The document discusses key concepts in quantum mechanics. It explains that quantum mechanics views matter as having both particle-like and wave-like properties. It also describes the uncertainty principle, which states that the more precisely one property of a particle is known, the less precisely its complementary property can be known. Additionally, it summarizes how problems like blackbody radiation were resolved by early quantum theories like Planck's quantum hypothesis.
This is a schrodinger equation and also Heiseinberg's uncertainty principle.
It is necessary to know this equation for the quantum mechanic. The wave equation, uncertainty principle of Heisenberg, time dependent and independent of schrodinguer...
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
CYBER LAWS IN INDIA
CYBER CRIMES
OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE
CYBER LAWS AMENDMENTS
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
What is Cyber Law?
Cyber Law is the lawgoverning cyber space.Cyber space is a very wideterm and includescomputers, networks,software, data storagedevices (such as hard disks,USB disks etc), theInternet, websites, emailsand even electronic devicessuch as cell phones, ATMmachines etc.
Cyber lawencompasses lawsrelating to
:
1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and DigitalSignatures
3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection andPrivacy
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
TACKLING CYBERCRIMES
INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS ANDCOPYRIGHTSPROTECTION ACT
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
1. Cyberspace is an
intangible
dimension that is impossible togovern and regulate usingconventional law.
2. Cyberspace has complete
disrespect for jurisdictionalboundaries
. A person in Indiacould break into a bank’selectronic vault hosted on acomputer in USA and transfermillions of Rupees to anotherbank in Switzerland, all withinminutes. All he would need is alaptop computer and a cellphone.
3. Cyberspace
handlesgigantic traffic volumesevery second
. Billions ofemails are crisscrossing theglobe even as we read this,millions of websites are beingaccessed every minute andbillions of dollars areelectronically transferredaround the world by banksevery day.
4. Cyberspace is
absolutelyopen to participation by all.
A ten year-old in Bhutan canhave a live chat session with aneight year-old in Bali withoutany regard for the distance orthe anonymity between them
ABOUT AUTHOR
Sumit Verma
Chitkara University
Undergraduate
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1
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This is a schrodinger equation and also Heiseinberg's uncertainty principle.
It is necessary to know this equation for the quantum mechanic. The wave equation, uncertainty principle of Heisenberg, time dependent and independent of schrodinguer...
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
CYBER LAWS IN INDIA
CYBER CRIMES
OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE
CYBER LAWS AMENDMENTS
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
What is Cyber Law?
Cyber Law is the lawgoverning cyber space.Cyber space is a very wideterm and includescomputers, networks,software, data storagedevices (such as hard disks,USB disks etc), theInternet, websites, emailsand even electronic devicessuch as cell phones, ATMmachines etc.
Cyber lawencompasses lawsrelating to
:
1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and DigitalSignatures
3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection andPrivacy
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
TACKLING CYBERCRIMES
INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS ANDCOPYRIGHTSPROTECTION ACT
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
1. Cyberspace is an
intangible
dimension that is impossible togovern and regulate usingconventional law.
2. Cyberspace has complete
disrespect for jurisdictionalboundaries
. A person in Indiacould break into a bank’selectronic vault hosted on acomputer in USA and transfermillions of Rupees to anotherbank in Switzerland, all withinminutes. All he would need is alaptop computer and a cellphone.
3. Cyberspace
handlesgigantic traffic volumesevery second
. Billions ofemails are crisscrossing theglobe even as we read this,millions of websites are beingaccessed every minute andbillions of dollars areelectronically transferredaround the world by banksevery day.
4. Cyberspace is
absolutelyopen to participation by all.
A ten year-old in Bhutan canhave a live chat session with aneight year-old in Bali withoutany regard for the distance orthe anonymity between them
ABOUT AUTHOR
Sumit Verma
Chitkara University
Undergraduate
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1
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Thohedul Islam Talukdar
Down
This was created using a template from Canva. This was also created by students when they were asked to report for a specific topic namely "Atomic and Nuclear Physics." This can serve as a reviewer for students who want to study about this topic.
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
This was created using a template from Canva. This was also created by students when they were asked to report for a specific topic namely "Atomic and Nuclear Physics." This can serve as a reviewer for students who want to study about this topic.
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
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By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
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Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
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Institution:
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2. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 2
The Quantum Mechanics View
• All matter (particles) has wave-like properties
– so-called particle-wave duality
• Particle-waves are described in a probabilistic manner
– electron doesn’t whiz around the nucleus, it has a probability
distribution describing where it might be found
– allows for seemingly impossible “quantum tunneling”
• Some properties come in dual packages: can’t know both
simultaneously to arbitrary precision
– called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
– not simply a matter of measurement precision
– position/momentum and energy/time are example pairs
• The act of “measurement” fundamentally alters the system
– called entanglement: information exchange alters a particle’s state
3. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 3
Crises in physics that demanded Q.M.
• Why don’t atoms disintegrate in nanoseconds?
– if electron is “orbiting”, it’s accelerating (wiggling)
– wiggling charges emit electromagnetic radiation (energy)
– loss of energy would cause prompt decay of orbit
• Why don’t hot objects emit more ultraviolet
light than they do?
– classical theory suggested a “UV
catastrophe,” leading to obviously
nonsensical infinite energy radiating from
hot body
– Max Planck solved this problem by
postulating light quanta (now often called the
father of quantum mechanics)
4. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 4
Pre-quantum problems, cont.
• Why was red light incapable of knocking electrons out of certain
materials, no matter how bright
– yet blue light could readily do so even at modest intensities
– called the photoelectric effect
– Einstein explained in terms of photons, and won Nobel Prize
5. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 5
Problems, cont.
• What caused spectra of atoms to
contain discrete “lines”
– it was apparent that only a small set of
optical frequencies (wavelengths)
could be emitted or absorbed by atoms
• Each atom has a distinct “fingerprint”
• Light only comes off at very specific
wavelengths
– or frequencies
– or energies
• Note that hydrogen (bottom), with
only one electron and one proton,
emits several wavelengths
6. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 6
The victory of the weird theory
• Without Quantum Mechanics, we could never have
designed and built:
– semiconductor devices
• computers, cell phones, etc.
– lasers
• CD/DVD players, bar-code scanners, surgical applications
– MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) technology
– nuclear reactors
– atomic clocks (e.g., GPS navigation)
• Physicists didn’t embrace quantum mechanics because it
was gnarly, novel, or weird
– it’s simply that the #$!&@ thing worked so well
7. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 7
Let’s start with photon energy
• Light is quantized into packets called photons
• Photons have associated:
– frequency, (nu)
– wavelength, ( = c)
– speed, c (always)
– energy: E = h
• higher frequency photons higher energy more damaging
– momentum: p = h/c
• The constant, h, is Planck’s constant
– has tiny value of: h = 6.6310-34 J·s
8. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 8
How come I’ve never seen a photon?
• Sunny day (outdoors):
– 1015 photons per second enter eye (2 mm pupil)
• Moonlit night (outdoors):
– 51010 photons/sec (6 mm pupil)
• Moonless night (clear, starry sky)
– 108 photons/sec (6 mm pupil)
• Light from dimmest naked eye star (mag 6.5):
– 1000 photons/sec entering eye
– integration time of eye is about 1/8 sec 100 photon
threshold signal level
9. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 9
Quantum Wavelength
• Every particle or system of particles can be defined in
quantum mechanical terms
– and therefore have wave-like properties
• The quantum wavelength of an object is:
= h/p (p is momentum)
– called the de Broglie wavelength
• typical macroscopic objects
– masses ~ kg; velocities ~ m/s p 1 kg·m/s
– 10-34 meters (too small to matter in macro environment!!)
• typical “quantum” objects:
– electron (10-30 kg) at thermal velocity (105 m/s) 10-8 m
– so is 100 times larger than an atom: very relevant to an electron!
10. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 10
The Uncertainty Principle
• The process of measurement involves interaction
– this interaction necessarily “touches” the subject
– by “touch,” we could mean by a photon of light
• The more precisely we want to know where something is,
the “harder” we have to measure it
– so we end up giving it a kick
• So we must unavoidably alter the velocity of the particle
under study
– thus changing its momentum
• If x is the position uncertainty, and p is the momentum
uncertainty, then inevitably,
xp h/2
11. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 11
Example: Diffraction
• Light emerging from a tiny hole or slit will diverge (diffract)
• We know its position very well (in at least one dimension)
– so we give up knowledge of momentum in that dimension—thus the
spread
large opening: greater
position uncertainty
results in smaller
momentum uncertainty,
which translates to less
of a spread angle
small opening: less
position uncertainty
results in larger
momentum uncertainty,
which translates to more
of a spread angle
angle p/p h/px h/hx = /x
12. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 12
Diffraction in Our Everyday World
• Squint and things get fuzzy
– opposite behavior from particle-based pinhole camera
• Eye floaters
– look at bright, uniform source through tiniest pinhole
you can make—you’ll see slowly moving specks with
rings around them—diffraction rings
• Shadow between thumb and forefinger
– appears to connect before actual touch
• Streaked street-lights through windshield
– point toward center of wiper arc: diffraction grating
formed by micro-grooves in windshield from wipers
– same as color/streaks off CD
14. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 14
Results
• The pattern on the screen is an interference pattern
characteristic of waves
• So light is a wave, not particulate
• But repeat the experiment one photon at a time
• Over time, the photons only land on the
interference peaks, not in the troughs
– consider the fact that they also pile up in the middle!
– pure ballistic particles would land in one of two spots
15. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 15
Wave or Particle? Neither; Both; take your pick
• Non-intuitive combination of wavelike and particle-like
• Appears to behave in wavelike manner. But with low
intensity, see the interference pattern build up out of
individual photons, arriving one at a time.
• How does the photon know about “the other” slit?
– Actually, it’s impossible to simultaneously observe
interference and know which slit the photon came through
– Photon “sees”, or “feels-out” both paths simultaneously!
• Speak of wave-part describing probability distribution
of where individual photons may land
16. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 16
The hydrogen atom
• When the mathematical machinery of quantum mechanics
is turned to the hydrogen atom, the solutions yield energy
levels in exact agreement with the optical spectrum
– Emergent picture is one of probability distributions describing
where electrons can be
• Probability distributions are static
– electron is not thought to whiz around atom: it’s in a “stationary
state” of probability
• Separate functions describe the radial and angular pattern
– http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hydwf.html
The energy levels of
hydrogen match the
observed spectra, and
fall out of the mathematics
of quantum mechanics
17. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 17
The angular part of the story
s
p
d
f
These plots describe the directions
in which one is likely to find an
electron. They are denoted with
quantum numbers l and m, with
l as the subscript and m as the
superscript.
The s state (l =0,m=0) is spherically
symmetric: equal probability of
finding in all directions.
The p state can be most likely to
find at the poles (and not at all
at the equator) in the case of (1,0),
and exactly the opposite situation
in the (1,1) state.
18. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 18
electron always
repelled
electron usually
repelled, but will
occasionally pop
out on the other
side of the barrier,
even though it
does not have
enough energy to
do so classically
If the wall is
much thicker
than the quantum
wavelength,
tunneling
becomes
improbable
Why do we not
see tunneling in
our daily lives?
19. UCSD Physics 10
Spring 2008 19
Assignments
• References:
– Brian Greene’s The Elegant Universe has an excellent
description/analogy of the quantum solution to the
ultraviolet catastrophe (among other quantum things)
– Chapter 31 isn’t half bad: read it for fun, even!
• Assignments:
– Read Hewitt chapters 30 & 31 (Quantum & Light)
– Read Hewitt pp. 566–572 on diffraction & interference
– HW 7 due 5/30: 26.E.3, 26.E.4, 26.E.10, 26.E.14,
26.E.38, 26.P.4, 31.E.4, 31.E.9, plus 4 additional
questions available from website