The document provides an overview of a computer networks course, including its objectives, topics, and introduction. The course aims to develop an understanding of key networking principles, models, protocols, and technologies. It will cover the history and growth of networks and the Internet, network architectures and topologies, protocols, and various applications. Lectures will explore topics like different network types, the layered OSI and TCP/IP models, switching, routing, wireless networks and more. The introduction defines what a computer network is and discusses advantages and disadvantages of networking. It also classifies networks based on transmission medium, size, management methods, and topology.
2. Course Objectives
1- Develop knowledge of key principles used for
data communication in computer networks.
2. Understand the evolution of networks and the
Internet.
3. Develop an understanding of the concepts and
issues involved in developing, designing and
implementing a computer network.
4. Develop skills in applying theoretical concepts in
the analysis of practical networking case studies.
3. Introduction to important concept principle
underling Communication in computer networks ,
key design issues, analysis and operation of
computer networks ,network design principles
,layering and protocols ,the OSI model and TCP/IP
model with particular attention given to the
physical ,data link ,network ,and transport layer
4. Lectures
1. History and overview.
2. Networks architectures and topologies.
3. Networks protocols.
4. Direct link networks.
5. Packet switching networks.
6. Internetworking: routing protocols and IP.
7. Global Internet and subnetting.
8. End-to-End protocols: TCP, UDP, and RTP.
10. Wireless and mobile networks.
11. Overview of Internet applications
6. 1.1 Growth of Computer Networking
Computer networking has grown explosively
Since the 1970s, computer communication has changed from a
research topic to an essential part of infrastructure
Networking is used in every aspect of our lives:
Business
Advertising
Production
Shipping
Planning
Billing
Accounting
7. 1.1 Growth of Computer Networking
. Educational institutions are using computer
networks to provide students and teachers with
access to online information
. state, and local government offices use networks
8. 1.1 Growth of Computer Networking
In short, computer networks are everywhere
In 1980, the Internet was a research project that involved a few
dozen sites
Today, the Internet has grown into a communication system
that reaches all of the world
Network has made telecommuting available to individuals
It has changed business communication
An entire industry emerged that develops networking
technologies, products, and services
Companies need workers to plan, install, operate, and
manage the hardware and software systems for networks
9. 1.2 Why Networking Seems Complex
The networking subject seems complex, because
Many technologies exist
Each technology has features that distinguish it from the others
Companies create commercial network products and services
Computer networks seem complex
because technologies can be combined and interconnected
in many ways
Computer networks can be especially confusing to a beginner
because No single underlying theory exists that explains the
relationship among all parts
10. 1.2 Why Networking Seems Complex
Multiple organizations have created computer networks
standards
some standards are incompatible with others
Various organizations have attempted to define conceptual
models
The set of technologies is diverse and changes rapidly
models are either so simplistic that they do not distinguish
among details or so complex that they do not help simplify
the subject
11. 11
1.3 The Five Key Aspects of Networking
To master the complexity, it is important to gain a broad
background that includes five key aspects:
1.3.1 Network Applications and Network Programming
1.3.2 Data Communications
1.3.3 Packet Switching and Networking Technologies
1.3.4 Internetworking with TCP/IP
1.3.5 Additional Networking Concepts and Technologies
12. 1.3.1 Network Applications and Network
Programming
Network services are provided by an application software
an application on one computer communicates across a
network with an application program running on another
computer
Network applications span a wide range, such as:
email
file transfer
web browsing
voice telephone calls (VoIP)
distributed databases
audio/video teleconferencing
Each application offers a specific service with its own form
of user interface
13. 1.3.1 Network Applications and Network
Programming
it is possible to understand network applications, and even
possible to write code that communicates over a network,
without understanding the hardware/software technologies
However, knowledge of the underlying network system allows a
programmer to write better code and develop more efficient
applications
13
13
14. 1.3.2 Data Communications
Data communications refers to the study of low-level
mechanisms and technologies used to send information
across a physical communication medium
such as a wire, radio wave, or light beam
Data communications focuses on ways to use physical
phenomena to transfer information
Data communications provides a foundation of concepts
on which the rest of networking is built
15. 1.3.3 Packet Switching and Networking
Technologies
In 1960s, the packet switching concept revolutionized data
communications
Early communication networks had evolved from telegraph
and telephone systems
A physical pair of wires between two parties to form a
circuit
Packet switching changed networking in a fundamental way
It provided the basis for the modern Internet
Packet switching allows multiple users to share a network
Packet switching divides data into small blocks, called
packets
Devices throughout the network each have information
about how to reach each possible destination
16. 1.3.3 Packet Switching and Networking
Technologies
Many designs for packet switching are possible
But there is a need for answers to basic questions:
How should a destination be identified?
How can a sender find the identification of a destination?
How large should a packet be?
How can a network recognize the end of one packet?
How can a network recognize the beginning of another
packet?
How can packet switching be adapted to wireless
networks?
17. 1.3.3 Packet Switching and Networking
Technologies
How can network technologies be designed to meet
various requirements for speed, distance, and economic
cost?
Many packet switching technologies have been created
to meet various requirements for speed, distance, and
economic cost
18. 1.3.4 Internetworking with TCP/IP
In the 1970s, another revolution in computer networks arose:
Internet
In 1973, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn observed that
no single packet switching technology would ever satisfy all needs
especially because it would be possible to build low-capacity technologies
for homes or offices at extremely low cost
They suggested to stop trying to find a single best solution
Instead, explore interconnecting many packet switching
technologies into a functioning whole
They proposed a set of standards be developed for such an
interconnection
The resulting standards became known as the TCP/IP Internet
Protocol Suite (usually abbreviated TCP/IP)
19. 1.4 Public and Private Parts of the Internet
The Internet consists of parts that are owned and operated by
individuals or organizations
From ownership point of view, we can categorize networks
1.4.1 Public Networks
1.4.2 Private Networks
A public network is run as a service that is available to subscribers
Any individual or corporation who pays the subscription fee can
use
A company that offers service is known as a service provider
Public refers to the general availability of service, not to the data
being transferred
A private network is controlled by one particular group
network use is restricted to one group
a private network can include circuits leased from a provider
20. 1.4.2 Private Network
Network vendors generally divide private networks into
four categories based on the size:
Consumer
Small Office / Home Office (SOHO)
Small-to-Medium Business (SMB)
Large Enterprise
These categories are related to sales and market
21. 1.5 Networks, Interoperability, and Standards
Communication always involves at least two entities
one that sends information and another that receives it
All entities in a network must agree on how information will be
represented and communicated
Communication agreements involve many details
the way that electrical signals are used to represent data
procedures used to initiate and conduct communication,
and the format of messages
An important issue is interoperability
it refers to the ability of two entities to communicate
All communicating parties agree on details and follow the same set of
rules, an exact set of specifications
Communication protocol, network protocol, or simply protocol to refer
to a specification for network communication
22. 1.6 Protocol Suites and Layering Models
A set of protocols must be constructed
to ensure that the resulting communication system is
complete and efficient
Each protocol should handle a part of communication not
handled by other protocols
How can we guarantee that protocols work well together?
Instead of creating each protocol in isolation, protocols are
designed in complete, cooperative sets called suites or
families
Each protocol in a suite handles one aspect of networking
The protocols in a suite cover all aspects of communication
The entire suite is designed to allow the protocols to work
together efficiently
23. 1.6 Protocol Suites and Layering Models
The fundamental abstraction used to collect protocols into a
unified whole is known as a layering model
All aspects of a communication problem can be partitioned into
pieces that work together
each piece is known as a layer
Dividing protocols into layers helps both protocol designers
and implementers manage the complexity
to concentrate on one aspect of communication at a given
time
Figure 1.1 illustrates the concept
by showing the layering model used with the Internet
protocols
25. 1.6 Protocol Suites and Layering Models
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
specify details about the underlying transmission medium and
hardware
all specifications related to electrical properties, radio
frequencies, and signals belong in layer 1
Network Interface Layer (Layer 2)
some publications use the term Data Link
specify details about communication between higher layers of
protocols (implemented in SW) and the underlying network
(implemented in hardware)
specifications about
network addresses
maximum packet size that a network can support
protocols used to access the underlying medium
and hardware addressing
26. 1.6 Protocol Suites and Layering Models
Internet Layer (Layer 3)
Protocols in the Internet layer form the fundamental basis for
the Internet
Layer 3 protocols specify communication across the Internet
(spanning multiple interconnected networks)
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Provide for communication from an application program on one
computer to an application program on another
Includes specifications on
controlling the maximum rate a receiver can accept data
mechanisms to avoid network congestion
techniques to insure that all data is received in the correct
order
27. 1.6 Protocol Suites and Layering Models
Application Layer (Layer 5)
specify how a pair of applications interact when they
communicate
specify details about
the format and
the meaning of messages that applications can exchange
the procedures to be followed
Some examples of network applications in layer 5
email exchange
file transfer
web browsing
telephone services
and video teleconferencing
28. 28
1.7 How Data Passes Through Layers
Protocol implementations follow the layering model
by passing the output from a protocol in one layer to the input of a
protocol in the next
To achieve efficiency
rather than copy an entire packet
a pair of protocols in adjacent layers pass a pointer to the packet
Figure 1.2 illustrates layered protocols on the two computers
Each computer contains a set of layered protocols
When an application sends data
it is placed in a packet, and the packet passes down through
each layer of protocols
29. 1.7 How Data Passes Through Layers
Once it has passed through all layers of protocols on the sending
computer
the packet leaves the computer and is transmitted across the
physical network
When it reaches the receiving computer
the packet passes up through the layers of protocols
If the application on the receiver sends a response, the process is
reversed
31. 31
1.8 Headers and Layers
Each layer of protocol software performs computations
that insure the messages arrive as expected
To perform such computation, protocol software on the two
machines must exchange information
each layer on the sender prepends extra information onto the
packet
the corresponding protocol layer on the receiver removes and
uses the extra information
Additional information added by a protocol is known as a
header
Headers are added by protocol software on the sending
computer
That is, the Transport layer prepends a header, and then the
Internet layer prepends a header, and so on
32. 1.8 Headers and Layers
If we observe a packet traversing the network, the
headers will appear in the order that Figure 1.3 illustrates
Although the figure shows headers as the same size
in practice headers are not of uniform size
and a physical layer header is optional
33. 1.9 ISO and the OSI Seven-Layer Reference
Model
At the same time the Internet protocols were being developed, two large
standards bodies jointly formed an alternative reference model
They also created a set of internetworking protocols
These organizations are:
International Standardization Organization (ISO)
International Telecommunications Union,Telecommunication (ITU-T)
The ITU was known as the Consultative Committee for International
Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT)
The ISO layering model is known as the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Seven-Layer Reference Model
Figure 1.4 illustrates the seven layers in the model
34. 1.9 ISO and the OSI Seven-Layer Reference Model
35. 35
1.10 The Inside Scoop
ISO and the ITU use a process that accommodates as many viewpoints as
possible when creating a standard
As a result, some standards can appear to have been designed by a
committee making political compromises rather than by engineers and
scientists
The seven-layer reference model is controversial
It did indeed start as a political compromise
the model and the OSI protocols were designed as competitors for
the Internet protocols
ISO and the ITU are huge standards bodies that handle the world-wide
telephone system and other global standards
The Internet protocols and reference model were created by a small group
of about a dozen researchers
It is easy to see why the standards organizations might be confident
that they could dictate a set of protocols and everyone would switch
away from protocols designed by researchers
At one point, even the U.S. government was convinced that TCP/IP
should be replaced by OSI protocols
36. 1.10 The Inside Scoop
Eventually, it became clear that TCP/IP technology was technically
superior to OSI
and efforts to develop and deploy OSI protocols were
terminated
Standards bodies were left with the seven-layer model
Advocates for the seven-layer model have tried to stretch the
definitions to match TCP/IP
They argue that layer three could be considered an Internet layer
and that a few support protocols might be placed into layers five
and six
Perhaps the most humorous part of the story is that many
engineers still refer to applications as layer 7 protocols
even when they know that layers five and six are unfilled and
unnecessary
38. Definitions
1.1 Network Definition
A network can be defined as two or more
computers connected together in such a way
that they can share resources.
The purpose of a network is to share
resources.
39. Definitions (cont..)
A resource may be:
A file
A folder
A printer
A disk drive
Or just about anything else that exists on
a computer.
40. Definitions (cont..)
A network is simply a collection of computers or
other hardware devices that are connected
together, either physically or logically, using
special hardware and software, to allow them to
exchange information and cooperate. Networking
is the term that describes the processes involved
in designing, implementing, upgrading, managing
and otherwise working with networks and network
technologies.
41. Advantages of networking
Connectivity and Communication
Data Sharing
Hardware Sharing
Internet Access
Internet Access Sharing
Data Security and Management
Performance Enhancement and Balancing
Entertainment
42. The Disadvantages (Costs) of Networking
Network Hardware, Software and Setup
Costs
Hardware and Software Management and
Administration Costs
Undesirable Sharing
Illegal or Undesirable Behavior
Data Security Concerns
43. 43
• Depending on one’s perspective, we can
classify networks in different ways
• Based on transmission media: Wired (UTP, coaxial cables, fiber-
optic cables) and Wireless
• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and MAN)
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server
• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring …
:
:
How many kinds of Networks?
44. 44
LAN and WAN
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Small network, short distance
• A room, a floor, a building
• Limited by no. of computers and distance covered
• Usually one kind of technology throughout the LAN
• Serve a department within an organization
• Examples:
• Network inside the Student Computer Room
• Network inside your home
46. 46
• A network that uses long-range telecommunication links to connect
2 or more LANs/computers housed in different places far apart.
• Towns, states, countries
• Examples:
• Network of our Campus
• Internet
WAN
Student Computer
Centre
Your home
USA
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
48. Fundamental Network Classifications (cont)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
a computer network larger than a local area network, covering an
area of a few city blocks to the area of an entire city, possibly also
including the surrounding areas
49. Intranet and Internet Specifications
Intranet: An intranet is a private network that is contained within
an enterprise. It may consist of many interlinked local area
networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network.
An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols and
in general looks like a private version of the Internet.
Internet: is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network
of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer (and
sometimes talk directly to users at other computers).
50. Client and Server computer role in
networking
Server computer is a core component of the network,
providing a link to the resources necessary to perform
any task.
A server computer provides a link to the resources
necessary to perform any task.
The link it provides could be to a resource existing on
the server itself or a resource on a client computer.
Client computers normally request and receive
information over the network client. Client computers
also depends primarily on the central server for
processing activities
51. Peer-to peer network
A peer-to-peer network is a network where the
computers act as both workstations and servers.
great for small, simple, and inexpensive networks.
In a strict peer-to-peer networking setup, every
computer is an equal, a peer in the network.
Each machine can have resources that are shared
with any other machine.
There is no assigned role for any particular device,
and each of the devices usually runs similar software.
Any device can and will send requests to any other.
53. 53
• Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer
• Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• May have duplication in resources
• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
• Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
54. Client/Server Networking
In this design, a small number of
computers are designated as centralized
servers and given the task of providing
services to a larger number of user
machines called clients
56. 56
• Advantages of client/server networks
• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
• Support more users
• Disadvantages of client/server networks
• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system
57. Network topology
A topology is a way of “laying out” the
network. Topologies can be either
physical or logical.
Physical topologies describe how the
cables are run.
Logical topologies describe how the
network messages travel
58. Network topology (cont.)
Bus (can be both logical and physical)
Star (physical only)
Ring (can be both logical and physical)
Mesh (can be both logical and physical)
59. Network topology (cont.)
Bus
A bus is the simplest physical topology. It consists of a
single cable that runs to every workstation
This topology uses the least amount of cabling, but
also covers the shortest amount of distance.
Each computer shares the same data and address
path. With a logical bus topology, messages pass
through the trunk, and each workstation checks to see
if the message is addressed to itself. If the address of
the message matches the workstation’s address, the
network adapter copies the message to the card’s on-
board memory.
60. Network topology (cont.)
it is difficult to add a workstation
have to completely reroute the cable and
possibly run two additional lengths of it.
if any one of the cables breaks, the
entire network is disrupted. Therefore, it
is very expensive to maintain.
62. Network topology (cont.)
Star Topology
A physical star topology branches each network
device off a central device called a hub, making it very
easy to add a new workstation.
Also, if any workstation goes down it does not affect
the entire network. (But, as you might expect, if the
central device goes down, the entire network goes
down.)
Some types of Ethernet use a physical star topology.
Figure 8.7 gives an example of the organization of the
star network.
63. Network topology (cont.)
Star topologies are easy to install. A
cable is run from each workstation to the
hub. The hub is placed in a central
location in the office.
Star topologies are more expensive to
install than bus networks, because there
are several more cables that need to be
installed, plus the cost of the hubs that
are needed.
65. Network topology (cont.)
Ring
Each computer connects to two other
computers, joining them in a circle creating a
unidirectional path where messages move
workstation to workstation.
Each entity participating in the ring reads a
message, then regenerates it and hands it to
its neighbor on a different network cable.
66. Network topology (cont.)
The ring makes it difficult to add new
computers.
Unlike a star topology network, the ring
topology network will go down if one
entity is removed from the ring.
Physical ring topology systems don’t
exist much anymore, mainly because the
hardware involved was fairly expensive
and the fault tolerance was very low.
68. Network topology (cont.)
Mesh
The mesh topology is the simplest logical topology in terms of
data flow, but it is the most complex in terms of physical design.
In this physical topology, each device is connected to every other
device
This topology is rarely found in LANs, mainly because of the
complexity of the cabling.
If there are x computers, there will be (x × (x–1)) ÷ 2 cables in the
network. For example, if you have five computers in a mesh
network, it will use 5 × (5 – 1) ÷ 2, which equals 10 cables. This
complexity is compounded when you add another workstation.
For example, your five-computer, 10-cable network will jump to
15 cables just by adding one more computer.
69. Network topology (cont.)
Because of its design, the physical mesh topology is very
expensive to install and maintain.
Cables must be run from each device to every other device. The
advantage you gain from it is its high fault tolerance.
With a logical mesh topology, however, there will always be a
way of getting the data from source to destination.
It may not be able to take the direct route, but it can take an
alternate, indirect route. It is for this reason that the mesh
topology is still found in WANs to connect multiple sites across
WAN links. It uses devices called routers to search multiple
routes through the mesh and determine the best path.
However, the mesh topology does become inefficient with five or
more entities.
71. Network topology (cont.)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Network Topologies
Topology Advantages Disadvantages
Bus Cheap. Easy to install. Difficult to reconfigure.
Break in bus disables
entire network.
Star Cheap. Easy to install.
Easy to reconfigure.
Fault tolerant.
More expensive than bus.
Ring Efficient. Easy to install. Reconfiguration difficult.
Very expensive.
Mesh Simplest. Most fault tolerant. Reconfiguration extremely difficult.
Extremely expensive.
Very complex.
73. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Network Interface Card (NIC)
NIC provides the physical interface between computer and
cabling.
It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can
also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to
understand.
The following factors should be taken into consideration when
choosing a NIC:
1. - Preparing data
2. - Sending and controlling data
3. - Configuration
4. - Drivers
5. - Compatibility
6. - Performance
74. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Preparing Data
In the computer, data moves along buses in parallel,
as on a four-lane interstate highway. But on a network
cable, data travels in a single stream, as on a one lane
highway. This difference can cause problems
transmitting and receiving data, because the paths
traveled are not the same.
It is the NIC’s job to translate the data from the
computer into signals that can flow easily along the
cable.
It does this by translating digital signals into electrical
signals (and in the case of fiber-optic NICs, to optical
signals).
75. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Sending and Controlling Data
For two computers to send and receive data, the cards must
agree on several things. These include the following:
- The maximum size of the data frames
- The amount of data sent before giving
confirmation
- The time needed between transmissions
- The amount of time needed to wait before sending
confirmation
- The amount of data a card can hold
- The speed at which data transmits
In order to successfully send data on the network, you need to
make sure the network cards are of the same type and they are
connected to the same piece of cable.
76. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Configuration
Each card must have a unique hardware
address. If two cards have the same hardware
addresses, neither one of them will be able to
communicate.
For the computer to use the network interface
card, it is very important to install the proper
device drivers
77. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Compatibility
When choosing a NIC, use one that fits
the bus type of your PC. If you have
more than one type of bus in your PC
(for example, a combination ISA/PCI),
use an NIC that fits into the fastest type
(the PCI, in this case).
This is especially important in servers, as
the NIC can very quickly become a
bottleneck if this guideline isn’t followed.
79. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Repeaters
Repeaters are very simple devices. They allow a cabling system
to extend beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the
network voltages so they travel farther.
Repeaters are nothing more than amplifiers and, as such, are
very inexpensive.
Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between
similar network segments.
For example, we can extend an Ethernet 10Base2 network to 400
meters with a repeater. But can’t connect an Ethernet and Token
Ring network together with one.
The main disadvantage to repeaters is that they just amplify
signals. These signals not only include the network signals, but
any noise on the wire as well.
81. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Hubs
Hubs are devices used to link several computers
together.
They repeat any signal that comes in on one port
and copy it to the other ports (a process that is
also called broadcasting).
There are two types of hubs: active and passive.
Passive hubs simply connect all ports together
electrically .
Active hubs use electronics to amplify and clean
up the signal before it is broadcast to the other
ports.
In the category of active hubs, there is also a class
called “intelligent” hubs, which are hubs that can
be remotely managed on the network.
83. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Bridges
They join similar topologies and are used to divide network
segments.
If it is aware of the destination address, it is able to forward
packets; otherwise a bridge will forward the packets to all
segments. They are more intelligent than repeaters but are
unable to move data across multiple networks
simultaneously.
Unlike repeaters, bridges can filter out noise.
The main disadvantage to bridges is that they can’t connect
dissimilar network types or perform intelligent path
selection. For that function, you would need a router.
85. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Routers
Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple
network types and determine the best path for sending data.
The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can
determine the best path that data can take to get to its
destination.
Like bridges, they can segment large networks and can filter out
noise.
However, they are slower than bridges because they are more
intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing
packet-forwarding delays. Because of this intelligence, they are
also more expensive.
Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another.
Typically, when a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers
used.
87. Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)
Switch
A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network
segments.
Low-end network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch
contains more "intelligence" .
Network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received,
determining the source and destination device of that packet, and forwarding it
appropriately.
By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a
network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better
performance than a hub.
A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes connected to
a hub share the bandwidth among themselves, while a device connected to a
switch port has the full bandwidth all to itself.
For example, if 10 nodes are communicating using a hub on a 10-Mbps network,
then each node may only get a portion of the 10 Mbps if other nodes on the hub
want to communicate as well. .
But with a switch, each node could possibly communicate at the full 10 Mbps.
89. 89
Two main categories:
Guided ― wires, cables
Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,
microwave, infrared, sound .
We will concentrate on guided media here:
Twisted-Pair cables:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
Coaxial cables
Fiber-optic cables
Transmission Media
90. If the pair of wires are not twisted, electromagnetic
noises from, e.g., motors, will affect the closer wire more
than the further one, thereby causing errors
Twisted-Pair Cables
91. 91
Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection)
A sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of wires
Metal
Insulato
r
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
92. 92
STP cables are similar to UTP cables, except there
is a metal foil or braided-metal-mesh cover that
encases each pair of insulated wires
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
93. 93
EIA(Electronic Industries Alliance) classifies UTP cables
according to the quality:
Category 1 ― the lowest quality, only good for voice,
mainly found in very old buildings, not recommended now
Category 2 ― good for voice and low data rates (up to
4Mbps for low-speed token ring networks)
Category 3 ― at least 3 twists per foot, for up to 10 Mbps
(common in phone networks in residential buildings)
Category 4 ― up to 16 Mbps (mainly for token rings)
Category 5 (or 5e) ― up to 100 Mbps (common for
networks targeted for high-speed data communications)
Category 6 ― more twists than Cat 5, up to 1 Gbps
Categories of UTP Cables
94. 94
In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry signals of
higher freq (100KHz–500MHz) than UTP cables
Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise and as the second conductor that
completes the circuit
Coaxial Cables
95. 95
Light travels at 3108 ms-1 in free space and is the
fastest possible speed in the Universe
Light slows down in denser media, e.g. glass
Refraction occurs at interface, with light bending away
from the normal when it enters a less dense medium
Beyond the critical angle total internal reflection
Fiber-Optic Cables
96. 96
An optical fiber consists of a core (denser material)
and a cladding (less dense material)
Simplest one is a multimode step-index optical fiber
Multimode = multiple paths, whereas step-index =
refractive index follows a step-function profile (i.e.
an abrupt change of refractive index between the
core and the cladding)
97. Light bounces back and forth along
the core
Common light sources: LEDs and
lasers
100. 100
Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket
Less signal attenuation ― a signal can run for miles
without regeneration (currently, the lowest measured loss
is about ~4% or 0.16dB per km)
Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come
from the signal generation/reception technology, not the
fiber itself
Cost ― Optical fibers are expensive
Installation/maintenance ― any crack in the core will
degrade the signal, and all connections must be perfectly
aligned
Advantages and Disadvantages
103. Broadcast Radio
Radio is a general term used to encompass frequencies
radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:
FM radio
UHF (Ultra_high_frequency) and
VHF (very-high_frequency television
is Omnidirectional
suffers from multipath interference
reflections from land, water, other objects
104. Omnidirectional Antenna
Unguided Media – Radio Waves
Frequencies between 3 KHz and
1 GHz.
are used for multicasts
communications, such as radio and
television, and ...
105. Terrestrial Microwave
used for long haul telecommunications
and short point-to-point links
requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam
onto a receiver antenna
1-40GHz frequencies
higher frequencies give higher data rates
main source of loss is distance, rainfall
also interference
106. Frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz.
Used for unicast communication such as cellular phones, satellite
networks and wireless LANs.
Unguided Media – Microwaves
Unidirectional Antenna
107. Satellite Microwave
satellite is relay station
receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats
signal and transmits on another frequency
eg. uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
typically requires geo-stationary orbit
height of 35,784km
typical uses
television
long distance telephone
private business networks
global positioning
108. Unguided Media – Infrared
Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.
Can not penetrate walls.
Used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
109. Infrared
end line of sight (or reflection)
are blocked by walls
no licenses required
typical uses
TV remote control
110. Antennas
electrical conductor used to radiate or collect
electromagnetic energy
transmission antenna
radio frequency energy from transmitter
converted to electromagnetic energy by antenna
radiated into surrounding environment
reception antenna
electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
converted to radio frequency electrical energy
fed to receiver
same antenna is often used for both purposes
111. Radiation Pattern
power radiated in all directions
not same performance in all directions
as seen in a radiation pattern diagram
radiates in all directions equally
112. measure of directionality of antenna
measured in decibels (dB)
118. Refraction
velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function
of density of material
~3 x 108 m/s in vacuum, less in anything else
speed changes as move between media
varies with wavelength
119. Line of Sight Transmission
Free space loss
loss of signal with distance
Atmospheric Absorption
from water vapour and oxygen absorption
Multipath
multiple interfering signals from reflections
Refraction
bending signal away from receiver
121. Comparison of Media
Medium Cost Speed Atten Interfere Security
UTP Low 1-100M High High Low
STP Medium 1-150M High Medium Low
Coax Medium 1M–1G Medium Medium Low
Fibre High 10M–2G Low Low High
Radio Medium 1-10M Varies High Low
Microwv High 1M–10G Varies High Medium
Satellite High 1 M–10G Varies High Medium
Cellular High 9.6–19.2K Low Medium Low
123. 123
Function of Packets in Network
Communications
Networks reformat data into smaller,
more manageable pieces called packets
or frames
Advantages of splitting data include:
More efficient transmission, since large
units of data saturate network
More computers able to use network
Faster transmissions since only packets
containing errors need to be retransmitted
124. 124
Packet Structure
Three basic parts of packet, as seen in
Figure 1:
Header – contains source and destination
address along with clocking information to
synchronize transmission
Data – payload or actual data can vary from
512 bytes to 16 kilobytes
Trailer – information to verify packet’s
contents, such as Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC)
126. 126
Packet Creation
From sender, data moves down layers of
OSI model
Each layer adds header or trailer
information
Data travels up layers at receiver
Each layer removes header or trailer
information placed by corresponding sender
layer
See Figure 2
128. 128
Packet Creation (continued)
Outgoing data stream enters OSI model
as complete message
Remains as data at layers 5-7
Lower layers split data
Transport layer 4 splits it into segments
Network layer 3 splits segments into
packets
Data Link layer 2 puts packets into frames
Physical layer 1 transmits packets as bits
129. The different between the segment
,frame,paket
A Ethernet "Frame" is the layer 2 frame that is given to the nic card for
transmission.
An IP "Packet" is the information starting with the IP header, and includes all
upper layer protocol information.
And, a TCP segment, encapsulates all higher level protocols above it.
129
130. 130
Understanding Packets
Three kinds of packets:
Unicast packet – addressed to only one
computer
Broadcast packet – created for all
computers
on network
Multicast packet – created for any
computers on network that “listen” to shared
network address
131. 131
Protocols
Rules and procedures for communicating
To communicate, computers must agree
on protocols
Many kinds of protocols:
Connectionless
Connection-oriented
Routable
No routable
132. 132
The Function of Protocols
Each protocol has different purpose and
function
Protocols may work at one or more layers
More sophisticated protocols operate at higher
layers of OSI model
Protocol stack or protocol suite is set of
protocols that work cooperatively
Most common protocol stack is TCP/IP used
by the Internet and pretty much all operating
systems
133. 133
Protocols in a Layered
Architecture
Most protocols can be positioned and
explained in terms of layers of OSI model
Protocol stacks may have different protocols
for each layer
See Figure 3 for review of functions of each
layer of OSI model
See Figure 4 for three major protocol types
Application protocols at layers 5-7
Transport protocols at layer 4
Network protocols at layers 1-3
136. 136
Network Protocols
Provide addressing and routing information, error
checking, and retransmission requests
Services provided by network protocols are called link
services
Popular network protocols include:
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and NWLink
NetBEUI
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)
137. 137
Transport Protocols
Handle data delivery between computers
May be connectionless or connection-
oriented
Transport protocols include:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) and
NWLink
NetBIOS/NetBEUI
138. 138
Application Protocols
Operate at upper layers of OSI model to
provide application-to-application service
Some common application protocols are:
Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)
AppleTalk File Protocol (AFP)
139. 139
Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Called the Internet Protocol (IP)
Most commonly used protocol suite for networking
Able to connect different types of computers and
networks
Default protocol for Novell NetWare, Windows
XP/2000/2003, all Unix/Linux varieties, and Mac OS X
See Figure 6-5 for relationship to OSI model
141. 141
IP Addressing
Logical addresses, 32-bits or 4 bytes long
Four octets separated by periods, each with
decimal value from 0-255
First part of address identifies network
Second part of address identifies host or
individual computer
IP addresses broken into classes
Number of IP address registries under control
of Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA)
142. 142
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
Internet uses CIDR
Demarcation between network and host not always
based on octet boundaries
May be based on specific number of bits from beginning
of address
Called subnetting, the process involves “stealing” bits
from host portion of address
for use in network address
Provides fewer hosts on each network but
more networks overall
143. 143
Subnet Masks
Part of IP address identifies network and
part identifies host
IP uses subnet mask to determine what
part
of address identifies network and what
part identifies host
Network section identified by binary 1
Host section identified by binary 0
144. 144
Network Address Translation
(NAT)
Allows organization to use private IP
addresses while connected to the
Internet
Performed by network device such as
router that connects to Internet
See Simulation 6-3 and Figure 6-6 for
examples of NAT
146. 146
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
DHCP server receives block of available
IP addresses and their subnet masks
When computer needs address, DHCP
server selects one from pool of available
addresses
Can move computers with ease; no need
to reconfigure IP addresses
Some systems, such as Web servers,
must have static IP address
147. 147
IPv6
Current four byte version is IPv4
Now reaching limit of 4-byte addresses
IPv6 being used now on the Internet
backbone and other large networks
Uses 16 byte (128-bit) addresses
Retains backward compatibility with IPv4
4-byte addresses
Will provide limitless supply of addresses
148. 148
NetBIOS and NetBEUI
Consortium of Microsoft, 3Com, and IBM
developed lower-level protocol NetBEUI
in mid-1980s
NetBIOS Extended User Interface
Spans layers 2, 3, and 4 of OSI model
Both designed for small- to medium-
sized networks, from 2-250 computers
149. 149
NetBIOS and NetBEUI (continued)
Figure 6-7 shows Microsoft protocol suite and its
relationship to OSI model
Defines four components above Data Link layer
Runs on any network card or physical medium
Redirector interprets requests and determines
whether they are local or remote
If remote, passes request to Server Message
Block (SMB)
SMB passes information between networked
computers
151. 151
NetBIOS and NetBEUI (continued)
NetBEUI works at Transport layer to
manage communications between two
computers
Non routable protocol; skips Network layer
NetBEUI packet does not contain source or
destination network information
152. 152
NetBIOS and NetBEUI (continued)
NetBIOS operates at Session layer to provide peer-to-
peer network application support
Unique 15-character name identifies each
computer in NetBIOS network
NetBIOS broadcast advertises computer’s name
Connection-oriented protocol, but can also use
connectionless communications
Non routable protocol, but can be routed when
using routable protocol for transport
153. 153
NetBIOS and NetBEUI (continued)
NetBEUI is small, fast, nonroutable Transport and Data
Link protocol
All Windows versions include it
Ideal for DOS based computers
Good for slow serial links
Limited to small networks
Server Message Block operates at Presentation layer
Used to communicate between redirector and server
software
154. 154
IPX/SPX(Internetwork Packet/Sequenced Packet
Exchange
Original protocol suite designed for Novell’s NetWare
network operating system
Still supported with NetWare 6.0, but TCP/IP
is now primary protocol
NWLink is Microsoft’s implementation of IPX/SPX
protocol suite
Figure 6-8 shows protocols in NWLink and
corresponding OSI layers
Must consider which Ethernet frame type with
NWLink
156. 156
AppleTalk
Defines physical transport in Apple
Macintosh networks
Divides computers in zones
AppleTalk Phase II allows connectivity
outside Macintosh world
157. 157
Implementing and Removing
Protocols
Easy to add or remove protocols
TCP/IP loads automatically when most
operating systems are installed
In Windows 2000/2003/XP, use Local
Area Connections Properties to add or
remove protocols
See Figure 6-9
159. 159
Putting Data on the Cable:
Access Methods
Consider several factors
How computers put data on the cable
How computers ensure data reaches
destination undamaged
160. 160
Function of Access Methods
Rules specify when computers can
access cable or data channel
Channel access methods assure data
reaches its destination
Prevents two or more computers from
sending messages that may collide on cable
Allows only one computer at a time to send
data
161. 161
Major Access Methods
Channel access is handled at Media
Access Control (MAC) sublayer of Data
Link layer
Five major access methods:
Contention
Switching
Token passing
Demand priority
Polling
162. 162
Contention
In early networks, contention method allowed
computers to send data whenever they had data to
send, resulting in frequent collisions and
retransmissions
Figure 6-11 shows data collision
Two carrier access methods were developed for
contention-based networks
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
164. 164
CSMA/CD
Popular access method used by
Ethernet
Prevents collisions by listening to channel
If no data on line, may send message
If collision occurs, stations wait random
period of time before resending data
See Figure 6-11
166. 166
CSMA/CD (continued)
Limitations and disadvantages of
CSMA/CD:
Not effective at distances over 2500 meters
More computers on network likely to cause
more collisions
Computers have unequal access to media
Computer with large amount of data can
monopolize channel
167. 167
CSMA/CA
Uses collision avoidance, rather than
detection, to avoid collisions
When computer senses channel is free, it
signals its intent to transmit data
Used with Apple’s LocalTalk
Advantages and disadvantages:
More reliable than CSMA/CD at avoiding
collisions
“Intent to transmit” packets add overhead
and reduce network speed
168. 168
Switching
Switch interconnects individual nodes and controls
access to media
Switching usually avoids contention and allows
connections to use entire bandwidth
Other advantages include:
Fairer than contention-based technology
Permits multiple simultaneous conversations
Supports centralized management
Disadvantage include:
Higher cost
Failure of switch brings down network
169. 169
Token Passing
Token passes sequentially from one computer to next
Only computer with token can send data, as
seen in Figure 6-12
Advantages and disadvantages:
Prevents collisions
Provides all computers equal access to
media
Computer must wait for token to transmit,
even if no other computer wants to transmit
Complicated process requires more
expensive equipment
171. 171
Demand Priority
Used only by 100VG-AnyLAN 100 Mbps
100BaseVG is a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet standard specified
to run over four pairs of category 3 UTP wires (known as
voice grade, hence the "VG"). It is also called 100VG-
AnyLANbecause it was defined to carry both Ethernet
and token ring frame types.
Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.12)
Runs on star bus topology, as seen in Figure 6-13
Intelligent hubs control access to network
Computer sends hub demand signal when it wants to
transmit
172. Advantages and disadvantages:
Allows certain computers to have higher
priorities
Eliminates extraneous traffic by not
broadcasting packets but sending them to
each computer
Price is major disadvantage
172
174. 174
Polling
One of oldest access methods
Central controller, called primary device, asks each
computer or secondary device if it has data to send, as
seen in Figure 6-14
Advantages and disadvantages:
Allows all computers equal access to channel
Can grant priority for some computers
Does not make efficient use of media
If primary device fails, network fails
176. 176
Choosing an Access Method
Network topology is biggest factor in
choosing access method
Ring topology usually uses token-passing
Switching can emulate all common
topologies
177. 177
Chapter Summary
Data stream on a network is divided into packets to provide
more reliable data delivery and ease network traffic
If errors occur during transmission, only packets with errors
will be re-sent
As data travels through layers of OSI model, each layer adds
its own header or trailer information to packet
As receiving computer processes packet, each layer strips its
header or trailer information and properly re-sequences
segmented message so that packet is in original form
Many protocols are available for network communications
178. 178
Chapter Summary (continued)
Each protocol has strengths and weaknesses
A suite, or stack, of protocols allows a number of
protocols to work cooperatively
Major protocol suites are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, and
NetBEUI
Each suite contains many smaller protocols, each of
which has its own network function
179. 179
Chapter Summary (continued)
Current method for Internet addressing is called CIDR,
which uses all available addresses more efficiently
IPv6 will eventually replace IPv4
When a computer is ready to send data, it must be
assured that data will reach destination
Perfect environment does not exist where all computers
can have dedicated channel over which to send
information
Rules have been established to ensure that all
computers have time on the channel
180. 180
Chapter Summary (continued)
Demand priority allows computer to send
data after it notifies controlling hub
Switching can emulate all other access
methods and offers greatest total available
bandwidth
182. History and Future of TCP/IP
The U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD) created the
TCP/IP reference model
because it wanted a
network that could survive
any conditions.
Some of the layers in the
TCP/IP model have the
same name as layers in the
OSI model.
183. Application Layer
Handles high-level protocols, issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog
control.
The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all
application related issues into one layer
and ensures this data is properly
packaged before passing it on to the
next layer.
185. Transport Layer
Five basic services:
Segmenting upper-layer application data
Establishing end-to-end operations
Sending segments from one end host to
another end host
Ensuring data reliability
Providing flow control
187. Internet Layer
The internet layer is a group of internetworking methods,
protocols, and specifications in the Internet protocol
suite that are used to transport datagrams (packets) from
the originating host across network boundaries, if
necessary, to the destination host specified by a network
address (IP address) which is defined for this purpose by
the Internet Protocol (IP).
189. Network Access Layer
The network access layer is concerned with all of the issues
that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link to
the network media.
It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the
details contained in the OSI physical and data link layers.
191. Similarities of the OSI and TCP/IP
Models
Both have layers.
Both have application layers, though they
include very different services.
Both have comparable transport and
network layers.
Packet-switched, not circuit-switched,
technology is assumed.
Networking professionals need to know
both models.
192. Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP
Models
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session
layer into its application layer.
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical
layers into one layer.
TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer
layers.
TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not
always guarantee reliable delivery of packets as
the transport layer in the OSI model does.
193. The TCP Connection
TCP provides multiplexing, demultiplexing,
and error detection. (but not recovery) in
exactly the same manner as UDP
Nevertheless, TCP and UDP differ in many
ways. The most fundamental difference is that
UDP is connectionless, while TCP is
connection-oriented. UDP is
connectionless
because it sends data without ever
establishing a connection.
194. TCP is connection-oriented because before one
application process can begin to send
data to another, the two processes must first "handshake"
with each other -- that is, they must send some
preliminary segments to each other to
establish the parameters of the ensuing data transfer. As
part of the TCP connection establishment, both sides of
the connection will initialize many TCP "state variables
196. A TCP connection provides for full duplex data
transfer. That is, application-level data can
be transferred in both directions between
two hosts – if there is a TCP connection
between process A on one host and process B
on another host, then application-level data can
flow from A to B at the same
time as application-level data flows from B to A.
197. Let us now take a look at how a TCP connection is
established. Suppose a process running in one host
wants to initiate a connection with another
process in another host. Recall that the host that is
initiating the connection is called the client host, while
the other host is called the server host. The
client application process first informs the client TCP that it
wants to establish a connection to a process in the
server.
199. IP Addressing
An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s.
To make the IP address easier to use, the
address is usually written as four decimal
numbers separated by periods.
This way of writing the address is called the
dotted decimal format.
203. Reserved IP Addresses
Certain host addresses are
reserved and cannot be
assigned to devices on a
network.
An IP address that has
binary 0s in all host bit
positions is reserved for the
network address.
An IP address that has
binary 1s in all host bit
positions is reserved for the
network address.
204. Public and Private IP Addresses
No two machines that connect to a public network can
have the same IP address because public IP addresses
are global and standardized.
However, private networks that are not connected to the
Internet may use any host addresses, as long as each
host within the private network is unique.
RFC (Request for Comments )1918 sets aside three
blocks of IP addresses for private, internal use.
Connecting a network using private addresses to the
Internet requires translation of the private addresses to
public addresses using Network Address Translation
(NAT).
205. IPv4 versus IPv6
IP version 6 (IPv6) has
been defined and
developed.
IPv6 uses 128 bits
rather than the 32 bits
currently used in IPv4.
IPv6 uses hexadecimal
numbers to represent
the 128 bits.
IPv4
207. Obtaining an Internet Address
Static addressing
Each individual device must be configured with
an IP address.
Dynamic addressing
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP initialization sequence
Function of the Address Resolution Protocol
ARP operation within a subnet
208. Static Assignment of IP Addresses
Each individual
device must be
configured with an
IP address.
209. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
MAC HEADER IP HEADER
RARP REQUEST
MESSAGE
Destination
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
Source
FE:ED:FD:23:44:EF
Destination
255.255.255.255
Source
????????
What is my IP
address?
210. BOOTP IP
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
operates in a client/server environment
and only requires a single packet
exchange to obtain IP information.
BOOTP packets can include the IP
address, as well as the address of a
router, the address of a server, and
vendor-specific information.
211. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Allows a host to obtain an IP address
using a defined range of IP addresses on
a DHCP server.
As hosts come online, contact the DHCP
server, and request an address.
212. Problems in Address Resolution
In TCP/IP communications, a datagram on a local-
area network must contain both a destination MAC
address and a destination IP address.
There needs to be a way to automatically map IP
to MAC addresses.
The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP), which can
automatically obtain MAC addresses for local
transmission.
TCP/IP has a variation on ARP called Proxy ARP
that will provide the MAC address of an
intermediate device for transmission outside the
LAN to another network segment.
213. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Each device on a network maintains its
own ARP table.
A device that requires an IP and MAC
address pair broadcasts an ARP
request.
If one of the local devices matches the
IP address of the request, it sends back
an ARP reply that contains its IP-MAC
pair.
If the request is for a different IP
network, a router performs a proxy ARP.
The router sends an ARP response with
the MAC address of the interface on
which the request was received, to the
requesting host.
214. Introduction to Subnetting
As the Internet grew
the original classful addressing scheme
became a limitation
Everyone demanded a class A or class B
address
So they would have enough addresses for
future growth
but many addresses in class A and B were unused
Many class C addresses remained, but few
wanted to use them
215. Introduction to Subnetting
Two mechanisms were invented to overcome the
limitation:
Subnet addressing
Classless addressing
The two mechanisms are closely related
Subnet addressing was initially used within large
organizations.
Classless addressing extended the approach to all
Internet.
216. 216
Subnet and Classless Addressing
Assume an ISP owns a class C prefix
Classful addressing assigns the entire prefix to one
organization
With classless addressing
the ISP can divide the prefix into several longer
prefixesand assign each to a subscriber
Figure 21.4 illustrates how classless addressing allows
an ISP to divide a class C prefix into four (4) longer
prefixes each one can accommodate a network of up to
62 hosts
217. The original class C address has 8 bits
of suffix and each of the classless
addresses has 6 bits of suffix
Thus, instead of wasting addresses
ISP can assign each of the four (4)
classless prefixes to a subscriber
219. 219
Address Masks
How can an IP address be divided at an arbitrary boundary?
The classless and subnet addressing schemes require
hosts and routers to store an additional piece of information:
a value that specifies the exact boundary between the
network prefix and the host suffix
To mark the boundary, IP uses a 32-bit value
known as an address mask, also called a subnet mask
220. Address Masks
Why store the boundary size as a bit mask?
A mask makes processing efficient
Hosts and routers need to compare the network prefix
portion of the address to a value in their forwarding
tables.
The bit-mask representation makes the comparison
efficient
221. 221
Address Masks
Suppose a router is given
a destination address, D
a network prefix represented as a 32-bit value, N
a 32-bit address mask, M
Assume the top bits of N contain a network prefix, and the
remaining bits have been set to zero
To test whether the destination lies on the specified
network, the router tests the condition:
N == (D & M)
222. 222
Address Masks( As an example)
:
Consider the following 32-bit network prefix:
10000000 00001010 00000000 00000000 = 128.10.0.0
Consider a 32-bit mask:
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 = 255.255.0.0
Consider a 32-bit destination address, which has a
10000000 00001010 00000010 00000011 = 128.10.2.3
223. 223
CIDR Notation
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
The name is unfortunate because CIDR only specifies addressing
and forwarding
Designers wanted to make it easy for a human to specify a mask
Consider the mask needed for the example in Figure 21.4b
It has 26 bits of 1s followed by 6 bits of 0s
The general form of CIDR notation is: ddd.ddd.ddd.ddd/m
ddd is the decimal value for an octet of the address
m is the number of one bits in the mask
Thus, one might write the following: 192.5.48.69/26
which specifies a mask of 26 bits
Figure 21.5 lists address masks in CIDR notation
along with the dotted decimal equivalent of each
225. 225
A CIDR Example
Assume an ISP has the following block 128.211.0.0/16
Suppose the ISP has 2 customers
one customer needs 12 IP addresses and the other needs 9
The ISP can assign
customer1 CIDR: 128.211.0.16/28
customer2 CIDR: 128.211.0.32/28
both customers have the same mask size (28 bits), the prefixes differ
The binary value assigned to customer1 is:
10000000 11010011 00000000 0001 0000
The binary value assigned to customer2 is:
10000000 11010011 00000000 0010 0000
There is no ambiguity
Each customer has a unique prefix
226. Example of special address
1-Directed Broadcast Address
2- Limited Broadcast Address
3- This Computer Address
4- Loopback Address
227. 227
Special IP Addresses
Directed Broadcast Address
To simplify broadcasting (send to all)
IP defines a directed broadcast address for each physical network
When a packet is sent to a network's directed broadcast
a single copy of the packet travels across the Internet
until it reaches the specified network
the packet is then delivered to all hosts on the network
The directed broadcast address for a network is formed by adding a
suffix that consists of all 1 bits to the network prefix
228. 228
Special IP Addresses
Limited Broadcast Address
Limited broadcast refers to a broadcast on a directly-
connected network:
informally, we say that the broadcast is limited to a
“single wire”
Limited broadcast is used during system startup
by a computer that does not yet know the network
number
IP reserves the address consisting of 32-bits of 1s
refer to limited broadcast
Thus, IP will broadcast any packet sent to the all-1s address
across the local network
229. 229
Special IP Addresses
This Computer Address
A computer needs to know its IP address
before it can send or receive Internet packets
TCP/IP contains protocols a computer can use to obtain its
IP address automatically when the computer boots
The startup protocols also use an IP to communicate
When using such startup protocols
a computer cannot supply a correct IP source address
To handle such cases
IP reserves the address that consists of all 0s to mean
this computer
230. 230
Special IP Addresses
Loopback Address
Loopback address used to test network applications
It is used for preliminary debugging after a network application has been
created
A programmer must have two application programs that are intended to
communicate across a network
Each application includes the code needed to interact with TCP/IP
Instead of executing each program on a separate computer
the programmer runs both programs on a single computer
and instructs them to use a loopback address when communicating
When one application sends data to another
data travels down the protocol stack to the IP software
then forwards it back up through the protocol stack to the second
program
231. 231
Special IP Addresses
Loopback Address
A programmer can test the program logic quickly
without needing two computers and without sending
packets across a network
IP reserves the network prefix 127/8 for use with loopback
232. 232
Summary of Special IP Addresses
The table in Figure 21.7 summarizes the special IP addresses
234. 234
Static Vs. Dynamic Routing
IP routing can be partitioned into two broad categories:
Static routing
Dynamic routing
Static routing forwarding table is created before the system starts to
forward packets
and does not change entries, unless manually altering them
In dynamic routing route propagation software runs on the system and
continuously updates the forwarding table
to insure that each datagram follows an optimum route
the software communicates with other systems to learn optimum
routes to each destination
it continually checks for network failures that cause routes to change
dynamic routing begins exactly like static routing
by loading an initial set of routes into a forwarding table when the
system boots
235. 235
Static Routing in Hosts
and a Default Route
Static routing is straightforward and easy to specify
It does not require extra routing software
It does not consume bandwidth
and no CPU cycles are required to propagate routing information
However, static routing is relatively inflexible
it cannot accommodate network failures or changes in topology
Where is static routing used?
Most hosts use static routing
especially in cases where the host has one network connection and
a single router connects the network to the rest of the Internet
Cosider the architecture in Figure 27.1
237. 237
Dynamic Routing and Routers
Can a router in the Internet use static routing the same way a host
does?
Most routers use dynamic routing
but in some exceptional cases static routing can be used
As an exception
(case where static routing does suffice for a router)
238. 238
Dynamic Routing and Routers
Each router exchanges information with other routers
When it learns about changes in routes
the routing software updates the local forwarding table
Routers exchange information periodically
the local forwarding table is updated continuously
In Figure 27.2 routers R1 and R2 will exchange routing information
As a result, routing software in R2 will install a route to network 1 and
software running in R1 will install a route to network 2
If router R2 crashes, the route propagation software in R1 will detect
that network 2 is no longer reachable
and will remove the route from its forwarding table
Later, when R2 comes back on line, the routing software in R1 will
determine that network 2 is reachable again
and will reinstall the route
240. 240
Circuit Switching (e.g., Phone Network)
Source establishes connection to destination
Node along the path store connection info
Nodes may reserve resources for the
connection
Source sends data over the connection
No destination address, since nodes know path
242. 242
Circuit Switching: Multiplexing a Link
Time-division
Each circuit
allocated certain
time slots
Frequency-division
Each circuit
allocated certain
frequencies
time
frequency
time
243. 243
Advantages of Circuit Switching
Guaranteed bandwidth
Predictable communication performance
Simple abstraction
Reliable communication channel between hosts
No worries about lost or out-of-order packets
Simple forwarding
Forwarding based on time slot or frequency
No need to inspect a packet header
Low per-packet overhead
Forwarding based on time slot or frequency
No IP (and TCP/UDP) header on each packet
244. 244
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
Wasted bandwidth
Bursty traffic leads to idle connection during silent
period
Unable to achieve gains from statistical multiplexing
Blocked connections
Connection refused when resources are not
sufficient
Unable to offer “okay” service to everybody
245. Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
Connection set-up delay
No communication until the connection is set up
Network state
Network nodes must store per-connection
information
246. 246
Packet Switching (e.g., Internet)
Data traffic divided into packets
Each packet contains a header (with address)
Packets travel separately through network
Packet forwarding based on the header
Network nodes may store packets temporarily
Destination reconstructs the message
248. 248
IP Service: Best-Effort Packet Delivery
Packet switching
Divide messages into a sequence of packets
Headers with source and destination address
Best-effort delivery
Packets may be lost
Packets may be corrupted
Packets may be delivered out of order
source destination
IP network
249. 249
IP Service Model: Why Packets?
Don’t want to waste bandwidth
No traffic exchanged during idle periods
Better to allow multiplexing
Different transfers share access to same links
Packets can be delivered by most anything
… still, packet switching can be inefficient
Extra header bits on every packet
250. 250
IP Service Model: Why Best-Effort?
IP means never having to say you’re sorry…
Don’t need to reserve bandwidth and memory
Don’t need to do error detection & correction
Don’t need to remember from one packet to next
… but, applications do want efficient, accurate transfer
of data in order, in a timely fashion
251. 251
IP Service: Best-Effort is Enough
No error detection or correction
Higher-level protocol can provide error checking
Successive packets may not follow the same path
Not a problem as long as packets reach the
destination
Packets can be delivered out-of-order
Receiver can put packets back in order (if
necessary)
Packets may be lost or arbitrarily delayed
Sender can send the packets again (if desired)
252. IP Packet Structure
4-bit
Version
4-bit
Header
Length
8-bit
Type of Service
(TOS)
16-bit Total Length (Bytes)
16-bit Identification
3-bit
Flags 13-bit Fragment Offset
8-bit Time to
Live (TTL)
8-bit Protocol 16-bit Header Checksum
32-bit Source IP Address
32-bit Destination IP Address
Options (if any)
Payload
253. 253
IP Header: Version, Length, ToS
Version number (4 bits)
Indicates the version of the IP protocol
Necessary to know what other fields to expect
Typically “4” (for IPv4), and sometimes “6” (for IPv6)
Header length (4 bits)
Number of 32-bit words in the header
Type-of-Service (8 bits)
Allow packets to be treated differently based on needs
E.g., low delay for audio, high bandwidth for bulk transfer
254. 254
IP Header: Length, Fragments, TTL
Total length (16 bits)
Number of bytes in the packet
Maximum size is 63,535 bytes (216 -1)
Fragmentation information (32 bits)
Packet identifier, flags, and fragment offset
Supports dividing a large IP packet into fragments
… in case a link cannot handle a large IP packet
Time-To-Live (8 bits)
Used to identify packets stuck in forwarding loops
… and eventually discard them from the network
255. 255
IP Header: More on Time-to-Live (TTL)
Potential problem
Forwarding loops can cause packets to cycle
forever
Confusing if the packet arrives much later
Time-to-live field in packet header
TTL field decremented by each router on the path
Packet is discarded when TTL field reaches 0…
…and “time exceeded” message is sent to the
source
256. 256
IP Header: Use of TTL in Traceroute
Time-To-Live field in IP packet header
Source sends a packet with a TTL of n
Each router along the path decrements the TTL
“TTL exceeded” sent when TTL reaches 0
Trace route tool exploits this TTL behavior
source
destination
TTL=1
Time
exceeded
TTL=2
Send packets with TTL=1, 2, … and record source of “time exceeded” message
257. 257
IP Header Fields: Transport Protocol
Protocol (8 bits)
Identifies the higher-level protocol
E.g., “6” for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
E.g., “17” for the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
IP header IP header
TCP header UDP header
protocol=6
protocol=17
258. 258
IP Header: Checksum on the Header
Checksum (16 bits)
Sum of all 16-bit words in the IP packet header
If any bits of the header are corrupted in transit
… the checksum won’t match at receiving host
Receiving host discards corrupted packets
Sending host will retransmit the packet, if needed
134
+ 212
= 346
134
+ 216
= 350
Mismatch!
259. 259
IP Header: To and From Addresses
Two IP addresses
Source IP address (32 bits)
Destination IP address (32 bits)
Destination address
Unique identifier for the receiving host
Allows each node to make forwarding decisions
Source address
Unique identifier for the sending host
Destination can decide whether to accept packet
Enables Destination to send a reply back to
source