27 - 8 Parts of Speech - Complete.pdf

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The Eight Parts
of Speech

Eight Parts of Speech
There are eight parts of speech:
- nouns
- pronouns
- verbs
- adjectives
- adverbs
- prepositions
- conjunctions
- interjections.

Eight Parts of Speech
Each part of speech:
- Indicates how a word is used in a sentence
- Has similar grammatical properties.
A single word can function as more than one part of speech
in different situations.

Nouns
A noun is a word which identifies
- a person
- a place
- thing
- an idea
(or names one of them)
For example: girl, boy, dog, Peter, town, London, book

Nouns
A noun is often used with an article (a, an, the) but not
always.
Proper nouns start with a capital letter and common nouns
do not. They can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun
phrase.
They refer to :
- a thing that has already been mentioned previously, or
- to a noun that does not need to be named specifically.

Pronouns
For example: I, you, me, he, she, herself, himself, it, that,
they, someone etc.
In a sentence ‘Peter saw Mary, and he called out to her’.
The pronouns he and her take the place of the nouns Peter
and Mary in this sentence.

Verbs ‘doing words’
A verb can be:
- used to describe an action that’s doing something.
For example: to jump, to sing, to laugh
- used to describe a state of being or a feeling.
For example: to like, to love, to hate
- used to describe an occurrence.
For example: became, to happen, to present

Adjectives
An adjective can:
-describe a noun or a pronoun.
-describe a person, a place or a thing.
For example: The little girl was hungry. The cake was
delicious.

Adjectives
- also complement linking verbs or the verb ‘to be’.
For example: It smells gross in the locker room.
Driving is faster than walking.
- tell you how many of something you’re talking about.
For example: Two red roses.

Adverbs
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective or
another adverb.
It tells us how often, where or when something happens.
For example: Fast, easily, completely, never, last year

Adverbs
A lot of adverbs end in ’ly’.
For example: slowly, quickly, cheerfully.
He moves slowly in the morning. Slowly is an adverb of
manner i.e. how something happens

Adverbs
Another example
- Mary cheerfully greeted her parents, yesterday.
Here we have two adverbs, cheerfully is an adverb of manner
and yesterday is an adverb of time.

Adverbs
The most common types of adverbs are adverbs of manner,
frequency, place, time and degree.
- Adverbs of manner tell us how something is done.
- Adverbs of frequency tell us how often something is done.
- Adverbs of place tell us where something happens.
- Adverbs of time tell us when something happens.
- Adverbs of degree tell us to what extent something happens.

Prepositions
A preposition shows the relationship of a noun, noun phrase,
or pronoun to another word.
For example: on, in, at, from, about, for and with
I left some dinner in the fridge for you to have later.

Prepositions
There are many types of prepositions, for example:
-Prepositions of time
-Prepositions of agent or things
-Prepositions of place and direction
-Prepositions of movement
-Prepositions of manner etc.

Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words, ideas, phrases or clauses together
in a sentence and shows how they are connected
Some examples are: because, until, and, but, if, so,
therefore, since, etc.
I was cold and hungry but I still kept walking.
- ‘and’ shows that I felt both cold and hungry together.
- ‘but’ joins the first clause to the second, and shows
contrast.

Interjections
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong
feeling or emotion. It is usually said in a short exclamation.
For example:
- Wow! Yuck! Ouch!
- Wow, that is amazing!
- Yuck! That looks awful.
- Ouch! I have dropped the brick on my foot.

Please note:
It is important to note that a word can sometimes be in more
than one part of speech depending on its function.
For example:
The price of petrol increased last year. - Here increased is a
verb.
There was an increase in the number of followers on my
YouTube channel. - Here increase is a noun.

What is a noun?
A noun is a word that names something (book), a person
(John Smith), an animal (dog), a place (London), a quality of
something (softness), an idea (justice) or an action (singing).
It is usually a single word but not always: coat, shoes, school
bus
Nouns

Proper nouns vs common nouns
A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place or thing
and is always capitalized.
What time will Jack come home from work this evening?
Jack is the name of a specific person.
I would like to visit the Taj Mahal. Taj Mahal is the specific
name of a place.

A common noun is the generic name for a person, place or
thing in a class or a group. Unlike proper nouns they are not
capitalized, unless it is at the beginning of a sentence.
I saw a man with a dog walking towards the town.
Note that we don’t know exactly which man, town or dog
we’re referring to.

Countable vs uncountable nouns
Countable nouns (count nouns) are nouns that can be
counted. They can have a singular and a plural form.
They can be used with a number before: 3 apples,
5 bananas, 2 oranges
Or with a, an or the before: an apple, a banana, the orange
Other examples are: bike, umbrella, horse, shop

Uncountable nouns are nouns that cannot be counted.
For example: Rain, sugar, rice, air, water, blood, advice,
happiness (which is an abstract idea)
They usually do not have a plural form. We tend to use
‘some’ with uncountable nouns in positive sentences and
‘any’ with negative.
There is some milk in the fridge.
There isn’t any tea.

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns
Concrete nouns refer to people or things that exist physically
and that at least one of the senses can detect. This means
you can see, taste, hear, touch or smell it.
Some examples are: tiger, lemon, flower, newspaper, etc.

Abstract nouns are the opposite of concrete nouns. They
refer to ideas that have no physical existence, like emotions,
ideas and concepts that you can’t see, taste, hear, touch or
smell.
Some examples are: love, time, luxury, generosity, worry,
disregard, peace etc.

Compound nouns
Compound nouns are nouns that are created with two or
more words. Each compound noun acts as a single unit and
can be modified by adjectives and other nouns too.
Compound nouns have 3 forms. They can be hyphenated
(six-pack), spaced (swimming pool) or closed (bedroom)
More examples are: credit card, daughter-in-law, football

Collective nouns
A collective noun is the word used to represent a group of
people, animals or things.
For example: a flock of seagulls , a crowd of people, a fleet
of ships, a galaxy of stars

Types of nouns
It is important to note that sometimes things can be more
than one noun.
For example - a toothbrush
This is a common noun - it is the general name of a type of
thing
A concrete noun – You can touch and see it
A countable noun – 1 toothbrush, 2 toothbrushes
A compound noun – tooth + brush = toothbrush

Possessive Pronouns
Remember that possessive pronouns, yours, his, hers, its,
ours, theirs and whose do not need an apostrophe. Try not
to make mistakes like her’s or your’s.
Examples:
Incorrect: Jane takes pride in Jane’s outfits
Correct: Jane takes pride in her outfits.

Verbs
A verb is a word used to describe:
• An action (doing something).
The dog was jumping at the gate.
• A state of being (a feeling).
The boy likes motorbikes.
• An occurrence (something happening).
The caterpillar became a butterfly.

Verbs
Verbs can be conjugated and have tenses:
Present - to indicate that an action is being carried out now.
Past - to indicate that an action has been done.
Future - to indicate that an action will be done.

Dynamic (action) Verbs
(a non stative verb)
Most verbs describe a physical action or activity.
Some examples: Play, walk, run, sing, dance, sleep
There are also verbs that we do, that we can’t see. These are
still dynamic verbs but they are not so obvious.
Some examples: succeed, fail, consider, guess, grow

Stative Verbs
(the opposite of Dynamic Verbs)
Stative verbs describe a subject’s state or feeling including
things they like and don’t like.
They can relate to:
- thoughts and opinions
- feelings or emotions
- senses and perceptions
- possession and measurement.

Stative Verbs
Some examples of stative verbs are:
love, hate, like, want, need, agree, guess, hear, look, have
and belong etc.
One important thing to remember is that stative verbs can’t
be used in the continuous tense, they are usually in the
simple tenses or occasionally the perfect tense.

Verbs that can be dynamic or stative
Verbs with more than one meaning can be dynamic or
stative. These include perception words: see, hear, taste,
smell, feel.
Perception verbs used as an involuntary action are stative.
When those same verbs are used for a voluntary action
(something specific or deliberate etc) they are dynamic.

Verbs that can be dynamic or stative
Some examples:
It looks like it might be a sunny day. (stative - involuntary)
Amanda is looking for her keys. (dynamic - voluntary)
I have a small garden. (stative - involuntary)
I am having lunch. (dynamic - voluntary)
I think this weather is awful. (stative – involuntary)
I am thinking of having a haircut. (dynamic – voluntary)

Auxiliary Verbs (helping verbs)
An auxiliary verb is used with a main verb to help express the
main verb’s tense, mood or voice.
The main auxiliary verbs are: be, have, and do.
To be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will be
To have: has, have, had, having, will have
To do: does, do, did, will do

Auxiliary Verbs (helping verbs)
Some examples:
- That piece of chicken was eaten by me. (voice)
- I have eaten sushi many times before. (tense)
- Did you like the music? (mood)

Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Modal auxiliary verbs are added to another verb to show
necessity, possibility or capability.
Examples are: shall, should, can, could, will, would, must,
might, may
I could buy this dress, but should I? It’s really expensive.
You must buy a dress for the wedding, but this one might not
be appropriate.

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are phrases that indicate actions. Phrasal verbs
act as individual verbs, often combining two or more words
and changing their meaning.
For example: the verb - to get.
I have been getting along really well in my new job.
Is there any way of getting around the rules so that we can
bring our dog into the country?
She keeps getting at me for every little thing. I can’t do
anything right!

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object. The
action of a transitive verb is done to someone or something.
Examples: clean, like, love, dislike, hate, want, bought
Peter loves mince pies.
Mary bought dozens of cakes.

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs
An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take a direct
object. It is not done to someone or something. It only
involves the subject.
Examples: go, walk, run, talk, sit, faint, soar
He fainted.
A vulture soared effortlessly overhead.

Active vs Passive Voice
The active voice is used when the focus is on the subject of
the main verb. This is the person or thing doing the verb.
- The dog chased the ball.
- I will clean the house every Saturday.
- The teacher always answers the students’ questions.

Active vs Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when the person or the thing
affected by the main verb becomes the focus.
- The ball was chased by the dog.
- The house will be cleaned by me every Saturday.
- The students’ questions are always answered by the
teacher.

Regular vs Irregular Verbs
Regular verbs form their different tenses according to a set
pattern. For example:
Verb 3rd Person Singular
– Present Tense
3rd Person Singular
– Past Tense
Past Participle Present Participle
laugh he/she laughs he/she laughed laughed laughing
love he/she loves he/she loved loved loving
play he/she plays he/she played played playing

Regular vs Irregular Verbs
There are certain irregular verbs that don’t follow the normal
rules. Here are a few examples:
Verb 3rd Person Singular
– Present Tense
3rd Person Singular
- Past Tense
Past Participle Present Participle
be is was been being
eat eats ate eaten eating
feel feels felt felt feeling
go goes went gone Going
read read read
/red/
read
/red/
read

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun
and gives us more information about it.
Some examples:
It was terrible weather.
Spicy food has a strong hot flavour.

Where do adjectives go in a sentence?
- Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun:
It was a very beautiful castle.
We saw a very exciting film last night.
- or after a link verb like be, look or feel:
This countryside is beautiful.
That documentary looks interesting.

Adjectives with ‘-ing’ and ‘-ed’
A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding -ing or -ed:
-ing adjectives – show the effect which something has on a
person or thing.
Some examples are: interesting, terrifying, surprising,
annoying, tiring, boring, amusing etc
I read a very interesting article in a magazine today.
That horror film was absolutely terrifying.

Adjectives with ‘-ing’ and ‘-ed’
-ed adjectives – show what has happened to a person or
thing.
Some examples are: amazed, bored, horrified, annoyed,
confused, delighted, terrified
We had nothing to do today. We were really bored.
I didn't really enjoy the Dracula film. Most of the time I
was terrified.

Adjective Order in English
We often have two or more adjectives in front of a noun.
- a beautiful young woman
- a small blue car
- that scary big dog

In the English language there is a proper order for adjectives.
Quantity – one, two, three
Opinion – delicious, lovely, strange, misunderstood
Size – big, small, tiny, huge
Age – old, new
Shape – round, square
Colour – blue, green, red, black
Origin/material – British, glass, French
Qualifier – denim skirt, vampire bat
Purpose – mixing, drinking, cooking

Adjective Order in English
Here are some more examples:
I carried a very small black suitcase.
That is a really ugly wooden chair.
I love that really big old green antique car that always
parked at the end of the street.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives:
- to show change or make comparisons.
- to compare one thing with another.
Examples:
Craig is shorter than his brother.
Your dog runs faster than Mike’s dog.
My house is smaller than his.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Superlative Adjectives
We use superlative adjectives:
-To describe one person or thing as having more of a quality
than all other people or things in a group. For example:
best, worst, largest
Examples:
Susan owned the finest restaurant in the city.
Paul was the worst footballer in the team.

Intensifiers
We use words like very, really and extremely to make
adjectives stronger. We call these words intensifiers.
Examples:
It's a very interesting programme.
The children were very excited.
It was a really interesting conversation.
Everyone was extremely excited.
Other intensifiers are: incredibly, particularly, highly, so, too

Mitigators
Mitigators are the opposite of intensifiers. We use these
when we want to make an adjective sound less strong.
Some examples: fairly, rather, quite, slightly, a little etc.
The movie was rather dull.
The runner performed fairly well, but not well enough to win
the race.
They were all a little bit annoyed that the concert had been
cancelled.

Adverbs

What is an adverb?
An adverb describes:
- a verb
- an adjective
- another adverb
- a whole sentence
Peter did not sing badly.
Lisa is very quiet.
The race finished too quickly.
Fortunately, Katy recorded Adam’s win.

Adverbs often modify verbs, they describe verbs. This means they
describe the way an action is happening.
The dog barks loudly in the street.
My cat waits impatiently for his food.
Adverbs tell us how an action was performed (badly, peacefully,
carefully). They can also tell you when and where it happened too.
We arrived early.
Turn here.

Linking Verbs
Examples of linking verbs: appear, become, feel, seem, smell, sound,
stay, taste.
These verbs are often followed by adjectives instead of adverbs. In
these sentences the adjective describes the subject of the sentence
and not the verb which is why an adverb is not possible.
Karen seemed tired. (not tiredly)
Max seemed angry.
The wine tastes fine.

Adverbs and adjectives
Adverbs can modify adjectives and other adverbs too. The adverb
adds a degree of intensity to the adjective.
The dog is quite aggressive.
This book is more interesting than the last one.
The weather forecast is almost always wrong.
“Is my music too loud?” asked Craig.
My children are incredibly happy to see their father again.
I will be slightly late to the party.

Adverbs used with other adverbs
An adverb can also be used to describe another adverb.
Chris can discuss the English language very thoroughly.

Sentence Adverbs
Some adverbs can modify entire sentences.
- They express the person’s attitude to the content of the sentence.
- They place the sentence in a particular context.
(like technically, or politically).
Other examples of sentence adverbs are: generally, fortunately,
interestingly, and accordingly.
Fortunately, we got there just before the meeting started.
Interestingly, no one at the auction seemed interested in bidding on
the antique spoon collection.

Placement of Adverbs
Place adverbs as close as possible to the words they are modifying.
Be careful about the word only, which is one of the most often
misplaced modifiers. Look at the difference between these two
sentences:
- Harry only fed the dog.
- Harry fed only the dog.

Placement of Adverbs
The most natural place for the adverb to be placed is usually the
middle of the phrase.
We are quickly approaching the end of the road.
Max has always loved skateboarding.
I will happily assist you.

Prepositions

Prepositions tell us when or where something is in relation to
something else.
Prepositions often tell us where one noun is in relation to another.
- The book is on the shelf beside you.
They can also indicate abstract ideas, such as purpose or contrast.
- I went out for a run despite the rain.

Prepositions
Some of the most commonly used prepositions are:
above, below, underneath, between, near, to, of, despite, etc.
We can use prepositions to show the relationship in space or time
between two or more people, places or things. They are most
commonly followed by a noun phrase or a pronoun.
- The last time I saw her she was jogging down the street.
- I’ll meet you in the small restaurant opposite the opera house.
- It was the worst hurricane in Britain since the 90s.
- Give that to me.

There are 5 types of Prepositions:
1) Simple Prepositions
2) Double Prepositions
3) Compound Prepositions
4) Participle Prepositions
5) Phrase Prepositions

Simple Prepositions
Simple prepositions are common prepositions used to describe a
location, time or place.
Simple prepositions are words like: at, for, in, off, on, over, under etc.
- The little boy sat on the wall.
- The cat was hiding under the table.
- She lives near her workplace.

Double Prepositions
A double preposition is made by combining two simple prepositions
together. These prepositions often indicate direction. These are
words like: into, upon, onto, out of, etc.
- Once upon a time, there was a handsome prince.
- The puppy climbed onto my lap.
- He would never leave the house without his phone!

Compound Prepositions
Compound prepositions are made up with the combination of
a non-prepositional word and a simple preposition.
- Mary sat across from Christopher.
- Tom will be taking the lead part in the show in place of Peter.
- In addition to getting soaked through, the little boy was covered in
mud.

Participle Prepositions
Participle prepositions have endings such as -ed and -ing. Here the
words act as a verb as well as a preposition.
For example: considering, provided, following, including etc.
The dog kept following him all the way home.
Every detail regarding the meeting was true.
You will succeed provided that you work hard.

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase consists of one preposition, its object and
also, if necessary, any word that modifies the object.
The object can be a noun, a pronoun, a gerund (a verb ending in ‘ing’
that acts as a noun) or a clause.
- A town near London.
- He acts without thinking.
- It’s a present from her.
- Is she really going out with that guy?

Prepositional phrases function as either adjectives modifying nouns
or adverbs modifying verbs.
Some examples of prepositional phrases functioning as an adjective
modifying a noun are:
- Do you mean the plant in the corner?
- I know the policeman with the radio.

Some examples of prepositional phrases functioning as an adverb
modifying a verb are:
- I live near the park.
- He speaks with great enthusiasm.

What are conjunctions?
Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases or clauses
together. They link thoughts and ideas in a sentence.
Without conjunction words, we would be forced to express
ourselves in a series of short, simplistic sentences like:
- I like running. I like swimming. I don't like cycling.
Conjunction words allow us to create longer, more complex
sentences.
- I like running and swimming, but I don’t like cycling.

So - This little conjunction links two ideas. One idea follows on as a
result or consequence of another one.
- He was tired so he went to bed.
- It was a long journey, so I’m really tired now.
And - This conjunction links together ideas or actions that are similar,
in a sentence.
- She didn’t speak to anyone, and nobody spoke to her.
- You cook the lunch and I’ll look after the children.

While - This conjunction links an action with the time when it took
place.
- I don’t want you to drive while you’re so tired.
- Someone called while you were out.
But - This conjunction introduces a contrast, often indicating
something you might expect to happen, didn't.
- I want to go to the party, but I am so tired.
- The park is empty now, but it will be filled with children after
school.

Because - This conjunction introduces a reason for something.
- He got food poisoning because of the undercooked chicken.
- I don’t like him because he is mean.

There are three types of conjunctions:
1) Coordinating conjunctions
2) Subordinating conjunctions
3) Correlative conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join a noun with another noun or an
adjective with another adjective. They are used to link together two
parts of a sentence that are both of equal importance.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so.
- I brushed my teeth and went to bed.
- Would you prefer coffee or tea?
- Neither he nor I will be there.

Subordinating conjunctions is used to join a subordinating clause to
another clause or sentence. It also introduces the subordinate
clause in a sentence.
- He was annoyed, the train had stopped.
- He was annoyed because the train had stopped.
More examples:
I can’t go out and sunbathe although I would love to.
Make sure you turn of the oven if it gets too hot.
Don’t go in the sea until the waves calm down.

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join alternatives or
equal elements in a sentence.
For example: either/or, neither/nor and not only/but also
These pairs work together to indicate a connection or a link
between two subjects, they express details, or provide clarity.
They involve a first conjunction that connects to another part of the
sentence with a second conjunction.

Some common pairs of correlative conjunctions:
Both/and: We’ll have both the cheesecake and the chocolate cake
please.
Either/or: My brother is either working upstairs or slacking off
downstairs.
Neither/nor: Oh, you want neither the sticky dessert nor the fruit
salad? No problem.

Whether/or: I don’t know whether she will recognise me or not.
Not only/but also: He not only speaks English but also French.
Rather/than: I would rather have coffee than tea.

Hi! So that's an interjection. :-)
Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Er or Ah!
- they have no grammatical connection to the sentence at all.
- they are usually used more in speaking than in writing.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices".
‘Er I’m not sure. Um I think its over there’. People use them when
they don't know what to say, or to show that they are thinking about
what to say.

Interjections
Interjections are also very commonly used to express strong feeling
or sudden emotion such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or
enthusiasm.
An interjection is sometimes, but not always, followed by an
exclamation mark (!) when used in written conversations. The
exclamation mark increases the strength of the emotion.

Interjections can convey different emotions:
Annoyance – Oy! What are you doing? Stop that.
Boredom – Sigh, this film is going on a bit.
Disapproval – Tut tut! I don’t think you should be doing that!
Disgust – Oh yuck! That stinks!
Dismay – Oops! I’ve dropped the milk on the floor.
Doubt – Um really? I’m not too sure about that.
Embarrassment – Ahem, that was a bit awkward!

Joy – Yay! How exciting!
Pain – Ouch, don’t pinch me, it hurts.
Pleasure – Yeah! It’s fabulous!
Realisation – Aha! I’ve got it
Relief – Phew, that was close, I thought that car was
gonna hit us!
Surprise – Oh wow! This is amazing!

Some other very common interjections are:
Oh! What a lovely surprise. (surprise)
Hooray! It’s the summer holidays. (pleasure)
Ugh! I hate rats. (disgust)
Oh no! This traffic is slow, we are going to miss the wedding. (slight
shock or disappointment)
Wow! You look stunning in that dress. (admiration)
Yippee! We’re going to the beach. (excitement)

27 - 8 Parts of Speech - Complete.pdf

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