phase is required to be approved in some form before it
can be considered closed.
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49. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (10 of 12)
• Project Phase Relationships:
– Sequential Relationship
– Overlapping Relationship
• Predictive Life Cycles (Fig 2-13):
– Also known as fully plan-driven, are ones which the project scope, and the time and cost
required to deliver that scope, are determined as early in the project life cycle as practically
possible.
• Iterative and Incremental Life Cycles:
– Are ones in which project phases repeat one or more project activities as the project team’s
understanding of the product increases.
• Adaptive Life Cycles :
– Also known as change-driven or agile methods. These are intended to respond to high
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50. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (11 of 12)
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Abbreviations:
MoD – Ministry of Defence
APM – Association for Project Management
BS – British Standard
BoK – Body of Knowledge

51. 2.4 Project Life Cycle (12 of 12)
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52. Exercise - 2
Objective: Improve participant’s understanding by
applying the PMBOK on these solved cases given
below. Presentation to be held at the end.
• Solved case group formation:
Group A - Bungalow
Group B - Pumping Installations
Group C – Motor car
Group D – Battle tank
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53. Summary
• Organizations influence projects, based on its culture, style,
communication mechanism, structures.
• Environmental factors also affect projects.
• Organization’s process assets must be referred to during the project life
cycle.
• Projects have stakeholders.
• Proper governance is required to satisfy different stakeholders, which
determines project’s success.
• Project is divided into meaningful phases to manage and control inputs
and outputs.
• Various life cycles are available to select and use during project planning
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54. Review Questions (1 of 8)
1. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the functional, matrix and dedicated
team approaches to managing projects?
2. What distinguishes a weak matrix from a strong matrix?
3. Under what conditions would it be advisable to use a strong matrix instead of a dedicated
project team?
4. How can project management offices (PMOs) support effective project management?
5. Why is it important to assess the culture of an organization before deciding what project
management structure should be used to complete a project?
6. Other than culture, what other organizational factors should be used to determine which
project management structure should be used?
7. What do you believe is more important for successfully completing a project – the formal
project management structure or the culture of the parent organization?
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55. Review Questions (2 of 8)
8. Who is ultimately responsible for quality management on the project?
A. Project engineer
B. Project manager
C. Quality manager
D. Team member
Answer: B
9. A project manager is trying to complete a software development project, but cannot get enough attention
for the project. Resources are focused on completing process-related work and the project manager has
little authority to properly assign resources. What form of organization must the project manager be
working in?
A. Functional
B. Matrix
C. Expediter
D. Coordinator
Answer: A
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56. Review Questions (3 of 8)
10. In a matrix organization, which of the following is true?
A. The project manager is responsible for employee skills improvement.
B. The functional manager is responsible for employee skills improvement.
C. The project manager is responsible for the employee's annual appraisal.
D. The employee is responsible for his or her own skills improvement.
Answer: B
11. You are a project manager leading a cross-functional project. None of your project team members report
to you functionally and you do not have the ability to directly reward their performance. The project is difficult,
involving tight date constraints and challenging quality standards. Which of the following type of organization
would you be in this circumstance?
A. Projectized
B. Functional
C. Strong Matrix
D. Operations
Answer : B
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57. Review Questions (4 of 8)
12. Conflict resolution techniques that may be used on a project include confronting, smoothing, forcing and:
A. withdrawing.
B. directing.
C. organizing.
D. controlling.
Answer : A
13. A project manager works in a company favouring the weakest authority for the project manager. The type
of organization that holds the project manager to be the weakest is:
A. Projectized organization.
B. Strong matrix organization.
C. Weak matrix organization.
D. Balanced matrix.
Answer : C
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58. Review Questions (5 of 8)
14. Extensive use of ----- communication is most likely to aid in solving complex problems.
A. verbal
B. written
C. formal
D. nonverbal
Answer : B
15. What are the major advantages of the functional type of organization?
A. Single point of contact for the customer
B. Stable organizational structure
C. Project orientation
D. Multifunctional teams are easy to form
Answer : B
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59. Review Questions (6 of 8)
16. In matrix management organizations, if the organization maintains many of the characteristics of the
functional organization and the project managers are considered more like project coordinators or
expediters, it is called a:
A. Strong matrix.
B. Project team.
C. Weak matrix.
D. Functional organization.
Answer : C
17. In a large organization a project expediter is being used to manage a project for an important client. The
position of project expediter would be found in what kind of an organization?
A. Strong matrix
B. Weak matrix
C. Functional
D. Projectized
Answer : B
Prepared by - Niranjana K R 59

60. Review Questions (7 of 8)
18. A project manager is asked to manage a large complicated project that is located in a remote part of Africa.
The project will last for five years and will have the product of producing a nuclear reactor that will
generate 900 megawatts of power at start-up. The best kind of organization for managing this project is:
A. Strong matrix management.
B. Weak matrix management.
C. Projectized organization.
D. Functional organization.
Answer : C
19. Omar, a project manager in a construction company is preparing for a meeting with the stakeholders to
update them about the status of the project after the monitoring and controlling of the project work. For
the information, Omar will access automated tools such as performance indicators, databases, financials,
or resourcing tools through:
A. Project Management Information System.
B. Management Information System
C. Organizational process Assets.
D. Project Charter.
Answer : A
Prepared by - Niranjana K R 60

61. Review Questions (8 of 8)
20. During which phase of a project life cycle, will risk be the lowest??
A. Initiating
B. Planning
C. Executing
D. Closing
Answer : D
21. A manager and the head of engineering discuss a change to a major work package. After the meeting, the
manager contacts you and tells you to complete the paperwork to make the change. This is an example of:
A. management attention to scope management.
B. management planning.
C. A manager acting as project coordinator.
D. a change control system.
Answer :C
Prepared by - Niranjana K R 61

62. Prepared by - Niranjana K R 62