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Chapter 6
(I)mplementation: Execution
Fancy Collection/SuperStock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Carry out beta and pilot testing of training.
Describe the desired skill set of a trainer.
Manage the barriers to implementing training.
Evaluate the cost bene�it of outsourcing training.
There are two types of speakers: those who
get nervous and those who are liars.
—Mark Twain
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Introduction
Whereas the development phase focused on the
creation and preparation of the training
materials, instructional methods, and media, the
implementation
phase centers on rolling out and beginning the
training itself. Especially when the training
is organization wide, training programs may be
rolled out �irston a
provisional basisthrough beta and/or pilot testing
before full-scale implementation (ASTD, 2012;
Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Vijayasamundeeswari,
2013).
During the implementation phase, we ensure
that our trainers—both classroom and on-the-job
trainers—have the requisite skill sets to deliver
the training
competently, including managing potential trainee
resistance to the new learning. It is during
the implementation phase, too, that we
evaluate whether the
training should be implemented via internal
personnel or through an outside vendor.
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6.1 Beta and Pilot Testing of Training
During the development phase, we performeda
technical review of the training material and

the edited content; in the implementation
phase, after we have
made decisions about whether the trainers come
from an in-house team or from an outside
provider, we can now begin rolling out the
training. This oftenstarts
with a beta test and a pilot test (Shaw, 2011;
Wan, 2013; Welty, 2013). Pilot tests and
beta tests con�irm the usability of the training;
they also determine how
effective the training materials are and how well
activities are designed. Pilot and beta tests also
examine the trainees' reactions to the training,
including the
extent to which trainees have learned from their
participation in the program (Preskill & Russ-
Eft, 2005; Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2009). Table
6.1 reviews the
differences between beta and pilot tests.
Speci�ically, with a pilot test, we "prerelease" the
training to selected trainees and subject matter
experts for testing under normal, everyday
conditions so we can
pinpoint any remaining �laws and get feedback on
particular training modules, as well as the training
as a whole. Beta testing is testing where
the training takes
place in the real-time trainee environment (Chan,
2009; Morrison, Ross, & Kalman, 2012;
Piskurich, 2010). In the beta testing, all
intended usersparticipate
(Morrison et al., 2012).
Beta and pilot testing are part of what is known as
a formative evaluation. A formative evaluation

is a method for judging the worth of a
program while the
program activities are forming (in progress); in sum,
we are evaluating the training processes
(Morrison et al., 2012). In Chapter 7, we
will discuss the othertype
of evaluation, summative evaluation, which
evaluates outcomes of the training itself.
Table 6.1: Differences between beta and pilot tests
Test Audience and participants When How
Pilot Some subjects closeto trainee level Before
beta 1. Prepare trainees.
2. Observe and ask questions.
3. Debrief extensively.
Beta The real audience in the real environment After
pilot 1. Conduct exactly as the training will be
used.
2. Observe, if possible, but do not
interrupt.
3. Debrief with planned questions and
goals.
Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid
training development: Developing training courses
fast and right. New York: Wiley.
Outcomes of Testing
Testing of the training enables you to �ine-tune
the training design itselfas well as the

usability of the program. By testing the training
prior to implementation,
trainers can better ensure that the end users'
needs are being met and that the objectives of
the training program are being ful�illed per
the organizational goals.
Speci�ically, testing accomplishes the following:
It enables you to gauge your target population's
reaction to the training program by selecting a
pilot group that is demographically similar to
your
program's speci�ic target population.
It helps you make better decisions about
how to allocate time and resources. Speci�ically,
pilot testing the training program can help
determine if you
need to spend more time or resources on particular
aspects of the program. For example, you might
learnthat the training program shows a need
for
changes to your recruitment strategy based on
the entry-level behaviors; that is, the
necessary requirements of the job (Rothwell &
Kazanas, 2011; Shaw,
2011; Stolovitch& Keeps, 2011; U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 2013).
It can reveal unanticipated issues that might
arise, such as matters of setting, logistics,
and particular lessons or activities for which
more staff training or
attention may be necessary, and it can ensure
that staff members are well prepared to handle
issues that come up during the full-scale
implementation.

HRD in Practice: Evanston Northwestern Healthcare
Jane Dowd is the chieflearning of�icer at
Evanston Northwestern Healthcare (ENH) in
Evanston, Illinois. ENH is an integrated,
academic
healthcaresystem composed of 3 hospitals, 851 beds,
and 65 group practices housed in more than 50
different locations. Dowd and her staff
ramped up, simultaneously hiring staff, performing
needs analyses, determining facilities, and
creating training. Dowd describes using the
�ive-
phase ADDIE model and speci�ically addresses
the testing during phase 4, implementation:
Finally, it was time to move ... the �irstfew
weeks feel like a test. Before going live
with training, we performeda test run. You can
beta test with a few real trainees, someexperts, and
otherinstructional designers. We performedpilot testing
(a dressrehearsal)
with real trainees as the audience, and a reviewer
test, where participants look at the courses
through the eyes of the end-user. Use
feedback to tweak classes. Doing this, you'll
save time,money, and energy down the road.
So, before training of�iciallybegan, trainers ran
pilots, gathering immediate feedback. Classes
were tweaked accordingly, and
tracking was critical. We became a massive
reporting house. Because of the vast number of
scheduling options, courses, people,

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and rolling go-live dates, registration, and
tracking software proved critical. ENH used more
than 200 training coordinators to
register staff and trackscores.
We got the job done. With full support from
hospital administration, my team and I implemented
an award-winning software
education and communications training initiative. It
included eightmodules, 51 courses, 12,382 training
encounters, and 7,886
learners, including 1,287 physicians. The initiative
played a key role in ENH's successful
implementation of the ambitious
ElectronicHealth Records (EHR) system.
Source: From Duggan, Christina Mayer. "Designing
Effective Training."Journal of AHIMA 76, no. 6
(June 2005): 28-32. Reprinted with permission
from the American Health
Information Management Association. © 2014 by
the American Health Information Management
Association. All rights reserved. No part of
this may be reproduced,
reprinted, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, photocopying, recording,or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of
the association.

Consider This
1. In which areaswould budgetary constraints
have impacted the implementation of the
software education and training initiative?
2. How does Dowd differentiate between a beta
test and pilot test?
3. What message is the organization sending to
stakeholders regarding its commitment to the
training and development function by having a
chieflearning of�icer position?
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6.2 Trainer KSAs
An important truism in human resource development
(HRD) is that—irrespective of well-designed
and developed training—if training delivery is
inferior, the
desired outcomes from the training will not be
realized. This consideration becomes especially
important in a train-the-trainer scenario, in
which you train
someone to deliver the training in the most
effective way. Simply put, although a good trainer
does not guarantee that the trainees will learn, a
poor trainer
almost always guarantees they will not!
The Anatomy of the Excellent Trainer

Remember, the ultimate goal following the training is
for trainees to apply the training to the
workplace, and the �irststep toward successfully
transferring the
training to the workplacebegins with the trainer.
Here are somepointers to becoming an excellent
trainer:
1. Gain a familiarity with adultlearner
expectations. Previously, we discussed the
assumptions an expert trainer should
consider for guiding his or her adult
learners through the SVVE (success, volition, value,
and enjoyment) (Wlodkowski, 2008) framework.
Although lacking one of more of theseareasdoes
not
always spell presentation disaster, this framework
underscores the principles of how adults learn.
The following assumptions maximize trainee
motivation
to learn:
Success. Adults want to be successfullearners; few
employees come to work every day
wanting to do a bad job. The assumption
should be that
employees want to do a good job, and your role is
to ensure that they have the requisite KSAs to
succeed at performing their job duties.
Volition. Adults want to have choice in their
learning. Although every job has necessary duties,
motivational bene�its occur if the employee
participates in the decision-making process
concerning the order, pace, and modality of
the required training.

Employees want to learnsomethingof value.
Speci�ically, adultlearners need to know the
reasons for learning somethingbefore undertaking
to learn
it (Knowles,1973).
Enjoyment. Finally, though it is called work,
adults want to have somelevel of enjoyment
while performing their jobs.
2. Develop a motivating presentation framework
(Knowles,Holton, & Swanson, 2012;
Wlodkowski, 2008). We know, too, that to
optimize the relationship
between the trainer and trainee, a trainer must
possess the skill set of EEEC (expert,
enthusiastic, empathetic, and clear); that is,
trainees relate better to the
trainer when he or she is:
Expert. According to Wlodkowski (2008),
expertise involves threeessential elements: trainers
know somethingbene�icial, they know it
well, and
they can convey it through an instructional
process.
Enthusiastic. The trainer values the subject matter
and demonstrates a commitment to the topic
with appropriate degrees of emotion, animation,
and
energy.
Empathic. The trainer puts him- or herself in the
trainee's shoes; this is different from sympathy,
which is more of a third-party detachment.
Empathic training respects the learner's perspectives
and experiences.
Clear. Verbalizing concepts in an organized and

cogent way, supported by clear training materials.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of communication
patterns (Bates & Davis, 2010; Chase,
1997; Goldsmith, 2000; Hodell, 2011;
Wlodkowski, 2008). One of the
more practical aspects of training is maintaining
trainee engagement and, speci�ically, managing
trainees' attention spans vis-à-vis the trainee's
speech–
thought differential (Jaffe, 2009). The speech–
thought differential is the premise that we thinkat
a faster rate than we speak. Speci�ically,
we speak at a
rate of 100 to 180 words per minute, and we
thinkat a rate of 500 to 600 words per
minute; as a result, the trainer must monitor
trainee attention spans
and know how to bring trainees back into focus,
if necessary. Lundsteen's (1979) classic
work on speech–thought differential noted
four levels of potential
distraction that trainers should know about
their trainees:
Small departures. Trainees produce their own
examples, relate material to their own personal
experiences, answer rhetorical questions, and use
time for mental interaction with the trainer's ideas.
Going off on a tangent. Trainees depart from
the trainer's line of thinking; trainees seizeon
one of trainer's ideas, taking it in their
own direction.
Going off on a tangent includes daydreaming.
Private argument. Trainees begin to challenge and
argue internally before they hear the trainer

out. Trainees stop trying to understand the
trainer
and carryon a running argument with themselves.
Large departures. Trainees' pattern of attention
wanders off into unrelated areas; their attention is
brought back into focus on training for a
while,
but they go off again into thinking about
unrelated topics. For example:
A trainee thinks: "I wonder where we are
going to eat tonight..." (Trainee listens a bit
about the new training software.) Then trainee
thinks: "I can tell
you—no more Mexican food!"
Another aspect of communication that trainers must
manage concerns the potential distortion of how
trainees' receive and process the new information,
including leveling, sharpening, and assimilation
(Kimmel, 2013):
Leveling. Trainees' tendency to reduce the message
with fewer and fewer details. An example of
this would be the telephone game that
youngsters play.
In this game a message is passed on in a
whisper by each of several people so that
the �inal version of the message is often
radically changed from the
original.
Sharpening. Trainee selectively retains information,
especially only dominant points (such as
hyperbole). For example:
Trainer: "If we can implement this new procedure
ef�iciently, that means more money to our

bottom line, which means more money for
raises next year."
Trainee, upon leaving training: "Since this new
procedure is saving the company money, we
are going to get raises next year."
Assimilation. Trainees take the message into their own
frame of reference or personality. This idea
follows adultlearning principles in that learners
process messages based on their prior experiences
with the subject matter. For example, if the
trainer speaks about quality, the construct of
quality
means different things to different people.
Consider telling a teenager to clean his
room; he might look around and say, "What
do you mean? It is clean!"
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Mosttraining utilizes explicit communication; that is,
articulating somethingthat can be articulated.
"And, Marilyn, this is where you punch the
time clock" is an example of explicit
communication.
1. What is an example of telling the trainee
too much during training? Explain how there
may be limits on how much should be

articulated to a trainee.
2. During training, theremay be different trainers
paired with different trainees on the
same topic. Explain the pros and cons of trainers
agreeing up front which information
they will make explicit, tacit,or implict to
trainees.
Much of tacit communication is unspoken, drawing
upon the trainer's experience and intuition. As
such, much of this part of the training
experience cannot be put into words.
Consider, too, that even the trainer's vocal variation
and in�lections (Jaffe, 2009) may have an
unintended effect on the trainees. Consider
theseideasof vocal
variations and associations also mentioned in the
following video links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hdBNUDIOIP8) and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTm4r_SbJq0
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTm4r_SbJq0) (also
see Chapter 5).
Loudand fast = self-suf�icient
Loudand slow = aggressive
Soft and fast = enthusiastic
Soft and slow = benevolent
So, for example, consider a trainer who speaks
loudly and slowly. She may thinkshe is being
clear, but trainees may instead consider her
aggressive.

Did You Know? For Some, Public Speaking Is
Second Only to Death in Fear Factor!
Trainers must be comfortable speaking in public.
Unfortunately, somenovice trainers fear public
speaking more than they fear death (Grigsby,
2010).
Training becomes easier with practice, but while
you are practicing, here are a few tips for
presenting and settling down those nerves:
Drink water! Staying hydrated helps avoid
"cotton mouth," a real sign of anxiety; the
person experiencing it is suffering.
Exercise that morning. It has been shown that
exercise can alleviate anxiety by releasing
endorphins that can make you feel better.
Think of somethingfunny or pleasant. They used to
say "picture your audience in their underwear."
While that tactic still may be effective,
you can also try methods such as looking at a
humorous photo or reminding yourself of a
joke.
And, perhaps the best tip of all, be prepared. You
cannot overprepare for a presentation. Know
your material back and forth; anticipate
audience questions, and have a backup plan if
technology or equipment fails.
Communication Patterns Particular to On-the-Job
Trainers
When selecting site trainers to lead OJT, not only
should they be experienced and knowledgeable

and follow all the rules of successfultraining,
they also should
have particular communication skills that go with the
dynamics of shadowing someone in the
workplace(Clifford, 2007).
Communication Patterns in Training, Part I
Critical Thinking Questions
Speci�ically, and as discussed in Chapter 2, we
depend on the site trainer to make the
implicit (that which could be articulated,
but has not been yet) explicit, as
appropriate. As previously discussed,here are the
reasons for implicit knowledge remaining in
the implicit realm:
Productive reason. "Sure, I could tell David
everything, but I believe he will learnbetter
if he tries out somethings himself and learns
by trial and error;
he'll understand things better that way."
Neutral reason (includingtrainer laziness). "Ah, sorry.
I had forgotten to tell you that."
Counterproductive reason. "If I tell Eliot too much,
he'll know as much as I do and then
the higher ups won't value me as much!"
Communication Patterns in Training, Part II
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTm4r_SbJq0

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1. Explain the importance of telling a trainee
that he or she is not expected to readily do
well in a certain task because it takesmore
experience.
2. What components of your job are tacit?
A trainer's rationale for decisions concerning implicit
communication can be complex. Appropriate
decisions regarding when, what and why to tell the
trainee somethingcan determine whether the
training communication is productive or
counterproductive.
1. Explain how trainer laziness is a form of
implicit communication.
2. Give an example of somethinga trainer could
tell a trainee but chooses not to in order
to enhance the training experience.
Foodfor Thought: Six Top Qualities of a Great
Trainer
Kelly Prince, who is the senior instructional
designer at Management Concepts, was interviewed
on the top qualities that trainers should
possess. She says a greattrainer has all of the
following qualities:
1. A command of the material

2. Preparation and practice
3. Rhythm and energy
4. Readiness to allow and encourage participants to
learnfrom themselves and the class to create as
many organic learning moments as
possible
5. Love for what they do
6. An excellent organization supporting them
At the top of her list, Prince advises that
effective trainers have not only a command of
the material—that is, know the material back
and forth—
but also know where to get answers if they do
not know something. And although Prince
emphasizes preparation and practice, trainers
must
come off as prepared yet not scripted. Trainees
notice if trainers are just going through
the motions; fake engagement is soon found
out. She says
that trainers should focus on being engaging
rather than entertaining. Prince underscores
that trainers should have a love for what they
do; if the
trainer is jaded and bored, this demeanor
necessarily re�lects poorly on the quality of
the training itself.
Lastly, effective trainers have excellent organizations
supporting them. Without organizational
support, training programs suffer; trainers are
not given enough time to prep,train-the-trainer
procedures are lacking, and materials get
delivered late or are of poor quality. A lack of

organizational support inevitably leadsto burnout, even
for the most well-intended trainer.
Source: Malik, J. (2011). 6 top qualities of a
greattrainer. Retrieved from GovLoop website:
http://www.govloop.com/pro�iles/blogs/title-6-top-
qualities-of-a
(http://www.govloop.com/pro�iles/blogs/title-6-top-qualities-
of-a)
Consider This
1. What additional qualities might be needed if
the trainer were an external consultantversus an
internal trainer?
2. If one quality of greattrainers is a love
for what they do, what limitations might therebe
in the train-the-trainer model?
3. What does Prince mean when she says
engagement is more important than entertainment?
Communication Patterns in Training, Part III
HRD in Practice: When a Subject Matter Expert
Does Not Equal a Presentation Expert
"What a colossal waste of time that was!"
Rashanda muttered to herself as she left the
training room. "That's 90 minutes I'll never
get
back!"
"Hey, Rashanda.What's up? What's wrong?"
"Hi, Carrie. Nothing. I just got out of the so-

called training on the new system."
"Bad?"
http://www.govloop.com/profiles/blogs/title-6-top-qualities-of-a
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"Awful! And, it wasn't because of the content; I
actually was looking forward to learning the
new system. Supposedly, the guy they got
to train us was an expert on this system. But he
was terrible! First off, we couldn't hear a word he
was saying because of the buzz from
the computer fan, and when we could hear him, all
he would do is stammer; every otherword
was like, 'Ah—Uh—OK—Uh.' And then
he would turn his back to us and read word-by-
word each of his PowerPoint® slides. To top things
off, he ignored questions when
people had their hands up. If therewas a poster
childfor how not to give presentations, this guy
was it! I wish therewould have been
sometype of evaluation at the end because I
would have written a thingor two, believe
me! The bottom line is I still don't know
the
system—I didn't learnanything!"
Consider This

Given Rashanda's description of the trainer,
what rules for presentation do you thinkthe trainer
violated?
What should an organization do if the subject
matter expert is not an expert in
presentations skills?
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6.3 Barriers to Implementing Training
For a training program to be effective, employees
must �irstperceive it as being useful
(Agbettor, 2013; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011;
Sambrook & Stewart, 2007).
However, achieving this goal is sometimes easier
said than done, due to threelevels of
potential resistance trainees may exhibit toward
new training (Connor,
Lake, & Stackman,2003; Welty, 2007, 2013):
Barriers to understanding the need for training.
Trainees may feel the new training is pointless
because they see no need for it. "This is
ridiculous; we
don't need con�lict handling training here. What we
need is a raise!"
Barriers to acceptance of training. Trainees may
feel thereis a need for the training, but they do
not accept that they themselves are in need of
training." Why are they grouping me with the supervisors

who don't know how to do a performance
appraisal? I'm one of the supervisors who does
know how
to do it!"
Barriers to acting out the training. Trainees may
see the need for the training and accept they
will be in training, but they are not committed
or
dedicated to the outcomes of the training. "This is
going to be a monster to implement;
I'm just going to do it the way I always
have."
Remember, as discussed in Chapter 2, in the
absence of able and willing trainees, barriers
ultimately come down to a distressed status
of the trainee's ability
and/or willingness:
Able and willing
Not able, but willing
Able, but not willing
Not able and not willing
Chapter 8 will further discuss how to overcome
such barriers using Lewin's force-�ield
analysis.
.
Foodfor Thought: Ways to Address Training
Barriers
The Nonpro�it Risk Management Center
(http://www.nonpro�itrisk.org
(http://www.nonpro�itrisk.org) ) provides tips to
overcome training

barriers, speci�ically in workplacesafety. These
are common barriers:
Lack of engagement and support from top management
Lack of trainee understanding and appreciation of
the training
Lack of appropriate time investment for design
and implementation
Lack of clear and consistent communication about
performance expectations
A decentralized organizational structure
Source: Nonpro�it Risk Management Center. (2008).
Recognizing somebarriers to implementing
workplace-safety programs. Retrieved from:
https://nonpro�itrisk.org/tools/workplace-
safety/nonpro�it/c2/barriers.htm
(https://nonpro�itrisk.org/tools/workplace-
safety/nonpro�it/c2/barriers.htm)
Consider This
1. What would be an example of an
organization's reward structure for employees
who engage in safety practices?
2. Regardingworkplacesafety training, describe what
you would do to convey to employees a
need for this training.
3. What challenges does a highly
decentralized organization (one with many sites or
locations) pose for conveyingthe need for or
appreciation
of the training?
E-learning Readiness: Potential Barriers

Because of the touted cost savings of e-learning
programs, it is tempting for organizations to
jump right in and implement e-learning in their
training program.
However, one aspect organizations must evaluate so it
is not a barrier is the culture for e-
learning (Aydin & Tasci, 2005; Borotis &
Poulymenakou, 2004); that is,
the organization's e-learning readiness.
The factors that make up e-learning readiness are
varied and numerous,ranging from evaluating
the practical (for example, the IT equipment
and �inancial
wherewithal) to the intangible (for example, the
interpersonal and sociological readiness of the
workforce). To assess an organization's e-
learning readiness,
Chapnick (2001) developed the e-learning readiness scaleas
a 5-point Likert scale(ranging from "strongly
disagree" to "strongly agree") on the following
factors:
Psychological readiness—the individual's state of mind as
it affects the outcome of the e-learning
initiative
Sociological readiness—the interpersonal aspects of
the environment in which the program will be
implemented
Environmental readiness—the large-scale forces
operating on the stakeholders, both inside and
outside the organization
Human resource readiness—the availability and design
of the human support system
Financial readiness—the budget size and allocation process
Technological skill (aptitude) readiness—observable and

measurable technical competencies
Equipment readiness—the question of the proper
equipment possession
Content readiness—the subject matter and goals of
the instruction
http://www.nonprofitrisk.org/
https://nonprofitrisk.org/tools/workplace-
safety/nonprofit/c2/barriers.htm
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The use of e-learning for training should not be
done casually or indifferently (Liu, Gibby, Quiros,
& Demps, 2002; Meier & Stormer, 2009;
Onguko, Jepchumba, &
Gaceri, 2013); in fact, the skills of trainers
who use e-learning are so important that recently,
the ATD developed a certi�ication speci�ically
for e-learning in
instructional design.
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6.4 Outsourcing Training

Untilnow, we have detailed the processes of ADDIE
and training internally, but an organization
might have various reasons for outsourcing, or
deciding to
purchase prepackaged training materials and bring in
outside trainers for delivery (Duggan, 2013;
Larson & Lockee, 2013; Neirotti &
Paolucci, 2013; Noe, 2012;
Welty, 2013). These reasons include:
the need to comply with complex regulations such as
those governing safety or environmental issues;
legal requirements such as those governing equal
opportunity, harassment, and discrimination;
a small staff and a lack of enough (or any)
quali�ied trainers;
largenumbers of employees who need refresher
training; and
the desire to keep employees up to date on
what is happeningin the industry.
Outsourcing: A Rising Trend
The Stateof the Industry report is ATD's
de�initive review of workplacelearning and
development trends (ASTD, 2012). The ATD
estimates that U.S.
organizations spent approximately $164.2 billion on
employee learning in 2012, of which 28%
($46 billion) was spent on external services
and outsourcing. This
total was up from 24% the previous year and only 12% in
2010.
Why an organization outsources someor all of its
training depends also on its goals. For

instance, if an organization's goal is to
maximize shareholder economic
value, what Beer and 156 Nohria (2000) call Theory
E, then the outsourcing typically would be
largeand knowledge driven; that is, therewould
be extensive
dependence and assistance from outside consultants,
who would most likely perform the training. If
the goal is to develop organizational capabilities,
so-called
Theory O, then the outsourcing would be small
and process driven; that is, we would look to
the outside consultants to give us the train-
the-trainer processes so
our trainers could perform the training (see Table
6.2).
Table 6.2: Outsourcing dimensions
Dimensions of change Theory E Theory O
Goals Maximize shareholder value Develop
organizational capabilities
Leadership Manage change from the top down Encourage
participation from the bottom up
Focus Emphasize structure and systems Build up
corporate culture: employees' behavior
and attitudes
Process Plan and establish programs Experiment and
evolve
Reward system Motivate through �inancial incentives
Motivate through commitment; use pay as fair

exchange
Use of outsourcing Consultants analyze problems and
shape solutions Consultants support management
in shaping their
own solutions
Source: Adapted from Beer, M., & Nohria, N.
(2000). Breaking the code of change. Boston,
MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Potential Disadvantages of Outsourcing
Although outsourcing has its advantages,
organizations should consider somepotential
disadvantages (Luftig & Ouellette, 2012), as
well. They include the
following:
Cost. Although cost savings is oftenone of the
reasons cited for outsourcing noncore functions,
outsourced training services can be expensive
(Agbettor,
2013; Allen, 2013; Laird, Naquin, & Holton,
2003). Training companies may charge
hundreds of dollars per employee for a 1-day
training course, and
executive training programs, especially, tend to be
more expensive.
Control. Companies lose control when outsourcing
support functions because the training services
provider chooses the format and content of its
training programs, which typically contain generic
examples and case studies. For example, a car
dealershipmay send its sales representatives to a
training course that may contain few examples on

how to convert car dealershipvisitors to
customers. Also, training companies usually
retain copyright
of all training materials, so hiring companies
may not be able to customize the manuals or
presentation slides for future internal training
needs. These
restrictions make companies dependent on third
parties for creating a skilled workforce (Basu,
n.d.).
Security issues. Both small and largecompanies
generate and store data that can be critical and
important. Although most outsourcing vendors
take
adequate precautions to safeguard sensitive data of
clients—such as employee performance records,
company tradesecrets, patents, and copyrights—it
is more dif�icult to secure data when that data is
in another organization's hands (Jochems, Koper,
& Van Merrienboer, 2013; Pelet, 2013).
For example, if
an outside �irm was training your employees on
a particular new KSA that would give your
organization a competitive advantage, a
leak could be
devastating (Seth & Sethi, 2011).
Lower quality work. Because the trainers are
"outsiders" to begin with,employee performance
may suffer, particularly if outsourcing vendors
are not
chosen well or if the host organization does not
manage the outsourcing vendor properly. Good
"�itness" of the vendor to the hiring
organization is
critical; therefore, contacting previous clients and
reviewing vendors' past results is critical

(Agbettor, 2013; Allen, 2013; Laird et
al., 2003).
The market for outsourced training, especially in e-
learning scenarios, will growto more than $50 billion
over the next few years (ASTD, 2012), and
each
organization must weigh the pros and cons of
outsourcing, with consideration given to factors
such as �inancial resources, technological capacity,
and the subject
1/8/2018 Print
matter of the training itself.
HRD in Practice: Cases for Outsourcing
Weyerhaeuser, an international paper and building
products manufacturer, outsources about half its
training programs—those focused on soft
skills (communications, time management, leadership
development, decision making, and problem
solving), sales training, and health safety
issues—toNovations Group, Inc. At the heartof the
outsourcing is Novations' standard catalog of
30 training courses to support Weyerhaeuser's
soft-skills learning programs; Novations adds new content as
it is needed.
Weyerhaeuser's motivation to outsource was an

annual outlay of about $30 million on
training; management had little idea where the
money
was going or what the return-on-training investment
was. Further, the company wanted to �ind better,
lower cost, less risky, and faster ways to
manage and implement training programs.
Weyerhaeuser's director of education, Horace
Parker, explains:
We used to maintain training contracts with 400
vendors, just in the soft-skills area. Now we have all
that covered through one
contract with Novations. We're rid of all the
hassles of dealing with multiple vendors, and
we have the economies of scalethat
come from working with a single vendor.
Weyerhaeuser's alliance with Novations realized a
reduction in total gross spending for training of
about 15%.The company was also able to
reduce its in-house training staff by nearly 60%.
Source: Why outsource training? (2003). HRO Today,
2(3). Retrieved from
http://www.hrotoday.com/content/575/why-outsource-
training
(http://www.hrotoday.com/content/575/why-outsource-training)
Consider This
1. Although a cost savings was realized, what could
be the unintended consequences of
Weyerhaeuser's reduction in its in-house training
staff?

http://www.hrotoday.com/content/575/why-outsource-training
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Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
An important step in implementation is testing
the training prior to full-scale implementation;
this includes beta and pilot testing. In pilot testing
we
"prerelease" the training to selected trainees and
SMEs for testing under normal, everyday
conditions to pinpoint any remaining �laws
and get feedback
on particular modules of the training, as well as
the training as a whole. Beta testing takes
place in the real-time trainee environment,
and all intended
usersparticipate.
In the implementation phase, we also ensure
that the trainer has the required KSAs, which
include being an expert in the training
material, being well
prepared, and having enthusiasm and good energy
that the trainees pick up on. The trainer also
has good communication skills and can manage
speech–
thought differential as well as the aspects of
leveling, sharpening, and assimilation.
It is important to manage the barriers of

implementation, as well. These include barriers
to understanding the need for training, barriers to
acceptance of
training, and barriers to acting out the training.
Finally, it is important to weigh the pros and
cons of outsourcing the training to outside
vendors. Outsourcing might be advantageous if
the company must
comply with complex regulations, such as those
governing safety or environmental issues; when
an organization does not have enough quali�ied
trainers;
and when an organization wants to keep
employees current on industry trends.
Disadvantages include lack of control and
security issues and, if training
is not managed properly, lower quality work from
trained employees.
Assess YourLearning: Critical Re�lection
1. What would be the special considerations, if
any, in piloting a self-directed training
program?
2. If you had to choose between one of the
following trainer pro�iles, which one would
you choose and why?
a. a subject matter expert who scored a
75% in presentation skills
b. an expert presenter who scored a 75% in
content knowledge
3. Give your own communication examples of leveling,
sharpening, and assimilation.
4. Explain the paradox in which employees
can see the need for training but are not

committed to being trained. How do you
overcome this barrier?
5. Are therecertain subjects or content that should
not be outsourced? If so, why?
Additional Resources
Web Resources
For speaking skills:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8)
2013 top 20 training outsourcing companies:
http://www.trainingindustry.com
(http://www.trainingindustry.com)
Case study on overcoming the top �ive barriers to
electronic health records implementation:
http://www.prognosishis.com/pdf/Overcoming%20Barriers%20
Whitepaper.pdf
(http://www.prognosishis.com/pdf/Overcoming%20Barriers%20
Whitepaper.pdf)
About outsourcing management training:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h64PnKpAKTY
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h64PnKpAKTY)
For more readings on Theory E and Theory O:
http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/2166.html
(http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/2166.html) and
http://stevblogs.wordpress.com/2009/05/22/theory-e-o
(http://stevblogs.wordpress.com/2009/05/22/theory-e-o)
Further Reading

American Society for Training & Development. (2012).
Stateof the industry report. Alexandria, VA:
ASTD.
Jochems, W., Koper, R., & Van Merrienboer, J.
(2013). Integrated e-learning: Implications for
pedagogy,technology and organization. London:
Taylor & Francis.
Kimmel, A. J. (2013). Rumors and rumor control:
A manager's guide to understanding and
combatting rumors. London: Taylor &
Francis.
Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training
development: Developing training courses fast
and right. New York: Wiley.
Shaw, J. (2011). The cave man guide to training
and development. Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords.
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the de�inition.
assimilation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sectio
ns/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.
1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8
http://www.trainingindustry.com/
http://www.prognosishis.com/pdf/Overcoming%20Barriers%20
Whitepaper.pdf
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h64PnKpAKTY
http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/2166.html

http://stevblogs.wordpress.com/2009/05/22/theory-e-o
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/
books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sect
ions/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.
14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AU
BUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/b
ooks/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/secti
ons/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.1
4.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUB
US375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/boo
ks/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections
/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/
sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS3
75.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/
AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/f
m/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm#
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A process by which trainees incorporate a
message into their own frame of reference or
personality. This idea follows adultlearning
principles in that learners
take in messages based on their prior experiences
with the subject matter.
barriers to acceptance of training

Barriers to training whereby trainees may feel thereis
a need for the training, but they do not accept
that they must be trained.
barriers to acting out the training
Barriers to training whereby trainees may see the
need for the training and accept that they will be
in training, but they are not committed or
dedicated to the
outcomes of the training.
barriers to understanding the need for training
Barriers to training whereby trainees may feel the
new training is pointless and see no need for it.
beta test
A type of test in which the training takesplace
in the real-time trainee environment and all
intended usersparticipate; part of a formative
evaluation.
control

An outsourcing consideration. Organizations may lose
control when outsourcing support functions
because the training services provider decides on
the format
and content of its training programs.
cost
An outsourcing consideration. Cost savings is often
one of the reasons cited for outsourcing
noncore functions, but outsourced training
services can be more
expensive.
EEEC
Expert, enthusiastic, empathic, and clear; a skill
set recommended for a trainer in order to
optimize the relationship between the trainer
and trainee.
e-learning readiness
An organization's culture for e-learning.

formative evaluation
A method for judging the worth of a
program while the program activities are
forming (in progress); an evaluation of the
processes of the training.
going off on a tangent
Engaging in a departure from the trainer's line of
thinking: The trainee seizes on one of
trainer's ideasand takesit in his or her own
direction; includes
daydreaming.
implementation
One of the phases of ADDIE; implementation
rolls out and commences the training itselfand is
usually done after the analysis, design, and
development phase.
largedepartures

A level of distraction in which a trainee's
attention wanders off into unrelated areas; the
trainee's attention is brought back into focus on
training for a while but
goes off again into thinking about unrelated topics.

1/8/2018 Print
leveling
The trainee's tendency to reduce the message with
fewer and fewer details.
outsourcing
Purchasing prepackaged training materials and
bringing in outside trainers for delivery.
pilot test
A pretest administered to pinpoint any remaining

�laws and get feedback on particular modules of
the training by prereleasing the training to
selected actual
trainees and SMEs for testing under normal,
everyday conditions; part of a formative
evaluation.
private argument
A distraction whereby the trainee begins to
challenge and argue internally before hearing
the trainer out. The trainee stopstrying to
understand the trainer and
carries on a running argument with him- or herself.
security issues
Another outsourcing consideration. Outsourcing vendors
must take adequate precautions to safeguard data of
clients who undertake outsourcing; it is more
dif�icult to secure data when that data is in
another organization's hands.
sharpening
The trainee's tendency to selectively retain
information, especially only dominant points (such

as hyperbole).
small departures
A level of distraction in which trainees
produce their own examples, relate material to
their own personal experiences, answer rhetorical
questions, and use time
for mental interaction with the trainer's ideas.
speech–thought differential
The premise that people thinkat a faster rate
than they speak.
summative evaluation
An evaluation of the �inal outcomes of the
training itself.
Theory E
The theory that if an organization's goal is to
maximize shareholder economic value, then the

outsourcing typically would be largeand
knowledge driven.
Theory O
The theory that if an organization's goal is to
develop organizational capabilities, then the
outsourcing should be small and process
driven.
vocal variation and in�lections
Various ways of speaking; in presentation of
training, thesemust be appropriate or they may
have an unintended effect on the trainees;
for example, vocal
variations such as loud and slow could be interpreted
as aggression.

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Chapter 5
(D)evelopment: Putting Theory Into

Practice
Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Create training materials (end products).
Identify appropriate instructional method and media.
Describe characteristics of an optimal training setting.
Summarize how to review and edit training
materials for accuracy.
In theory, theory and practice are the same. In
practice, they are not.
—Albert Einstein
1/8/2018 Print
Introduction
Although the design phase of the ADDIE model
is considered the blueprint for workplace
training, the development phase begins the
actual manufacturing of the
training content itself. Speci�ically, this step
involves the production of the end user training
materials, known as end products. From the
training materials and

methods to the instructional technologies, we can
thinkof development as the phase that
converts the theory of instructional design
into practice.
In the development phase all the prior work we
have done in the analysis and design phases
comes together. After creating the training
materials, we then put
them through a rigorous editorial process, not only to
verify their accuracy, but also to assess
whether any gaps or sections need improvement.
In sum, whereas the design phase was "howwe
are going to do it," the development phase
is about "doing it right" (Piskurich,
2010).
1/8/2018 Print
5.1 Creating Training Materials
As previously discussed,the focus in the
development phase is the procurement or
production of the training materials to be
used (Hodell, 2011). The data
collected in the analysis phase—and subsequently
used in the design phase—now inform our
choices regarding both the use and development of
the end
products of training. Speci�ically, training materials

may include end products such as:
communication packs;
lesson plans;
session plans, trainer guides, and learner guides
and resources;
trainer and on-the-job aids;
participant assessment instruments; and
program evaluation instruments.
With training material, we must consider both the
horizontal and vertical aspects; that is, "How
much?" and "How complex?" The answers to
thesequestions are
not only a function of the required level of trainer
engagement and participant interaction with
the material (Dick et al., 2009; Dobbs,
2006; Swanson, 2002),
they are also related to cost and practicality, as
well as based on the training content, number
of trainees, and delivery method. Swanson
(2002)—and
subsequently others (ASTD, 2012; Fee, 2011;
Wan, 2013)—speci�icallynoted �ive stages of
training material development in relation to
the horizontal and
vertical characteristics; speci�ically, the appropriateness
of particular training material:
Stage 0: No planned instructor materials; no planned
participant materials
Stage 1: Training presentation slides; paper
copies of the slides for the participants;
job aids
Stage 2: Training presentation slides; trainee
print materials in the form of a structured trainee

notebook (includingpaper copies of the slides
for the
participants)
Stage 3: Training presentation slides; trainee
print materials in the form of a structured trainee
notebook; workplaceobjects and artifacts from the
tasks
to be learned; dynamic or interactive support
materials such as e-learning products
Stage 4: Materials are designed to the level that
they can mediate the development of trainee
knowledge and expertise seeking without the
need of a
trainer.
No training materials or limited training materials
(stage 0) would be needed when
workplacelearning was informal or incidental,
for example. Other training
material would require much more depth and
breadth (stage 4), such as when a trainee
is required to do post-training self-directed
study in developing further
expertise in the training content. For example, if a
trainee is the departmental liaison for the
organization's safety program, the trainee may
leave the session
with a thickreference binder of safety regulations,
standards, and procedures such as lock out or
tag out. Even with on-the-job training, where
the trainee is on
the job site in real time,training materials must be
available to ensure an effective OJT system;
theseinclude task lists, job aids, schedule, and even
lesson plans
(Chase, 1997; Clark, 2013; Clark, 2010;

Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner &
DeSimone, 2011). Here is a typical OJT
training material list:
Task list. Following a job-task analysis, we should
now have a detailed list of all the tasksthe
trainee must be able to perform to do his or
her job. The list
should include:
– Conditions: What tools or equipment
and environment are needed to perform the
task?
– Performance measure: How well must it be
designed as far as depth and speci�icity?
– Frequency: How oftenis the task performed
(hourly, daily, weekly, and so on)?
– Dif�iculty: How dif�icult is the task, using
a standard scalesuch as from 1 to 5?
– Importance: What place of importance
is this task as compared to the othertasks?
– Steps: What are the logical stepsfor
performing the task?
Job aids. Used during training and/or on the job,
job aids are step-by-step instructions or
checklists that guide the trainee through the
correct way of
performing a task. They should also include
guidelinesfor employees to check their own
work.
Training schedule. A training schedule helps trainers
organize their OJT and document who has and has
not been trained for any given task.
Lesson plan. As created in the design phase,
the lesson plan is an outline of how to

teach the class and what to include to ensure
trainers teach each task
correctly and consistently every time.
Trainer and Participant Assessment Instruments
As Chapter 7 will discuss further, the training
session must develop and use materials that assess
not only if the trainees enjoyed the session—
what is called a
level 1 assessment—but also if they learned
anything, known as a level 2 assessment.
This classi�ication system for training evaluation
was introduced by Donald
Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the University of
Wisconsin and past president of the American
Society for Training & Development. His four-
level training
evaluation model, known as Kirkpatrick's
taxonomy, includes four levels of evaluation—
reaction, learning, behavior, and result—and was �irst
published in 1959
in the US Training and Development Journal
(Kirkpatrick, 1959; Kirkpatrick, 2009). It
will be discussed in depth in Chapters 7
and 8.
These �irsttwo levels of Kirkpatrick's taxonomy
are particularly important to consider here when
developing the training materials for the training
session itself.
(Levels 3 and 4, behavior and results, respectively,
are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.)
Speci�ically, a level 1 assessment covers
the trainee's reaction and is
sometimes called a "happy sheet" (Kirkpatrick,

2009; Wan, 2013; Werner & DeSimone,
2011). It can be paper based or online
and asks questions such as: Did the
trainees like and enjoy the training? Did they
consider the training relevant? Was it a good
use of their time? Did they like the venue,
style, timing, amenities,and
so on? (See samples in Figure 5.1.)
1/8/2018 Print
Employers can use "happy sheets," or evaluations,
to gather feedback from trainees to
ensure the ef�icacy of the training and modify
future trainings, if needed.
Click here
(https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/conste
llation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/{�igures}�igure5.1.pdf)
to download a pdf of the workshop evaluation
form. Open with Adobe Acrobat to access
an
editable �ile.
Level 2 evaluation attempts to gauge if
any learning occurred as a result of the
training. To
assess this, many times trainees are tested
prior to the training and then again subsequent
to the training to see if therewas any change in

knowledge, skills, or attitudes.
Figure 5.1: Level 1 evaluation sample
Level 2 assessments try to ascertain if the
trainee learned anything from the training. Many
times, this assessment takeson the form of
pretests and,
subsequently, posttests. Of course, the questions within
any level 2 assessment would be linked to
the original learning objectives of the training, as
determined
by the analysis phase. So, for example, with a
materials and storage handling workshop,trainers
might test the trainees prior to the session on
questions such as
these:
What are the potential hazards for workers?
What precautions should workers take when
moving materials manually?
What precautions should workers take when
moving materials mechanically?
What precautions must workers take to avoid
storage hazards?
What safeguards must workers follow when
stacking materials?
And, let us say the average correct score on
the pretraining survey was 66%.We could
look at that as our baseline prior to the
training, and then following the
materials and storage handling workshop,we could
again survey the trainees to see if any
learning had occurred, given the new knowledge
they would have

been presented.So in our example, following the
workshop,the average correct score on the
posttraining survey jumps to 93%;in this
case it would be dif�icult
to suggest that somelearning had not taken place.
Figure 5.2 is an actual level 2 assessment
pre- and posttest using a Likert scaleto
measure knowledge gain for the American Nurses
Credentialing Center (ANCC)
used at Harvard Medical School's Brigham and
Women's Hospital.
Figure 5.2: Level 2 assessment pre- and posttest
using a Likert
scale
https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constel
lation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/%7Bfigures%7Dfigure5.1.pdf
1/8/2018 Print
Source: Brigham and Women's pre and post test
guidelines. (2014). Brigham and Women's
Hospital.
You can calculate the learning gain—the improvement
between the pre- and postlearning assessment
scores—from the level 2 assessment. It can be
calculated
using the following formula:

(Postlearning score − prelearning score ÷
maximum score − prelearning score) ×
100
For example, if the prelearning score is 50,
the postlearning score is 80, and the
maximum score is 100, then you get the
following:
[(80 − 50) ÷ (100 − 50)] × 100 = (30 ÷
50) × 100 = 60%
This shows that therewas a 60% learning gain.
Materials Development Process
As you begin the training materials development
process, overarching yet practical questions should
guide you (ASTD, 2012; Shaw, 2011).
You would have
considered someof theseduring the analysis and
design phases. They include:
1. What is the immediacy to achieve the
new learning? If thereis an immediate need to
achieve (and therefore apply) the new learning, it
is especially
important that the training materials and activities, which
include games and simulations, have a quick
learning curve; that is, the training materials
should
be easy to use and straightforward.
2. Do the training materials honor adultlearning
principles? Training materials (includingcomputer-

based materials) must also be developed with adult
learning principles in mind (Larson & Lockee, 2013;
Wan, 2013) and thus be problem oriented, be
relevant to real-world issues, and lead the
learner toward
intrinsic motivation (Dobbs, 2006; Knowles, 1973;
Stolovitch& Keeps, 2011).
3. Do the training materials buildon current work
activities?If the training materials and activities
buildon and extend current work activities and
functions,
trainees have a better chance of seeing the
relevance of the training.
4. What is the budget for developing training
materials?It is imperative to get somesense
of the availability of funding to obtain
and develop resources as early
as the analysis phase. For example, technology-based
and on-the-job-based activities oftenare much
less expensive than hiring subject matter
experts;
however, those experts would be a more
effective source if the training were highly
specialized or technical.
Did You Know? Three Effective Components Make
for One Great Presentation!
According to expert presenter Ellen Finkelstein,
if you want an effective presentation, you must
ensure that your content, design, and delivery
are effective. Each of thesecomponents has to be
well crafted, and they all have to work together.

First, with content, you must decide on two or
threemain points to which otherpoints will
refer. Content needs to be logical, simple,
and clear so
it will meet the needs of your audience.
On design, Finkelstein says the number one concern
is legibility. You cannot put too much text on
a slide and still keep it largeenough to read
easily. Likewise, the text colorshould be in high
contrast to the background color. You also
must ensure that your design complements your
content: The background and images should not
detract from the content, and the images
themselves should clarify the text. The layout
and size
of text should underscore the major points of
the presentation.
Finally, you must have an engaging delivery. Engaging
your audience with eye contact and your overall
energy is important. Finkelstein says to
make sure you know your main points and
emphasize them with in�lection, and to spend
an appropriate amount of time on each point.
Finkelstein reminds us that two's a partybut
three's a crowd. If you plan to just read
your slides, you are putting PowerPoint®
between you and
the audience, and your presentation will suffer.
Consider theseguidelinesand you will be well on
the way to an effective presentation.
Source: Adapted from Finkelstein, E. (2014). 3
components of an effective presentation.

Retrieved from
http://www.ellen�inkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-
of-an-
effective-presentation
(http://www.ellen�inkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-
of-an-effective-presentation)
On the Aesthetics of Training Materials
http://www.ellenfinkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-of-an-
effective-presentation
1/8/2018 Print
Training materials must engage the trainee. Visual
aids such as PowerPoint® presentations or
YouTube® videos should not only facilitate
but also enhance the
trainees' learning experience, especially in an e-
learning environment (David & Glore, 2010).
Remember, training materials are effective only
when they are easy
to read and highlight the most important training themes.
Especially when the training content is
dull, the design of the training material can be
the difference
between the trainee being engaged in the content
or not. The following are someprinciples for
creating easy-to-read materials (Bray, 2009;
U.S. Department of
Labor, 2010; McArdle, 1999; Piskurich, 2010;

Stolovitch& Keeps, 2011; Wake�ield, 2011):
Use a large, easy-to-read font for the main text.
Emphasize important points with underlining, bold
type, italics, or boxes.
Include plenty of white space by using
wide margins.
Use plenty of simple illustrations to explain
the text.
Use simple line drawings that are free of clutter
and abstract drawings.
Foodfor Thought: Interview With Ash Hibbert, Technical
Writer
In this article, Ash Hibbert underscores how
attention to the aesthetics of the training
material goes a long way. Speci�ically, making
training
material clearly organized and visual helps trainees
quickly conceptualize the �low of the
instructions and encourages them to turn each
page.
Source: Hibbert, A. (2012). Interview with the
Technical Writer. Retrieved from
http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-
technical-writer.html
(http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical-
writer.html)
Consider This
1. Why does Hibbert suggest keeping user feedback
mechanisms in place after publication of
training materials?
2. What particularly does Hibbert suggest to

make training materials more relevant and
accurate?
3. What bene�its does Hibbert see in working
with graphic designers during production of
training materials?
Training Materials Speak
As Chapter 10 will discuss further, training
materials are important, too, because they become
artifacts of both the organization and society at
large. Although
training itselfmay be value neutral, training
programs historically have been the means to
sustain stereotypes, racism, anti-Semitism, sexism,
and prejudice in
general. Today we can study historical training
materials that memorialized sexism (for example,
airline hostess training manual) and fanatical
cultural
movements (for example, the Hitler Youth training
manual). Re�lecting on training and
development's objectivity is part of the critical
perspective of HRD, which
includes contemplations such as:
the consequences of training and development to
society, organizations, and individuals;
the moral base and ethical dilemmas raised by
HRD practice; and
the overall social responsibility of training.
What will future trainers thinkof training
material 70 years from now?
Table 5.1 has someadditional do's and don'ts for

training material.
Table 5.1: Do's and don'ts of training materials
Do Don't
Organize text into short, logical sections by using
headings or subtitles. Offer so much information
that a reader could feel overwhelmed.
De�ine technical terms or jargon. Copy the
material so many times the visual clarity
suffers.
Keepsentences shortand simple. Have any typos!
Use a conversational style and active voice. Use
outdated references.
Source: Albrecht, 2006; Allen & Sites, 2012;
Bray, 2009; Dobbs, 2006.
The Tone and Purpose of the Training Text
An appropriate writing style (Alamargot, Terrier, &
Cellier, 2008; Jonassen & Driscoll, 2013)
also is important in training materials, and
dependingon the
training content, one of thesestyles might be
most appropriate:
Descriptive tone. The primary purpose of descriptive
training material is to describe the topicclearly
so the reader understands it. For example,
material
might describe the speci�ics of a case of sexual

harassment.
Expository tone. The primary purpose of expository
training material is to provide information
such as an explanation or directions (for
example, how to
load paper in a printer).
Narrative tone. The primary purpose of narrative training
material is to describe an experience, event,
or sequence of events in the form of a
story. This
method could be used, for example, in new
employee orientation to describe the history of
how the company was started.
Persuasive tone. The primary purpose of persuasive
training material is to give an opinion and
try to in�luencethe reader's way of thinking
using
supporting evidence. For example, materials might
urge employees to report safety infractions
they witness at the work site.
http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical-
writer.html
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A trainee can engage with training material in
both active and passive ways. The learning
retention pyramid illustrates learner recall for the
various approaches. The �irstfour levels
are passive, and the last threeare participatory.
5.2 Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and
Media
The decisions made regarding the particular instructional
methods and media that will be used are a
signi�icant and consequential part of the
development
process. Although training budgets oftendictate the
training modalities, developers should also
consider trainee learning styles, available
technology, training
setting, and the practicality of delivering the training
to the trainee (for example, a U.S. trainer in
Chicago, Illinois. may select videoconferencing as
an option to
train employees at the Mumbai, India, division.)
Training Methods
Generally, training methods fall into four major
categories (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Pelet,
2013; Wan, 2013):
1. Instructor-led
2. On-the-job training
3. Self-directed training
4. E-learning (Many times, e-learning is used
with the otherthreemethods as part of blended

learning.)
Instructor-Led Training
According to the ASTD's 2012 Stateof the
Industry Report, when it comes to
workplacetraining, instructor-led training still
outpaced othermethods,
accounting for almost 73% of training methods
used (ASTD, 2012). This �igure included
whether the training was led face-to-face, online,
or remotely (see Table
5.2). Instructor-led training is any kind of training
that occurs in a training room, typically in
an of�ice, classroom, or conference room,
but now also via online
classrooms, as shown in Table 5.2.
This form of training can have one or more instructors
who teach skills or material to another
person or group through lectures,
presentations, demonstrations,
and discussions (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012;
Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner &
DeSimone, 2011).
Table 5.2: Percentage of instructor-led training
Distribution method ASTD Stateof the Industry Report
Instructor led, classroom 59.4%
Instructor led, online 8.75%
Instructor led, remote (satellite, video) 4.5%

As discussed in Chapter 4, the instructional
method—including icebreakers—can dictate the
training setting, but training methods should
support the learning
activities in the session and the objectives of the
training itself(Hodell, 2011; Noe, 2012;
Piskurich, 2010; Stolovitch& Keeps, 2011).
For example, instructor-led
training is most appropriate when the learning
activities are knowledge acquisition, problem
solving, changing attitudes, or interpersonal skills
(Noe, 2012;
Piskurich, 2010; Vijayasamundeeswari, 2013; Werner
& DeSimone, 2011). Instructor-led classroom
examples of learning activities include:
Knowledge acquisition—"In today's session we
are going over the history of our company,
including our organizational mission."
Problem solving—"Okay, pair up and let's work on
this hypothetical customer service problem."
Changing attitudes—"In today's training, we are going
to discuss the bene�its of carpooling and
recycling."
Interpersonal skills—"Welcome to the Effective
Communication Workshop."
On-the-Job Training
When knowledge retention is critical, on-the-job
training is most appropriate. In 1969 Edgar
Dale, an expert in audiovisual education,
�irstintroduced his "cone
of experience" research that illustratedhow various
modalities of imparting information based on
levels of abstraction—words being the most

abstract and at
the top of the cone and real-life experiences the
most concrete at the base of the cone (Dale,
1948; Hoban & Zisman, 1937). Dale's
and others' research led to the
concept of the learning pyramid that shows, for
example, that up to 75% of the new information
is retained after 72 hours when students
are given an
opportunity to practice the skill (see Figure 5.3).
For more information, see the learning retention
pyramid used by the National Training Laboratories
(http://www.ntl.org (http://www.ntl.org) ).
Figure 5.3: Learning retention pyramid
http://www.ntl.org/
1/8/2018 Print
On-the-job training materials give detailed guidance
for completing job-related tasksin a
training situation.
Source: Reprinted with permission from NTL Institute
for Applied Behavioral Sciences.
On-the-job training can be formal or informal
(Jacobs, 2003; Werner & DeSimone, 2011).
Formal OJT is planned and organized training
that is conducted by

trainers with trainees at the job site (see Figure
5.4). Informal OJT is not planned or organized in
any logical pattern. Learning takesplace when
trainees perform
the work or watch others perform it (Jacobs &
Phillips, 2002; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011).
With informal OJT, incidental workplacelearning can also
take place while trainees perform the work or
watch the trainer perform (Wan, 2013).
Incidental
learning is a subcategory of informal learning
and is characterized as unintentional and
unexpected; it takesplace when people
are not conscious that learning
is happening(Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Chapter 6
will discuss the particular challenges to OJT as
it relates to how important the trainer–trainee
communication process becomes.
Figure 5.4: Formal OJT example
Source: Molnar, J. & Watts, B. (2000). Figure
4 "Typical Training Event". Structured On-the-
Job Training:
Effectively Training Employees with Employees.
Center for Entrepreneurial Studies and
Development,
Inc., p. 4. Reprinted with permission.
Self-Directed Training
As discussed in Chapter 4, self-directed training
refers to the form of training in which
the learner takesresponsibility for managing his or
her own training, from

the content selected to timing and delivery. Many
organizational training programs have components of
trainee self-study.
1/8/2018 Print
The attraction of self-directed training for
organizations is that this form of training:
complements and reinforces other, more formal
development activities, increasingretention and
reducing the falloff of learning;
can be carried out continuously, as an integral
part of day-to-day working activity; and
places greater responsibility on the individual to
empower themselves and take the initiative in
planning their own personal development
(Guglielmino,
2001).
Self-directed training, or self-directed learning,
typically has two dimensions: self-teaching and
autonomy (for example, instead of self-study, an
employee may
autonomously choose to be taught). However, when
SDL equates to self-study, it typically is
supported by materials, including:
1. explicit instructions that indicate what the
required learning is, why the knowledge is

important, the expected path through the
learning materials, and the
expectations and next stepswhen the training
concludes;
2. self-pacedlessons intended to convey the
required knowledge; thesemay be available online
or on paper; and
3. a series of self-tests that, although graded,
usually are not recorded. The purpose is only to
give trainees an idea of whether they are
successfully learning
the materials according to their employer's expectation.
Also, before beginning the self-study, an
effective tool especially for self-directed training is
the learning contract. A learning contract
(Knowles,1973; Knowles
et al., 2012) typically speci�ies for the employee:
1. the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner
will acquire (learning objectives);
2. how the learner will accomplish theseobjectives
(learning resources and strategies);
3. the target date for the accomplishment of
the learning objectives;
4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate
that the learner has mastered the objectives;
and
5. how the employer will judge or validate the
evidence.
Figure 5.5 is a sample learning contract from
Train to Gain (http://www.traintogain.gov.uk
(http://www.traintogain.gov.uk) ). Train to
Gain is a UK government–

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