The document discusses the concepts of code, language, dialect, and grammar from a sociolinguistic perspective. It notes that linguists take a descriptive approach, analyzing how language is actually used, rather than a prescriptive approach of dictating proper usage. A key difference is that descriptive grammars document distinctions like less/fewer that do not necessarily hold in natural speech. The document also explores what constitutes linguistic knowledge for speakers, including implicit rules across phonology, semantics, and syntax.
Variation and Variation in Language .pptxSaidAliKhan5
Variation
To understand things we putting them into group on the basis of how they look and behave
We groups things with a similar properties
For example. Think about the letter ‘X’ written in different font style.
Even it look different
But we can still recognise it is X
Forensic scientist do the same things.
But instead of focusing on what's the same, they focus on what's different.
This helps them figure out which bullet or shoe belongs to who or what
For instance,
just like how we can recognise who's talking or writing based on how they speak or write
scientists can use these differences to match things to specific people or groups.
Variation in language
Language variation refers to differences in how people pronounce words or use language based on their regional, social, or personal backgrounds.
For example, different pronunciation of word Tomato
(toe-may-toe) and "tomato" (tuh-mah-toe)
In the context of Emeril Lagassi's program on HGTV, there are three noticeable variations of the "r" sound in his spoken English:
1. Clearly pronounced /r/ in words like "red," "rim," "green," "orange," "first," and "butter."
2. Omission of the /r/ in words like "sharp," "hearts "parsley," etc.
3. Insertion of /r/ at the ends of words like "raw" and "saw."
Most of english speaker will notice this varioation because they do not end the word like saw and raw with r
This variation is part of Emiril’s internalized system of language
The observation of this variation is not meant to judge it
it is simply a description of how language is used.
Language" (langue) refers to the internal communication system shared by a community of speakers, also known as their competence in language.
"Speech" (parole) is how individuals use the underlying communal language system in their interactions; it's their performance in using language.
Both language and speech can vary within individuals, as well as across different communities and regions.
There are two types of variation in language:
Intraspeaker variation: variation with in a single individual use of language.
Even a single person use different linguistic form based on context and factors.
Interspeaker variation: variation among all language users in a community)
Variation in language has been studied for a long time
Traditional vs New approach
Tradtional view: Language variation is accidental and doesn't affect linguistic competence.
Moderen View: linguistic variation is a systematic property of language, contributing to stylistic analysis.
Significance of variation
Cultural Insight: Variations reflect the cultural and social identities of speakers, providing insights into their backgrounds and affiliations
Communication Effectiveness: Understanding variations enhances effective communication in diverse contexts, minimizing misunderstandings.
Variation and Variation in Language .pptxSaidAliKhan5
Variation
To understand things we putting them into group on the basis of how they look and behave
We groups things with a similar properties
For example. Think about the letter ‘X’ written in different font style.
Even it look different
But we can still recognise it is X
Forensic scientist do the same things.
But instead of focusing on what's the same, they focus on what's different.
This helps them figure out which bullet or shoe belongs to who or what
For instance,
just like how we can recognise who's talking or writing based on how they speak or write
scientists can use these differences to match things to specific people or groups.
Variation in language
Language variation refers to differences in how people pronounce words or use language based on their regional, social, or personal backgrounds.
For example, different pronunciation of word Tomato
(toe-may-toe) and "tomato" (tuh-mah-toe)
In the context of Emeril Lagassi's program on HGTV, there are three noticeable variations of the "r" sound in his spoken English:
1. Clearly pronounced /r/ in words like "red," "rim," "green," "orange," "first," and "butter."
2. Omission of the /r/ in words like "sharp," "hearts "parsley," etc.
3. Insertion of /r/ at the ends of words like "raw" and "saw."
Most of english speaker will notice this varioation because they do not end the word like saw and raw with r
This variation is part of Emiril’s internalized system of language
The observation of this variation is not meant to judge it
it is simply a description of how language is used.
Language" (langue) refers to the internal communication system shared by a community of speakers, also known as their competence in language.
"Speech" (parole) is how individuals use the underlying communal language system in their interactions; it's their performance in using language.
Both language and speech can vary within individuals, as well as across different communities and regions.
There are two types of variation in language:
Intraspeaker variation: variation with in a single individual use of language.
Even a single person use different linguistic form based on context and factors.
Interspeaker variation: variation among all language users in a community)
Variation in language has been studied for a long time
Traditional vs New approach
Tradtional view: Language variation is accidental and doesn't affect linguistic competence.
Moderen View: linguistic variation is a systematic property of language, contributing to stylistic analysis.
Significance of variation
Cultural Insight: Variations reflect the cultural and social identities of speakers, providing insights into their backgrounds and affiliations
Communication Effectiveness: Understanding variations enhances effective communication in diverse contexts, minimizing misunderstandings.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
1. Session Two
Topic: Knowledge of Language (p.3)
Note: This presentation comprises
of information compiled from multiple
sources, in addition to Wardhaugh and
Fuller’s (2015) ‘Introduction to
Sociolinguistics,’ for an enriched
understanding and better
comprehension. Thank you.
2. What do we mean by a ‘Code’?
• When two or more people communicate with each other, we can call the system
they use a code.
• A ‘code’ is therefore a linguistic system used for communication.
• It is a neutral term which can be used to denote a ‘language’ or its subordinate or
substandard variety, i.e. a ‘dialect’.
• Languages and their dialects are both, therefore, codes.
• Most linguists tend to define a language as the standardized code or standard
variety used in spoken and written form, whereas dialects are subordinate codes or
subordinate varieties that are spoken without a standardized written system.
3. • Despite the different, subordinate varieties of English spoken throughout the world, there
is a standardized written variety of English that can be understood by all users.
• We call that standardized form of English a ‘language.’
• Dialects can be defined as different, subordinate varieties of the same standard variety or
language that have evolved over time and in different geographical locations.
• We should also note that speakers who are multilingual, that is, who have access to two or
more codes, and who for one reason or another shift back and forth between these codes
in some form of multilingual discourse are also using a linguistic system, but one which
draws on more than one language.
• However, we should also note that the definition of multilingualism is a subject of
immense debate. On one end, one may define multilingualism as ‘complete competence
and mastery in another language.’ The speaker would presumably have complete
knowledge and control over the language to sound native. On the opposite end would be
people who know enough phrases to get around using the alternate language.
4. • In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language.
For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots language is a language in its own
right or a dialect of English.
• Thus most students of linguistics conveniently use the term ‘code’ to refer to
contested varieties. A set of some very important questions arises at this point in
time.
• As speakers, what exactly do we mean when we say that we know a code? That we
know a language? That we possess enough competence to use that language?
• The answer to that is, this system being referred to as ‘code’ basically comprises of
‘grammar,’ to use a well-known technical term.
• All codes or languages have a grammar as their main framework. It could not be
any other way.
5. What sort of knowledge is linguistic knowledge
• People are language users: they read, write, speak, and listen; and they do all of
these things in natural languages such as English, Russian, Urdu and Arabic.
• The ability to use language, perhaps more than any other attribute, is exactly what
distinguishes humans from other animals.
• But what does it mean to know a language?
• When you know a language, you can speak (or sign) and be understood by others
who know that language.
• Five-year-olds already know their first language(s).
• The ability to use a language requires profound knowledge that most speakers don’t
know that they know.
6. • Many philosophers and linguists have been interested in knowing what accounts for
this knowledge that language users have with respect to their language.
• Many researchers have even suggested that language may be thought of as an
abstract system, characterized either as a set of some kind of rules or a theoretical
structure.
• It is but logical that if a language is spoken (even not written or signed), it must have
a phonetic and phonological system.
• Since it has words and sentences, it must have a syntax; and since these words and
sentences have meanings, there must obviously be semantic principles as well.
• In other words, each language must have an intricate system of knowledge that
encompasses sound and meaning as well as form and structure.
7. • Ordinary language users therefore possess knowledge of a complex system of rules or
principles of language.
• Knowing a language is a matter of knowing the system of rules and principles that is the
grammar for that language.
• To have such knowledge is to have an implicit internal representation of these rules and
principles, which speakers use in the course of language production and understanding.
• This knowledge is something that each speaker or user of their respective language(s)
‘knows,’ but two further important issues for linguists in this regard arise. They are:
(1) just what that knowledge of grammar specifically comprises of, and
(2) how we may best characterize it.
8. What Is Grammar?
• Grammar = the knowledge speakers have about the units and rules of
their language
– Rules for combining sounds into words, word formation, making sentences,
assigning meaning
– When a sentence is ungrammatical in a linguistic sense, it means that it breaks
the rules of the shared mental grammar of the language
9. • In practice, linguists do not find it at all easy to write grammars because the
knowledge that people have of the languages they speak is extremely hard to
describe.
• Knowledge of a grammar differs in important way from knowledge of arithmetic,
traffic rules, and other subjects that are taught at home or at school: it is largely
subconscious and not accessible to introspection (that is, you can’t figure out how it
works just by thinking about it).
• There is no secret recipe, no best ingredient for accurate grammar.
• Anyone who knows a language knows much more about that language than is
contained in any grammar book that attempts to describe the language.
• Speakers of a language know what sounds right and what doesn’t sound right, but
they are not sure how they know.
11. Prescriptive Grammar
– It contains rules about structure of language.
– It deals with what the grammarian believes to be right or wrong,
good or bad language use, and states that not following the rules
will generate incorrect language.
– The view of a prescriptive grammarian is that some grammars
are better than others.
12. – The type of grammar that is in a grade school grammar book is
called a prescriptive grammar, because it tells you what to do.
– During the Renaissance, a middle class of English speakers
wished to talk like the upper class, so they started buying
handbooks that told them how to speak “properly”.
– Bishop Robert Lowth’s A Short Introduction to English Grammar
with Critical Notes (1762)
13.
14. • Lowth decided that “two negatives makes a positive,” therefore
people should not use double negatives
– Despite the fact that everybody was already using double
negatives in English (and communication was just fine)
– Despite the fact that many languages of the world
require the use of double negatives
15.
16.
17. • Descriptive grammar is a true model of the mental
grammar of language speakers.
• It tries to capture and describe the regularities in
people’s linguistic behavior.
• In other words, a descriptive grammar describes the
linguistic rules that people use when they speak their
language.
• Having looking at the way a language is actually used
by its speakers, it then attempts to analyze it and
formulate rules about the structure.
18. • The point of view of a descriptive grammarian is that
grammars from every language and dialect are equal.
• Since it does not deal with what is good or bad language
use; forms and structures that might not be used by
speakers of Standard English would be regarded as valid
and included.
• Furthermore, according to the definition provided by
Edwin L. Battistella “Descriptive grammar is the basis
for dictionaries, which record changes
in vocabulary and usage.”
19.
20.
21. • One issue discussed by Wardhaugh and Fuller (2015, p.3) is that grammar books
tend to be written as prescriptive works; that is, they seek to outline the standard
language and how it ‘should’ be spoken.
• What sociolinguistics contrarily do is provide descriptive grammars of languages,
which describe, analyze, and explain how people actually speak their languages.
• One example of this difference can be found in the less/fewer distinction.
Prescriptively,
1) less should be used with non-count nouns, such as water, rice, or money, etc.
2) Fewer with count nouns eg, drops of water, grains of rice, pesos, students, girls.
So one can have less money or fewer pesos. Descriptively, however, this distinction
does not hold; less is often used with count nouns. Eg. This fruit has less calories.
22. • Chances are you will also hear people saying things like there were less students
present today than yesterday, although of course there may be some dialects of
English where this distinction is still commonly employed.
• While linguists are aware of prescriptive rules of language as dictated in reference
grammars, the focus of linguistics is not prescriptive rules but the rules inside the
heads of speakers which constitute their knowledge of how to speak the language.
• This knowledge that people have about the language(s) they speak is both
something which every individual who speaks the language possesses and also some
kind of shared knowledge.
• It is this shared knowledge that becomes the abstraction of a language, which is
often seen as something which exists independent of speakers of a particular variety.
23. • Today, most linguists agree that the knowledge speakers have of the languages they
speak is knowledge of something quite abstract.
• It is a knowledge of underlying rules and principles which allow us to produce new
utterances.
• It is knowing what is part of the language and what is not, knowing both what it is
possible to say and what it is not possible to say.
• Communication among people who speak the same language is possible because
they share such knowledge, although how it is shared and how it is acquired are not
well understood.
• Individuals have access to it and constantly show that they do so by using it properly.