1 6 I have acquired a lot of knowledge about the history of the United States in this semester. However, there are three most interesting facts that I’ve learned from the history of the country. The firsts interesting knowledge is that South and North America was occupied by Indians before Europeans arrived. When the Europeans arrived to the United States, it was not a wilderness. There are communities which inhabited the land and called it their home. While the Europeans found a new world the natives considered it an ancient homeland (Foner, 2013). I learnt this information from the course textbook as well as from other external sources related to the coursework. South and North America was inhabited by Indians and contained irrigation systems, roads, cities as well as large structures like the pyramid temples which until today inspire wonder by their beauty. Tenochtitlan, the capital City of Aztec Empire with a population of approximately 250,000 people was considered to be one of the largest cities in the world in that period. The Aztec empire is what toy is referred to as Mexico. In the far south, was the Inca kingdom what is referred to as Peru in the modern society. The kingdom’s dense population was characterized by complex road and bridge systems. In North America, Indian civilization had not developed the centralized, scale or grandeur of the Inca and Aztec societies in the south. However, the Indians in the North America lacked the technology that the Europeans had such as gun power, machines and metal tools as well as the scientific knowledge that helped them to navigate in the sea. They were also illiterate although some could make maps. This led to their conquest by the Europeans. Nevertheless, the Indian societies had acquired techniques of fishing, farming and hunting, established structures of religious beliefs and political power and engaged in extensive communication and trade networks. This information is shocking because I thought that North and South America were inhabited by white people before the European arrived. It is also interesting how the Indian societies had mastered various skills even without literacy. This information is very important to my understanding of the history of America since it helps understand were we have come from and appreciate the efforts put in by our fore fathers to realize the kind of life we live today. It also helps me to relate the history of America with the culture and the lifestyle we embrace today. Some other interesting information I learnt in this course is that there existed social classes in the colonial period. I learnt this information from the course textbook as well as from other external sources related to the coursework. As the colonial society evolved, a group of elites emerged which dominated the society and politics. The expansion of trade led to the emergence of upper class merchants who were closely associated with London firms or families. By eighteenth centu.

1. 1
6
I have acquired a lot of knowledge about the history of the
United States in this semester. However, there are three most
interesting facts that I’ve learned from the history of the
country. The firsts interesting knowledge is that South and
North America was occupied by Indians before Europeans
arrived. When the Europeans arrived to the United States, it was
not a wilderness. There are communities which inhabited the
land and called it their home. While the Europeans found a new
world the natives considered it an ancient homeland (Foner,
2013). I learnt this information from the course textbook as well
as from other external sources related to the coursework.
South and North America was inhabited by Indians and
contained irrigation systems, roads, cities as well as large
structures like the pyramid temples which until today inspire
wonder by their beauty. Tenochtitlan, the capital City of Aztec
Empire with a population of approximately 250,000 people was
considered to be one of the largest cities in the world in that
period. The Aztec empire is what toy is referred to as Mexico.
In the far south, was the Inca kingdom what is referred to as
Peru in the modern society. The kingdom’s dense population
was characterized by complex road and bridge systems.
In North America, Indian civilization had not developed the
centralized, scale or grandeur of the Inca and Aztec societies in
the south. However, the Indians in the North America lacked the
technology that the Europeans had such as gun power, machines
and metal tools as well as the scientific knowledge that helped
them to navigate in the sea. They were also illiterate although
some could make maps. This led to their conquest by the
Europeans. Nevertheless, the Indian societies had acquired

2. techniques of fishing, farming and hunting, established
structures of religious beliefs and political power and engaged
in extensive communication and trade networks.
This information is shocking because I thought that North and
South America were inhabited by white people before the
European arrived. It is also interesting how the Indian societies
had mastered various skills even without literacy. This
information is very important to my understanding of the
history of America since it helps understand were we have come
from and appreciate the efforts put in by our fore fathers to
realize the kind of life we live today. It also helps me to relate
the history of America with the culture and the lifestyle we
embrace today.
Some other interesting information I learnt in this course is that
there existed social classes in the colonial period. I learnt this
information from the course textbook as well as from other
external sources related to the coursework. As the colonial
society evolved, a group of elites emerged which dominated the
society and politics. The expansion of trade led to the
emergence of upper class merchants who were closely
associated with London firms or families. By eighteenth
century, the communication and trade between Britain and
American colonies intensified. Wealthy Americans wanted to be
like the British people and therefore adopted their behavior and
etiquette (Shi & Tindall, 2016).
On the other hand, poverty emerged representing the colonial
life of the eighteen century. While most colonists did not
consider slaves as part of their society, the number of people
living in impoverished conditions increased significantly.
Poverty became widespread among the free Americans. As the
colonists populations increased, land was becoming scarce
forcing many colonial males to seek employment in other
colonies or cities. This led to the increase of property less wage
earners in the cities. The poor were largely considered shiftless,
lazy and responsible for what they were going through.
There were also the middle ranks. Most of the free Americans

3. were in this class of the society which represented the people
living between the extremes of poverty and wealth (Merritt,
2017). Together with ethnic and racial diversities, this class
could be distinguished from the Europeans by the economic
autonomy and wide distribution of land. Most of them were
famers who owned various parcels of land. Women in this
period were considered the centre of family (Merritt, 2017).
They played a significant role in the household economy. The
society expected women to dedicate their lives in being good
wives to their husbands. With the colonial structure gaining
momentum, opportunities that existed before this period for
women decreased (Merritt, 2017).
This information is shocking because I would expect that the
issue of social class came with urbanization and civilization.
Being colonies of Europe, one would expect that Americans
would pull together and embrace unity to avoid being mistreated
by the Europeans. That was however not the case. This
information helps me to get a better understanding of the origin
of social class that exists in our current society. This also helps
me to understand the condition that led to the American
community of the colonial period to adopt such systems. By
gaining such historical knowledge I can be able to relate with
what is happening today in our society.
Some other interesting information I learnt in this course is the
changes that were brought by the war. The civil war brought in
significant transformation of the society and the American
government. I obtained this information from the course book as
well as other related secondary sources. This transformation in
the society was referred to as the second American
transformation. A good example was the change in status of
Blacks. During the civil, freedom contested nature than never
before. Although liberty was declared, it did not mean the same
thing for different people in the society (Gallagher, 2016).
To the people in the north, freedom meant respect on each other
and that each man enjoys the fruits of his labor. To the whites
in the South, this meant mastership and to do what they please

4. with the fruits of other people’s labor (Gallagher, 2016). The
war marked a new beginning for the black Americans as it
symbolized their equal status with all other Americans. The
civil war also influenced the protestant clergy to develop new
theories to justify that the war was not in vain. Religious
believes helped people cope with the consequences of the war
(Gallagher, 2016).
It is shocking that Americans had to learn the importance of
treating each other as equals and with respect through a civil
war which cost the lives of many people. This information is
very important to my understanding of the American history
since it provides insights on when people began respecting and
considering each other as equals. It also helps me to understand
why it is important to consider each other as equals in the
society. The information that I have learned in this course has
helped me to have a better understanding of where we have
come from.
References
Foner, E. (2013). Give Me Liberty! An American History:
Seagull Fourth Edition (Vol. 1). WW Norton & Company.
Shi, D. E., & Tindall, G. B. (2016). America: A narrative
history. WW Norton & Company.
Gallagher, G. W. (2016). The American Civil War: The War in
the East 1861-May 1863. Routledge.
Merritt, R. L. (2017). Nation-building in America: The colonial
years. In Nation Building in Comparative Contexts (pp. 56-72).
Routledge.

5. G I V E M E
L I B E R T Y !
A N A M E R I C A N H I S T O R Y
B r i e f F o u r t h E d i t i o n
B
W . W . N O R T O N & C O M P A N Y
N E W Y O R K . L O N D O N
E R I C F O N E R
G I V E M E
L I B E R T Y !
A N A M E R I C A N H I S T O R Y
B r i e f F o u r t h E d i t i o n
W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its
founding in 1923, when William

6. Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published
lectures delivered at the People’s
Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s
Cooper Union. The firm soon
expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by
celebrated academics from
America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of
Norton’s publishing program—
trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the
1950s, the Norton family
transferred control of the company to its employees, and
today—with a staff of 400 and
a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles
published each year—
W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest
publishing house owned wholly
by its employees.
Copyright © 2014, 2012 by Eric Foner
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Fourth Edition
Editor: Steve Forman
Associate Editor: Justin Cahill
Editorial Assistant: Penelope Lin
Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson
Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi
Project Editor: Diane Cipollone
Copy Editor: Elizabeth Dubrulle
Marketing Manager: Sarah England
Media Editors: Steve Hoge, Tacy Quinn
Assistant Editor, Media: Stefani Wallace
Production Manager: Sean Mintus
Art Director: Rubina Yeh
Designer: Chin-Yee Lai
Photo Editor: Stephanie Romeo

7. Photo Research: Donna Ranieri
Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson
Permissions Clearing: Bethany Salminen
Composition and Layout: Jouve
Manufacturing: Transcontinental
Since this page cannot accommodate all of the copyright
notices, the Credits pages at the end
of the book constitute an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been
applied for.
This edition:
ISBN 978-0-393-92033-8 (pbk.)
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York,
NY 10110-0017
wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells
Street, London W1T 3QT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
For my mother, Liza Foner (1909–2005), an accomplished
artist who lived
through most of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first
E R I C F O N E R is DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at
Columbia University, where
he earned his B.A. and Ph.D. In his teaching and scholarship, he
focuses on the Civil War
and Reconstruction, slavery, and nineteenth-century America.

8. Professor Foner’s publi-
cations include Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology
of the Republican Party before the
Civil War; Tom Paine and Revolutionary America; Nothing but
Freedom: Emancipation and Its
Legacy; Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution,
1863–1877; The Story of American Free-
dom; and Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and
Reconstruction. His history of Recon-
struction won the Los Angeles Times Book Award for History,
the Bancroft Prize, and the
Parkman Prize. He has served as president of the Organization
of American Historians
and the American Historical Association. In 2006 he received
the Presidential Award for
Outstanding Teaching from Columbia University. His most
recent book is The Fiery Trial:
Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, winner of the Lincoln
Prize, the Bancroft Prize, and
the Pulitzer Prize.
A B O U T T H E A U T H O R
C O N T E N T S
Contents

9. vi i
1 . A N E W W O R L D . . . 1
THE FIRST AMERICANS . . . 3
Americas ... 3
Western Indians ... 6
Religion ... 7
European Views
of the Indians ... 10
INDIAN FREEDOM, EUROPEAN FREEDOM .. . 11
and
THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE . . . 13
Slavery in

10. CONTACT . . . 16
Conquest ... 17
THE SPANISH EMPIRE . . . 20
sts and Indians in
Spanish
and Profit ... 23
25
Revolt ... 27
Voices of Freedom: From Bartolomé de las Casas, History of
the Indies
(1528), and From “Declaration of Josephe” (December 19,
1681) ... 28
THE FRENCH AND DUTCH EMPIRES . . . 30
The
Religious

11. of European
Settlement ... 36
REVIEW .. . 37
2 . B E G I N N I N G S O F E N G L I S H A M E R I C A ,
1 6 0 7 – 1 6 6 0 . . . 3 8
ENGLAND AND THE NEW WORLD . . . 40
The Social
ess Men ... 43
A b o u t t h e A u t h o r . . . v
L i s t o f M a p s , T a b l e s , a n d F i g u r e s . . . x v i i
i
P r e f a c e . . . x x
vii i
Contents
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH .. . 43

12. and
Transformation
of Indian Life ... 46
SETTLING THE CHESAPEAKE .. . 47
Uprising o
and the
in
Maryland ... 52
THE NEW ENGLAND WAY .. . 53
Pilgrims at
Pl
State in
Puritan Massachusetts ... 58
NEW ENGLANDERS DIVIDED .. . 59
and Connecticut ... 60

13. Voices of Freedom: From “The Trial of Anne Hutchinson”
(1637),
and From John Winthrop, Speech to the Massachusetts General
Court
(July 3, 1645) ... 62
A Growing
Commercial Society ... 66
RELIGION, POLITICS, AND FREEDOM ... 67
Civil War and
English
REVIEW .. . 71
3 . C R E A T I N G A N G L O - A M E R I C A , 1 6 6 0 – 1
7 5 0 . . . 7 2
GLOBAL COMPETITION AND THE EXPANSION OF
ENGLAND’S EMPIRE . . . 74

14. The Mercanti
Land in
Pennsylvania ... 79
ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SLAVERY .. . 80
Slavery
Rise of
Labor in
Virginia ... 8
Contents
ix
COLONIES IN CRISIS . . . 86

15. The Salem Witch Trials ... 89
THE GROWTH OF COLONIAL AMERICA .. . 90
A Diverse Populatio
Voices of Freedom: From Memorial against Non-English
Immigration
(December 1727), and From Letter by a Swiss-German
Immigrant
to Pennsylvania (August 23, 1769) ... 92
Regional
An Atlantic World ... 98
SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE COLONIES . . . 99
in
the
the
-Century
... 102
REVIEW .. . 103
4 . S L A V E R Y , F R E E D O M , A N D T H E S T R U

16. G G L E F O R E M P I R E ,
T O 1 7 6 3 . . . 1 0 4
SLAVERY AND EMPIRE . . . 106
The Middle
Kingdom ... 110
avery in the North ...
112
SLAVE CULTURES AND SLAVE RESISTANCE .. . 113
Becoming African-
Colonial America
-
Slavery ... 115
AN EMPIRE OF FREEDOM .. . 116
Republican
THE PUBLIC SPHERE . . . 119
Rise of the
Assemblies .
Colonial Press ... 122

17. Zenger ... 123
THE GREAT AWAKENING .. . 125
The Preaching of Whitefield ...
Awakening’s Impact ... 126
IMPERIAL RIVALRIES . . . 127
French Empire ... 129
x
Contents
BATTLE FOR THE CONTINENT .. . 130
A World
Proclamation
Line ... 132

18. Voices of Freedom: From Pontiac, Speeches (1762 and 1763),
and
From The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano,
or
Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789) ... 134
137
REVIEW .. . 138
5 . T H E A M E R I C A N R E V O L U T I O N , 1 7 6 3 –
1 7 8 3 . . . 1 3 9
THE CRISIS BEGINS . . . 140
The Regulators ... 145
THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION .. . 145
The Townshend
Acts ... 148
THE COMING OF INDEPENDENCE .. . 149

19. Association ... 150
The Declaration
The Global
Declaration of Independence ... 155
Voices of Freedom: From Thomas Paine, Common Sense
(1776), and
From Jonathan Boucher, A View of the Causes and
Consequences of
the American Revolution (1775) ... 156
SECURING INDEPENDENCE .. . 158
lution ...
REVIEW .. . 166
6 . T H E R E V O L U T I O N W I T H I N . . . 1 6 7

20. DEMOCRATIZING FREEDOM .. . 169
Nation ... 169
Constitutions ... 171
TOWARD RELIGIOUS TOLERATION .. . 172
Catholic Americans ..
173
Republicanism ... 175
Contents
xi
DEFINING ECONOMIC FREEDOM .. . 176
The Politics
THE LIMITS OF LIBERTY .. . 178

21. The Indians’
Revolution ... 181
SLAVERY AND THE REVOLUTION .. . 182
Abolition ... 183
Freedom ... 184
185
Voices of Freedom: From Abigail Adams to John Adams,
Braintree,
Mass. (March 31, 1776), and From Petitions of Slaves to the
Massachusetts Legislature (1773 and 1777) ... 186
188
DAUGHTERS OF LIBERTY .. . 189
Arduous Struggle for Liberty ... 190
REVIEW .. . 192

22. 7 . F O U N D I N G A N A T I O N , 1 7 8 3 – 1 7 9 1 . . . 1
9 3
AMERICA UNDER THE CONFEDERATION .. . 195
the West ...
Weaknesses ...
... 201
A NEW CONSTITUTION .. . 202
Democracy ... 203
Debate over Slavery
Document ... 207
THE RATIFICATION DEBATE AND THE ORIGIN OF THE
BILL
OF RIGHTS . . . 208
Anti-
Federalists ... 209
Voices of Freedom: From David Ramsay, The History of the

23. American
Revolution (1789), and From James Winthrop, Anti-Federalist
Essay
Signed “Agrippa” (1787) ... 210
The Bill of Rights ... 214
“WE THE PEOPLE” . . . 215
Principles of
Freedom ... 219
REVIEW .. . 220
xii
Contents
8 . S E C U R I N G T H E R E P U B L I C , 1 7 9 1 – 1 8 1
5 . . . 2 2 1
POLITICS IN AN AGE OF PASSION .. . 222
of Opposition ...

24. Jefferson-
Revolution
Voices of Freedom: From Judith Sargent Murray, “On the
Equality of
the Sexes” (1790), and From Address of the Democratic-
Republican
Society of Pennsylvania (December 18, 1794) ... 228
The Rights of Women ... 230
THE ADAMS PRESIDENCY .. . 231
The
of
JEFFERSON IN POWER .. . 236
Lewis and

25. Barbary Wars ... 241
242
THE “SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE” . . . 243
The War’s
REVIEW .. . 248
9 . T H E M A R K E T R E V O L U T I O N , 1 8 0 0 – 1 8 4
0 . . . 2 4 9
A NEW ECONOMY .. . 251
Railroads
The Cotton
Kingdom ... 257
MARKET SOCIETY .. . 259
Commercial Farmers ..
The Factory
Immigration ...

26. Law ... 266
THE FREE INDIVIDUAL .. . 267
The West and
269
Voices of Freedom: From Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The
American
Scholar” (1837), and From “Factory Life as It Is, by an
Operative”
(1845) ... 270
The Emergence of Mormonism ... 272
Contents
xi i i
THE LIMITS OF PROSPERITY . . . 273
Early Labor

27. REVIEW .. . 279
1 0 . D E M O C R A C Y I N A M E R I C A , 1 8 1 5 – 1 8 4
0 . . . 2 8 0
THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY .. . 281
Tocqueville on
The Limits of
NATIONALISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS . . . 285
The Panic
NATION, SECTION, AND PARTY .. . 289
The United States and the Latin American Wars of
Independence ... 289
Voices of Freedom: From President James Monroe, Annual
Message
to Congress (1823), and From John C. Calhoun, “A Disquisition
on

28. Government” (ca. 1845) ... 292
Power” ... 294
Election
of 1828 ... 295
THE AGE OF JACKSON .. . 296
Public and
299
Crisis ... 301
Indians ... 302
THE BANK WAR AND AFTER .. . 304
Panic
of 1840 ... 307
REVIEW .. . 310
1 1 . T H E P E C U L I A R I N S T I T U T I O N . . . 3 1 1

29. THE OLD SOUTH .. . 312
Slavery
and the
Plain Folk
Paternalist
in the
y ... 320
xiv
Contents
LIFE UNDER SLAVERY .. . 321
Slavery in the
325
SLAVE CULTURE .. . 326

30. Gender Roles
for Liberty ... 329
RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY .. . 330
Forms of Resistance ... 330
Voices of Freedom: From Letter by Joseph Taper to Joseph
Long
(1840), and From “Slavery and the Bible” (1850) ... 332
Rebellion ... 336
REVIEW .. . 338
1 2 . A N A G E O F R E F O R M , 1 8 2 0 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 3
3 9
THE REFORM IMPULSE .. . 340
Invention of the
THE CRUSADE AGAINST SLAVERY .. . 348

31. Spreading the
..
New Vision of America ... 352
BLACK AND WHITE ABOLITIONISM .. . 353
Standing ... 354
THE ORIGINS OF FEMINISM .. . 356
Spe
Women and
Voices of Freedom: From Angelina Grimké, Letter in The
Liberator
(August 2, 1837), and From Frederick Douglass, Speech on July
5,
1852, Rochester, New York ... 360
REVIEW .. . 365

32. 1 3 . A H O U S E D I V I D E D , 1 8 4 0 – 1 8 6 1 . . . 3 6
6
FRUITS OF MANIFEST DESTINY .. . 368
Continental Expansi
Mexico and
of 1844 ... 370
Contents
xv
Gold-Rush
A DOSE OF ARSENIC . . . 378
Crisis and
The
Fugitive Slave
The Kansas-

33. Nebraska Act ... 382
THE RISE OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY .. . 383
Know-
“Bleeding Kansas”
and the Election of 1856 ... 387
THE EMERGENCE OF LINCOLN .. . 388
Lincoln-
Ferry ... 391
Voices of Freedom: From The Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)
... 392
1860 ... 395
THE IMPENDING CRISIS . . . 397
nd
the War Came ... 399
REVIEW .. . 401

34. 1 4 . A N E W B I R T H O F F R E E D O M : T H E C I V
I L W A R ,
1 8 6 1 – 1 8 6 5 . . . 4 0 2
THE FIRST MODERN WAR .. . 403
Military
East,
THE COMING OF EMANCIPATION .. . 410
Slavery and the War
THE SECOND AMERICAN REVOLUTION .. . 417
Liberty, Union, and Natio
Religion ... 419
Voices of Freedom: From Letter of Thomas F. Drayton (April
17,
1861), and From Abraham Lincoln, Address at Sanitary Fair,

35. Baltimore (April 18, 1864) ... 420
’s Transformation ...
Women and
xvi
Contents
THE CONFEDERATE NATION .. . 428
Black Soldiers for the Confederacy ... 431
TURNING POINTS . . . 431
Gettysburg and Vicksburg ... 431
REHEARSALS FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND THE END

36. OF THE WAR .. . 434
in the West
Victory at Last ...
American History ... 438
REVIEW .. . 440
1 5 . “ W H A T I S F R E E D O M ? ” : R E C O N S T R U
C T I O N ,
1 8 6 5 – 1 8 7 7 . . . 4 4 1
THE MEANING OF FREEDOM .. . 443
Families in Freedom ... 4
Political
Masters without
Freedmen’s Bureau
White
Farmer ... 449
Voices of Freedom: From Petition of Committee in Behalf of
the
Freedmen to Andrew Johnson (1865), and From A
Sharecropping

37. Contract (1866) ... 450
Aftermath of Slavery ... 453
THE MAKING OF RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION .. . 454
Andr
Reconstruction ...
... 457
Election
“Great
461
RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH .. . 462
The Black Officeholder ...
464
Republicans in
THE OVERTHROW OF RECONSTRUCTION .. . 466

38. or” ...
467
and Bargain
REVIEW .. . 474
Contents
xvii
A P P E N D I X
DOCUMENTS
The Declaration of Independence (1776) ... A-2
The Constitution of The United States (1787) ... A-5
From George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) ... A-17
The Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments And Resolutions
(1848) ... A-22
From Frederick Douglass’s “What, To the Slave, Is The Fourth
Of July?”

39. Speech (1852) ... A-25
The Gettysburg Address (1863) ... A-29
Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address (1865) ... A-30
The Populist Platform of 1892 ... A-31
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address (1933) ... A-34
From The Program For The March On Washington For Jobs And
Freedom
(1963) ... A-37
Ronald Reagan’s First Inaugural Address (1981) ... A-38
Barack Obama’s First Inaugural Address (2009) ... A-42
TABLES AND FIGURES
Presidential Elections ... A-46
Admission of States ... A-54
Population of the United States ... A-55
Historical Statistics of The United States:
Labor Force—Selected Characteristics Expressed As A
Percentage
of The Labor Force, 1800–2010 ... A-56
Immigration, By Origin ... A-56
Unemployment Rate, 1890–2013 ... A-57

40. Union Membership As A Percentage Of Nonagricultural
Employment,
1880–2012 ... A-57
Voter Participation in Presidential Elections 1824–2012 ... A-57
Birthrate, 1820–2011 ... A-57
S U G G E S T E D R E A D I N G S ... A - 5 9
G L O S S A R Y ... A - 6 7
C R E D I T S ... A - 9 5
I N D E X ... A - 9 9
xvii i
List of Maps, Tables, and Figures
M A P S
CHAPTER 1
The First Americans ... 4
Native Ways of Life, ca. 1500 ... 8
The Old World on the Eve of American
Colonization, ca. 1500 ... 15

41. Voyages of Discovery ... 18
Early Spanish Conquests and Explorations in the
New World ... 26
The New World—New France and New
Netherland, ca. 1650 ... 31
CHAPTER 2
English Settlement in the Chesapeake,
ca. 1650 ... 48
English Settlement in New England,
ca. 1640 ... 59
CHAPTER 3
Eastern North America in the Seventeenth and
Early Eighteenth Centuries ... 76
European Settlement and Ethnic Diversity on the
Atlantic Coast of North America, 1760 ... 94
CHAPTER 4
Atlantic Trading Routes ... 107
The Slave Trade in the Atlantic World,

42. 1460–1770 ... 108
European Empires in North America,
ca. 1750 ... 128
Eastern North America after the Peace of
Paris, 1763 ... 133
CHAPTER 5
The Revolutionary War in the North,
1775–1781 ... 160
The Revolutionary War in the South,
1775–1781 ... 163
North America, 1783 ... 164
CHAPTER 6
Loyalism in the American Revolution ... 180
CHAPTER 7
Western Lands, 1782–1802 ... 197
Western Ordinances, 1785–1787 ... 199
Ratification of the Constitution ... 213
CHAPTER 8

43. The Presidential Election of 1800 ... 234
The Louisiana Purchase ... 239
The War of 1812 ... 245
CHAPTER 9
The Market Revolution: Roads and Canals,
1840 ... 253
Travel Times from New York City in 1800
and 1830 ... 256
The Market Revolution: The Spread of
Cotton Cultivation, 1820–1840 ... 258
Cotton Mills, 1820s ... 263
CHAPTER 10
The Missouri Compromise, 1820 ... 289
The Presidential Election of 1824 ... 291
The Presidential Election of 1828 ... 296
Indian Removals, 1830–1840 ... 302
The Presidential Election of 1840 ... 308
CHAPTER 11

44. Slave Population, 1860 ... 315
Size of Slaveholdings, 1860 ... 319
Major Crops of the South, 1860 ... 325
Slave Resistance in the Nineteenth-Century
Atlantic World ... 331
CHAPTER 12
Utopian Communities, Mid-Nineteenth
Century ... 342
CHAPTER 13
The Trans-Mississippi West, 1830s–1840s ... 369
The Mexican War, 1846–1848 ... 374
Continental Expansion through 1853 ... 375
The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854 ... 383
Lists of Maps, Tables, and Figures
xix
The Railroad Network, 1850s ... 384

45. The Presidential Election of 1856 ... 389
The Presidential Election of 1860 ... 396
CHAPTER 14
The Secession of Southern States, 1860–1861 ...
404
The Civil War in the East, 1861–1862 ... 409
The Civil War in the West, 1861–1862 ... 411
The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414
The Civil War, 1863 ... 432
The Civil War, Late 1864–1865 ... 437
CHAPTER 15
The Barrow Plantation ... 446
Sharecropping in the South,
1880 ... 452
The Presidential Election of 1868 ... 460
Reconstruction in the South,
1867–1877 ... 471
The Presidential Election of 1876 ... 472

46. T A B L E S A N D F I G U R E S
CHAPTER 1
Table 1.1 Estimated Regional Populations:
The Americas, ca. 1500 ... 24
Table 1.2 Estimated Regional Populations:
The World, ca. 1500 ... 25
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1 Origins and Status of Migrants
to British North American Colonies,
1700–1775 ... 91
CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1 Slave Population as Percentage of
Total Population of Original Thirteen
Colonies, 1770 ... 112
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.1 Total Population and Black Population
of the United States, 1790 ... 217
CHAPTER 9

47. Table 9.1 Population Growth of Selected Western
States, 1800–1850 (Excluding Indians)... 257
Table 9.2 Total Number of Immigrants by
Five-Year Period ... 264
Figure 9.1 Sources of Immigration, 1850 ... 265
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Growth of the Slave Population ... 314
Table 11.2 Slaveholding, 1850 (in Round
Numbers) ... 318
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 Resources for War: Union versus
Confederacy ... 407
xx
Preface
P R E FA C E
Since it originally appeared late in 2004, Give Me Liberty! An
American History has gone through three editions and been
adopted for use in survey courses at close to one thousand two-

48. and four-year colleges
in the United States, as well as a good number overseas. Of
course, I am
extremely gratified by this response. The book offers students a
clear narra-
tive of American history from the earliest days of European
exploration and
conquest of the New World to the first decade of the twenty-
first century. Its
central theme is the changing contours of American freedom.
The comments I have received from instructors and students
encour-
age me to think that Give Me Liberty! has worked well in the
classroom. These
comments have also included many valuable suggestions,
ranging from
corrections of typographical and factual errors to thoughts about
subjects
that need more extensive treatment. In preparing new editions
of the book
I have tried to take these suggestions into account, as well as
incorporating
the insights of recent historical scholarship.
Since the original edition was written, I have frequently been
asked to
produce a more succinct version of the textbook, which now
runs to some
1,200 pages. This Brief Edition is a response to these requests.
The text of the
current volume is about one-third shorter than the full version.
The result, I
believe, is a book more suited to use in one-semester survey
courses, classes

49. Preface
xxi
where the instructor wishes to supplement the text with
additional read-
ings, and in other situations where a briefer volume is desirable.
Since some publishers have been known to assign the task of
reduction
in cases like this to editors rather than the actual author, I wish
to empha-
size that I did all the cutting and necessary rewriting for this
Brief Edition
myself. My guiding principle was to preserve the coverage,
structure, and
emphases of the regular edition and to compress the book by
eliminating
details of secondary importance, streamlining the narrative of
events, and
avoiding unnecessary repetition. While the book is significantly
shorter,
no subject treated in the full edition has been eliminated
entirely and noth-
ing essential, I believe, has been sacrificed. The sequence of
chapters and
subjects remains the same, and the freedom theme is present and
operative
throughout.
In abridging the textbook I have retained the original
interpretive
framework as well as the new emphases added when the second

50. and third
editions of the book were published. The second edition
incorporated new
material about the history of Native Americans, an area of
American his-
tory that has been the subject of significant new scholarship in
the past
few years. It also devoted greater attention to the history of
immigration and
the controversies surrounding it—issues of considerable
relevance to Amer-
ican social and political life today.
The most significant change in the third edition reflected my
desire to
place American history more fully in a global context. In the
past few years,
scholars writing about the American past have sought to
delineate the influ-
ences of the United States on the rest of the world as well as the
global devel-
opments that have helped to shape the course of events here at
home. They
have also devoted greater attention to transnational processes—
the expan-
sion of empires, international labor migrations, the rise and fall
of slavery,
the globalization of economic enterprise—that cannot be
understood solely
within the confines of one country’s national boundaries.
Without seek-
ing in any way to homogenize the history of individual nations
or neglect
the domestic forces that have shaped American development,
this edition
retains this emphasis.

51. The most significant changes in this Fourth Edition reflect my
desire
to integrate more fully into the narrative the history of
American religion.
Today, this is a thriving subfield of American historical writing,
partly
because of the increased prominence in our own time of debates
over the
relations between government and religion and over the
definition of reli-
gious liberty—issues that are deeply rooted in the American
experience.
The Brief Edition also employs a bright new design for the text
and its vari-
ous elements. The popular Voices of Freedom feature—a pair of
excerpts
from primary source documents in each chapter that illuminate
divergent
interpretations of freedom—is present here. So too are the
useful chapter
xxii
Preface
opening focus questions, which appear in the running heads of
the relevant
text pages as well. There are chapter opening chronologies and
end-of-
chapter review pages with questions and key terms. As a new
feature in the
Brief Edition there are marginal glosses in the text pages that

52. are meant to
highlight key points and indicate the chapter structure for
students. They
are also useful means for review. The Brief Edition features
more than
400 illustrations and over 100 captioned maps in easy to read
four-color
renditions. The Further Readings sections appear in the
Appendix along
with the Glossary and the collection of key documents. The
Brief Edition
is fully supported by the same array of print and electronic
supplements
that support the other editions of Give Me Liberty! These
materials have been
revised to match the content of the Brief Edition.
Americans have always had a divided attitude toward history.
On the one
hand, they tend to be remarkably future-oriented, dismissing
events of even
the recent past as “ancient history” and sometimes seeing
history as a bur-
den to be overcome, a prison from which to escape. On the other
hand, like
many other peoples, Americans have always looked to history
for a sense
of personal or group identity and of national cohesiveness. This
is why so
many Americans devote time and energy to tracing their family
trees and
why they visit historical museums and National Park Service
historical
sites in ever-increasing numbers. My hope is that this book will
help to con-
vince readers with all degrees of interest that history does

53. matter to them.
The novelist and essayist James Baldwin once observed that
history
“does not refer merely, or even principally, to the past. On the
contrary,
the great force of history comes from the fact that we carry it
within us, . . .
[that] history is literally present in all that we do.” As Baldwin
recognized,
the power of history is evident in our own world. Especially in a
political
democracy like the United States, whose government is
designed to rest on
the consent of informed citizens, knowledge of the past is
essential—not
only for those of us whose profession is the teaching and
writing of history,
but for everyone. History, to be sure, does not offer simple
lessons or imme-
diate answers to current questions. Knowing the history of
immigration to
the United States, and all of the tensions, turmoil, and
aspirations associated
with it, for example, does not tell us what current immigration
policy ought
to be. But without that knowledge, we have no way of
understanding which
approaches have worked and which have not—essential
information for the
formulation of future public policy.
History, it has been said, is what the present chooses to
remember
about the past. Rather than a fixed collection of facts, or a
group of inter-

54. pretations that cannot be challenged, our understanding of
history is con-
stantly changing. There is nothing unusual in the fact that each
generation
rewrites history to meet its own needs, or that scholars disagree
among
Preface
xxii i
themselves on basic questions like the causes of the Civil War
or the rea-
sons for the Great Depression. Precisely because each
generation asks dif-
ferent questions of the past, each generation formulates
different answers.
The past thirty years have witnessed a remarkable expansion of
the scope
of historical study. The experiences of groups neglected by
earlier scholars,
including women, African-Americans, working people, and
others, have
received unprecedented attention from historians. New
subfields—social
history, cultural history, and family history among them—have
taken their
place alongside traditional political and diplomatic history.
Give Me Liberty! draws on this voluminous historical literature
to pres-
ent an up-to-date and inclusive account of the American past,
paying due

55. attention to the experience of diverse groups of Americans
while in no
way neglecting the events and processes Americans have
experienced in
common. It devotes serious attention to political, social,
cultural, and eco-
nomic history, and to their interconnections. The narrative
brings together
major events and prominent leaders with the many groups of
ordinary peo-
ple who make up American society. Give Me Liberty! has a rich
cast of char-
acters, from Thomas Jefferson to campaigners for woman
suffrage, from
Franklin D. Roosevelt to former slaves seeking to breathe
meaning into
emancipation during and after the Civil War.
The unifying theme of freedom that runs through the text gives
shape to the narrative and integrates the numerous strands that
make up
the American experience. This approach builds on that of my
earlier book,
The Story of American Freedom (1998), although Give Me
Liberty! places events
and personalities in the foreground and is more geared to the
structure of
the introductory survey course.
Freedom, and battles to define its meaning, has long been
central to
my own scholarship and undergraduate teaching, which focuses
on the
nineteenth century and especially the era of Civil War and
Reconstruction
(1850–1877). This was a time when the future of slavery tore

56. the nation apart
and emancipation produced a national debate over what rights
the former
slaves, and all Americans, should enjoy as free citizens. I have
found that
attention to clashing definitions of freedom and the struggles of
differ-
ent groups to achieve freedom as they understood it offers a
way of mak-
ing sense of the bitter battles and vast transformations of that
pivotal era.
I believe that the same is true for American history as a whole.
No idea is more fundamental to Americans’ sense of themselves
as
individuals and as a nation than freedom. The central term in
our politi-
cal language, freedom—or liberty, with which it is almost
always used
interchangeably—is deeply embedded in the record of our
history and the
language of everyday life. The Declaration of Independence
lists liberty
among mankind’s inalienable rights; the Constitution announces
its purpose
xxiv
Preface
as securing liberty’s blessings. The United States fought the
Civil War to
bring about a new birth of freedom, World War II for the Four

57. Freedoms,
and the Cold War to defend the Free World. Americans’ love of
liberty has
been represented by liberty poles, liberty caps, and statues of
liberty, and
acted out by burning stamps and burning draft cards, by running
away
from slavery, and by demonstrating for the right to vote. “Every
man in the
street, white, black, red or yellow,” wrote the educator and
statesman Ralph
Bunche in 1940, “knows that this is ‘the land of the free’ . . .
‘the cradle of
liberty.’”
The very universality of the idea of freedom, however, can be
mislead-
ing. Freedom is not a fixed, timeless category with a single
unchanging defi-
nition. Indeed, the history of the United States is, in part, a
story of debates,
disagreements, and struggles over freedom. Crises like the
American Revo-
lution, the Civil War, and the Cold War have permanently
transformed the
idea of freedom. So too have demands by various groups of
Americans to
enjoy greater freedom. The meaning of freedom has been
constructed not
only in congressional debates and political treatises, but on
plantations and
picket lines, in parlors and even bedrooms.
Over the course of our history, American freedom has been both
a real-
ity and a mythic ideal—a living truth for millions of Americans,

58. a cruel
mockery for others. For some, freedom has been what some
scholars call a
“habit of the heart,” an ideal so taken for granted that it is lived
out but rarely
analyzed. For others, freedom is not a birthright but a distant
goal that has
inspired great sacrifice.
Give Me Liberty! draws attention to three dimensions of
freedom that
have been critical in American history: (1) the meanings of
freedom; (2) the
social conditions that make freedom possible; and (3) the
boundaries of free-
dom that determine who is entitled to enjoy freedom and who is
not. All have
changed over time.
In the era of the American Revolution, for example, freedom
was pri-
marily a set of rights enjoyed in public activity—including the
right of a com-
munity to be governed by laws to which its representatives had
consented
and of individuals to engage in religious worship without
governmental
interference. In the nineteenth century, freedom came to be
closely identi-
fied with each person’s opportunity to develop to the fullest his
or her innate
talents. In the twentieth, the “ability to choose,” in both public
and private
life, became perhaps the dominant understanding of freedom.
This develop-
ment was encouraged by the explosive growth of the consumer

59. marketplace
which offered Americans an unprecedented array of goods with
which to
satisfy their needs and desires. During the 1960s, a crucial
chapter in the
history of American freedom, the idea of personal freedom was
extended
into virtually every realm, from attire and “lifestyle” to
relations between
Preface
xxv
the sexes. Thus, over time, more and more areas of life have
been drawn into
Americans’ debates about the meaning of freedom.
A second important dimension of freedom focuses on the social
con-
ditions necessary to allow freedom to flourish. What kinds of
economic
institutions and relationships best encourage individual
freedom? In the
colonial era and for more than a century after independence, the
answer
centered on economic autonomy, enshrined in the glorification
of the inde-
pendent small producer—the farmer, skilled craftsman, or
shopkeeper—
who did not have to depend on another person for his
livelihood. As the
industrial economy matured, new conceptions of economic

60. freedom came to
the fore: “liberty of contract” in the Gilded Age, “industrial
freedom” (a say
in corporate decision making) in the Progressive era, economic
security
during the New Deal, and, more recently, the ability to enjoy
mass consump-
tion within a market economy.
The boundaries of freedom, the third dimension of this theme,
have
inspired some of the most intense struggles in American history.
Although
founded on the premise that liberty is an entitlement of all
humanity, the
United States for much of its history deprived many of its own
people of free-
dom. Non-whites have rarely enjoyed the same access to
freedom as white
Americans. The belief in equal opportunity as the birthright of
all Ameri-
cans has coexisted with persistent efforts to limit freedom by
race, gender,
class, and in other ways.
Less obvious, perhaps, is the fact that one person’s freedom has
fre-
quently been linked to another’s servitude. In the colonial era
and nine-
teenth century, expanding freedom for many Americans rested
on the
lack of freedom—slavery, indentured servitude, the subordinate
position
of women—for others. By the same token, it has been through
battles at the
boundaries—the efforts of racial minorities, women, and others

61. to secure
greater freedom—that the meaning and experience of freedom
have been
deepened and the concept extended into new realms.
Time and again in American history, freedom has been
transformed
by the demands of excluded groups for inclusion. The idea of
freedom as a
universal birthright owes much to abolitionists who sought to
extend the
blessings of liberty to blacks and to immigrant groups who
insisted on full
recognition as American citizens. The principle of equal
protection of the
law without regard to race, which became a central element of
American
freedom, arose from the antislavery struggle and Civil War and
was rein-
vigorated by the civil rights revolution of the 1960s, which
called itself the
“freedom movement.” The battle for the right of free speech by
labor radicals
and birth control advocates in the first part of the twentieth
century helped
to make civil liberties an essential element of freedom for all
Americans.
Freedom is the oldest of clichés and the most modern of
aspirations.
At various times in our history, it has served as the rallying cry
of the
xxvi

62. Preface
powerless and as a justification of the status quo. Freedom helps
to bind
our culture together and exposes the contradictions between
what Amer-
ica claims to be and what it sometimes has been. American
history is not
a narrative of continual progress toward greater and greater
freedom. As
the abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson noted after the
Civil War,
“revolutions may go backward.” While freedom can be
achieved, it may also
be taken away. This happened, for example, when the equal
rights granted
to former slaves immediately after the Civil War were
essentially nullified
during the era of segregation. As was said in the eighteenth
century, the
price of freedom is eternal vigilance.
In the early twenty-first century, freedom continues to play a
central
role in our political and social life and thought. It is invoked by
individuals
and groups of all kinds, from critics of economic globalization
to those who
seek to export American freedom overseas. As with the longer
version of
the book, I hope that this Brief Edition of Give Me Liberty! will
offer begin-
ning students a clear account of the course of American history,
and of its

63. central theme, freedom, which today remains as varied,
contentious, and
ever-changing as America itself.
Preface
xxvii
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
All works of history are, to a considerable extent, collaborative
books, in that
every writer builds on the research and writing of previous
scholars. This
is especially true of a textbook that covers the entire American
experience,
over more than five centuries. My greatest debt is to the
innumerable histo-
rians on whose work I have drawn in preparing this volume. The
Suggested
Reading list in the Appendix offers only a brief introduction to
the vast body
of historical scholarship that has influenced and informed this
book. More
specifically, however, I wish to thank the following scholars,
who gener-
ously read portions of this work and offered valuable comments,
criticisms,
and suggestions:
Wayne Ackerson, Salisbury University
Mary E. Adams, City College of San Francisco
Jeff Adler, University of Florida

64. David Anderson, Louisiana Tech University
John Barr, Lone Star College, Kingwood
Lauren Braun-Strumfels, Raritan Valley Community College
James Broussard, Lebanon Valley College
Michael Bryan, Greenville Technical College
Stephanie Cole, The University of Texas at Arlington
Ashley Cruseturner, McLennan Community College
Jim Dudlo, Brookhaven College
Beverly Gage, Yale University
Monica Gisolfi, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
Adam Goudsouzian, University of Memphis
Mike Green, Community College of Southern Nevada
Vanessa Gunther, California State University, Fullerton
David E. Hamilton, University of Kentucky
Brian Harding, Mott Community College
Sandra Harvey, Lone Star College–Cy Fair
April Holm, University of Mississippi
David Hsiung, Juniata College
James Karmel, Harford Community College
Kelly Knight, Penn State University
Marianne Leeper, Trinity Valley Community College
Jeffrey K. Lucas, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
Tina Margolis, Westchester Community College
Kent McGaughy, HCC Northwest College
James Mills, University of Texas, Brownsville
Gil Montemayor, McLennan Community College
Jonathan Noyalas, Lord Fairfax Community College
Robert M. O’Brien, Lone Star College–Cy Fair
xxvii i
Preface

65. Joseph Palermo, California State University, Sacramento
Ann Plane, University of California, Santa Barbara
Nancy Marie Robertson, Indiana University–Purdue University
Indianapolis
Esther Robinson, Lone Star College–Cy Fair
Richard Samuelson, California State University, San Bernadino
Diane Sager, Maple Woods Community College
John Shaw, Portland Community College
Mark Spencer, Brock University
David Stebenne, Ohio State University
Judith Stein, City College, City University of New York
George Stevens, Duchess Community College
Robert Tinkler, California State University, Chico
Elaine Thompson, Louisiana Tech University
David Weiman, Barnard College
William Young, Maple Woods Community College
I am particularly grateful to my colleagues in the Columbia
University
Department of History: Pablo Piccato, for his advice on Latin
American his-
tory; Evan Haefeli and Ellen Baker, who read and made many
suggestions for
improvements in their areas of expertise (colonial America and
the history of
the West, respectively); and Sarah Phillips, who offered advice
on treating the
history of the environment.
I am also deeply indebted to the graduate students at Columbia
Univer-
sity’s Department of History who helped with this project.
Theresa Ventura
offered invaluable assistance in gathering material for the new
sections plac-
ing American history in a global context. April Holm provided

66. similar assis-
tance for new coverage in this edition of the history of
American religion and
debates over religious freedom. James Delbourgo conducted
research for
the chapters on the colonial era. Beverly Gage did the same for
the twenti-
eth century. Daniel Freund provided all-round research
assistance. Victoria
Cain did a superb job of locating images. I also want to thank
my colleagues
Elizabeth Blackmar and Alan Brinkley for offering advice and
encourage-
ment throughout the writing of this book.
Many thanks to Joshua Brown, director of the American Social
History
Project, whose website, History Matters, lists innumerable
online resources
for the study of American history. Nancy Robertson at IUIPUI
did a superb
job revising and enhancing the in-book pedagogy. Monica
Gisolfi (Univer-
sity of North Carolina, Wilmington) and Robert Tinkler
(California State
University, Chico) did excellent work on the Instructor’s
Manual and Test
Bank. Kathleen Thomas (University of Wisconsin, Stout) helped
greatly in
the revisions of the companion media packages.
Preface

67. xxix
At W. W. Norton & Company, Steve Forman was an ideal
editor—
patient, encouraging, and always ready to offer sage advice. I
would also
like to thank Steve’s assistants, Justin Cahill and Penelope Lin,
for their
indispensable and always cheerful help on all aspects of the
project; Ellen
Lohman and Debbie Nichols for their careful copyediting and
proof read-
ing work. Stephanie Romeo and Donna Ranieri for their
resourceful atten-
tion to the illustrations program; Hope Miller Goodell and Chin-
Yee Lai for
their refinements of the book design; Mike Fodera and Debra
Morton-Hoyt
for splendid work on the covers for the Fourth Edition; Kim Yi
for keep-
ing the many threads of the project aligned and then tying them
together;
Sean Mintus for his efficiency and care in book production;
Steve Hoge for
orchestrating the rich media package that accompanies the
textbook; Jessica
Brannon-Wranosky, Texas A&M University–Commerce, our
digital media
author for the terrific new web quizzes and outlines; Volker
Janssen, Cali-
fornia State University, Fullerton, for the helpful new online
reading exer-
cises; Nicole Netherton, Steve Dunn, and Mike Wright for their
alert reads
of the U.S. survey market and their hard work in helping
establish Give Me

68. Liberty! within it; and Drake McFeely, Roby Harrington, and
Julia Reidhead
for maintaining Norton as an independent, employee-owned
publisher ded-
icated to excellence in its work.
Many students may have heard stories of how publishing
companies
alter the language and content of textbooks in an attempt to
maximize sales
and avoid alienating any potential reader. In this case, I can
honestly say that
W. W. Norton allowed me a free hand in writing the book and,
apart from the
usual editorial corrections, did not try to influence its content at
all. For this
I thank them, while I accept full responsibility for the
interpretations pre-
sented and for any errors the book may contain. Since no book
of this length
can be entirely free of mistakes, I welcome readers to send me
corrections at
[email protected]
My greatest debt, as always, is to my family—my wife, Lynn
Garafola,
for her good-natured support while I was preoccupied by a
project that con-
sumed more than its fair share of my time and energy, and my
daughter,
Daria, who while a ninth and tenth grader read every chapter as
it was writ-
ten and offered invaluable suggestions about improving the
book’s clarity,
logic, and grammar.
Eric Foner

69. New York City
July 2013
G I V E M E
L I B E R T Y !
A N A M E R I C A N H I S T O R Y
B r i e f F o u r t h E d i t i o n
C H A P T E R 1
A
N E W W O R L D
7000 BC Agriculture developed in
Mexico and Andes
900– Hopi and Zuni tribes build
1200 AD planned towns
1200 Cahokia city-empire along

70. the Mississippi
1400s Iroquois League
established
1434 Portuguese explore sub-
Saharan African Coast
1487 Bartolomeu Dias reaches
the Cape of Good Hope
1492 Reconquista of Spain
Columbus’s first voyage to
the Americas
1498 Vasco da Gama sails to the
Indian Ocean
1500 Pedro Cabral claims Brazil
for Portugal
1502 First African slaves trans-
ported to the Caribbean
islands
1517 Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five
Theses
1519 Hernán Cortés arrives in
Mexico
1528 Las Casas’s History of the
Indies
1530s Pizarro’s conquest of Peru

71. 1542 Spain promulgates the New
Laws
1608 Champlain establishes
Quebec
1609 Hudson claims New
Netherland
1610 Santa Fe established
1680 Pueblo Revolt
A
N E W W O R L D
C H A P T E R 1
France Bringing the Faith to the Indians
of New France. European nations
justified colonization with the argument
that they were bringing Christianity—
without which freedom was impossible—
to Native Americans. In this painting
from the 1670s, an Indian kneels before
a female representation of France. Both

72. hold a painting of the Trinity.
A New World2
What were the major pat-
terns of Native American
life in North America
before Europeans arrived?
How did Indian and Euro-
pean ideas of freedom dif-
fer on the eve of contact?
What impelled European
explorers to look west
across the Atlantic?
What happened when the
peoples of the Americas
came in contact with
Europeans?
What were the chief

73. features of the Spanish
empire in America?
What were the chief fea-
tures of the French and
Dutch empires in North
America?
F O C U S
Q U E S T I O N S
T he discovery of America,” the British writer Adam Smith
announced in his celebrated work The Wealth of Nations
(1776), was one of “the two greatest and most important events
recorded
in the history of mankind.” Historians no longer use the word
“discovery”
to describe the European exploration, conquest, and
colonization of
a hemisphere already home to millions of people. But there can
be no
doubt that when Christopher Columbus made landfall in the
West Indian
islands in 1492, he set in motion some of the most pivotal
developments
in human history. Immense changes soon followed in both the
Old and
New Worlds; the consequences of these changes are still with us
today.
The peoples of the American continents and Europe, previously
unaware of each other’s existence, were thrown into continuous

74. interaction.
Crops new to each hemisphere crossed the Atlantic, reshaping
diets and
transforming the natural environment. Because of their long
isolation, the
inhabitants of North and South America had developed no
immunity to
the germs that also accompanied the colonizers. As a result,
they suffered
a series of devastating epidemics, the greatest population
catastrophe
in human history. Within a decade of Columbus’s voyage, a
fourth
continent—Africa—found itself drawn into the new Atlantic
system of
trade and population movement. In Africa, Europeans found a
supply of
unfree labor that enabled them to exploit the fertile lands of the
Western
Hemisphere. Indeed, of approximately 10 million men, women,
and
children who crossed from the Old World to the New between
1492 and
1820, the vast majority, about 7.7 million, were African slaves.
From the vantage point of 1776, the year the United States
declared
itself an independent nation, it seemed to Adam Smith that the
“discovery”
of America had produced both great “benefits” and great
“misfortunes.”
To the nations of western Europe, the development of American
colonies
brought an era of “splendor and glory.” Smith also noted,
however, that
to the “natives” of the Americas the years since 1492 had been

75. ones of
“dreadful misfortunes” and “every sort of injustice.” And for
millions
of Africans, the settlement of America meant a descent into the
abyss
of slavery.
Long before Columbus sailed, Europeans had dreamed of a land
of abundance, riches, and ease beyond the western horizon.
Europeans
envisioned America as a religious refuge, a society of equals, a
source
of power and glory. They searched the New World for golden
cities and
fountains of eternal youth. Some of these dreams would indeed
be fulfilled.
To many European settlers, America offered a far greater
chance to own
land and worship as they pleased than existed in Europe, with
its rigid,
unequal social order and official churches. Yet the New World
also became
3T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
What were the major patterns of Native American life in North
America before Europeans arrived?
the site of many forms of unfree labor, including indentured
servitude,
forced labor, and one of the most brutal and unjust systems,
plantation
slavery. The conquest and settlement of the Western
Hemisphere opened

76. new chapters in the long histories of both freedom and slavery.
T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
The Settling of the Americas
The residents of the Americas were no more a single group than
Europeans
or Africans. They spoke hundreds of different languages and
lived in
numerous kinds of societies. Most, however, were descended
from bands
of hunters and fishers who had crossed the Bering Strait via a
land bridge
at various times between 15,000 and 60,000 years ago—the
exact dates
are hotly debated by archaeologists.
The New World was new to Europeans but an ancient homeland
to those who already lived there. The hemisphere had witnessed
many
changes during its human history. First, the early inhabitants
and their
descendants spread across the two continents, reaching the tip
of South
America perhaps 11,000 years ago. As the climate warmed, they
faced a
food crisis as the immense animals they hunted, including
woolly mam-
moths and giant bison, became extinct. Around 9,000 years ago,
at the
same time that agriculture was being developed in the Near
East, it also
emerged in modern-day Mexico and the Andes, and then spread
to other
parts of the Americas, making settled civilizations possible.

77. Indian Societies of the Americas
North and South America were hardly an empty wilderness
when
Europeans arrived. The hemisphere contained cities, roads,
irrigation
systems, extensive trade networks, and large structures such as
the
pyramid-temples whose beauty still inspires wonder. With a
population
close to 250,000, Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire
in what
is now Mexico, was one of the world’s largest cities. Farther
south lay the
Inca kingdom, centered in modern-day Peru. Its population of
perhaps
12 million was linked by a complex system of roads and bridges
that
extended 2,000 miles along the Andes mountain chain.
Indian civilizations in North America had not developed the
scale, gran-
deur, or centralized organization of the Aztec and Inca societies
to their south.
Emergence of agriculture
Roads, trade networks, and
irrigation systems
Tenochtitlán

78. Monte Alban
Poverty Point
Chichen Itzá
Chaco
Canyon
Cahokia
Palenque
NORTH AMERICA
SOUTH AMERICA
CENTRAL AMERICA
Chukc h i
Pe n insu la
Yucatán
Pen ins u la
Aleut ian I s lands
INCAS
MAY
ANS
MOHAWK
ONEIDA
CAYUGA

79. SENECA
ONONDAGA
CHEROKEE
HOPI
ZUNI
PUEBLO CHICKASAW
CHOCTAW
AZTECS
Be
rin
g St
rait
Gulf of Mexico
Caribbean Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Paci f ic Ocean
0
0
500
500

80. 1,000 miles
1,000 kilometers
Possible migration routes
Oh
io Ri
ve
r
M
ississippi R.
T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
A map illustrating the probable routes by which the first
Americans settled the Western Hemisphere at various times
between 15,000
and 60,000 years ago.
5T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
What were the major patterns of Native American life in North
America before Europeans arrived?
North American Indians lacked the technologies Europeans had
mastered,
such as metal tools and machines, gunpowder, and the scientific
knowledge
necessary for long-distance navigation. No society north of

81. Mexico had
achieved literacy (although some made maps on bark and animal
hides).
Their “backwardness” became a central justification for
European conquest.
But, over time, Indian societies had perfected techniques of
farming, hunt-
ing, and fishing, developed structures of political power and
religious belief,
and engaged in far-reaching networks of trade and
communication.
Mound Builders of the Mississippi
River Valley
Remarkable physical remains still exist from some of the early
civilizations
in North America. Around 3,500 years ago, before Egyptians
built the
pyramids, Native Americans constructed a large community
centered on a
series of giant semicircular mounds on a bluff overlooking the
Mississippi
River in present-day Louisiana. Known today as Poverty Point,
it was a
commercial and governmental center whose residents
established trade
routes throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys.
More than a thousand years before Columbus sailed, Indians of
the
Ohio River valley, called “mound builders” by eighteenth-
century set-
tlers who encountered the large earthen burial mounds they
created, had
traded across half the continent. After their decline, another

82. culture flour-
ished in the Mississippi River valley, centered on the city of
Cahokia near
present-day St. Louis, a fortified community with between
10,000 and
Map of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán
and the Gulf of Mexico, probably
produced by a Spanish conquistador
and published in 1524 in an edition of
the letters of Hernán Cortés. The map
shows the city’s complex system of
canals, bridges, and dams, with the
Great Temple at the center. Gardens
and a zoo are also visible.
“Mound builders”
Justification for conquest
30,000 inhabitants in the year 1200. It stood as the largest
settled com-
munity in what is now the United States until surpassed in
population by

83. New York and Philadelphia around 1800.
Western Indians
In the arid northeastern area of present-day Arizona, the Hopi
and Zuni
and their ancestors engaged in settled village life for over 3,000
years.
During the peak of the region’s culture, between the years 900
and 1200,
these peoples built great planned towns with large multiple-
family dwell-
ings in local canyons, constructed dams and canals to gather and
distribute
water, and conducted trade with groups as far away as central
Mexico and
the Mississippi River valley. The largest of their structures,
Pueblo Bonita,
in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stood five stories high and had
over 600
rooms. Not until the 1880s was a dwelling of comparable size
constructed
in the United States.
After the decline of these communities, probably because of
drought,
survivors moved to the south and east, where they established
villages and
perfected the techniques of desert farming. These were the
people Spanish
explorers called the Pueblo Indians (because they lived in small
villages,
or pueblos, when the Spanish first encountered them in the
sixteenth cen-
tury). On the Pacific coast, another densely populated region,
hundreds

84. of distinct groups resided in independent villages and lived
primarily by
fishing, hunting sea mammals, and gathering wild plants and
nuts.
Indians of Eastern North
America
In eastern North America, hundreds of tribes
inhabited towns and villages scattered from
the Gulf of Mexico to present-day Canada.
They lived on corn, squash, and beans, sup-
plemented by fishing and hunting deer, tur-
keys, and other animals. Indian trade routes
crisscrossed the eastern part of the continent.
Tribes frequently warred with one another to
obtain goods, seize captives, or take revenge
for the killing of relatives. They conducted
diplomacy and made peace. Little in the
way of centralized authority existed until,
in the fifteenth century, various leagues or
Village life and trade
A modern aerial photograph of the
ruins of Pueblo Bonita, in Chaco
Canyon in present-day New Mexico.
The rectangular structures are the
foundations of dwellings, and the
circular ones are kivas, or places

85. of religious worship.
7T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
What were the major patterns of Native American life in North
America before Europeans arrived?
confederations emerged in an effort to bring order to local
regions. In the
Southeast, the Choctaw, Cherokee, and Chickasaw each united
dozens of
towns in loose alliances. In present-day New York and
Pennsylvania, five
Iroquois peoples—the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and
Onondaga—
formed a Great League of Peace, bringing a period of stability
to the area.
The most striking feature of Native American society at the
time
Europeans arrived was its sheer diversity. Each group had its
own political
system and set of religious beliefs, and North America was
home to liter-
ally hundreds of mutually unintelligible languages. Indians did
not think
of themselves as a single unified people, an idea invented by
Europeans
and only many years later adopted by Indians themselves.
Indian identity
centered on the immediate social group—a tribe, village,
chiefdom, or con-
federacy. When Europeans first arrived, many Indians saw them
as simply

86. one group among many. The sharp dichotomy between Indians
and “white”
persons did not emerge until later in the colonial era.
Native American Religion
Nonetheless, the diverse Indian societies of North America did
share cer-
tain common characteristics. Their lives were steeped in
religious ceremo-
nies often directly related to farming and hunting. Spiritual
power, they
Diversity of Native American
society
The Village of Secoton, by John
White, an English artist who spent
a year on the Outer Banks of North
Carolina in 1585–1586 as part of an
expedition sponsored by Sir Walter
Raleigh. A central street links houses
surrounded by fields of corn. In the
lower part, dancing Indians take part
in a religious ceremony.

87. INUIT
INUIT
ALGONQUIAN
MICMAC
PENOBSCOT
ABENAKI
HURON
NEUTRAL
ERIE
IROQUOIS
SUSQUEHANNOCK
NARRAGANSETT
WAMPANOAG
PEQUOT
MOHEGAN
CREE
CHIPPEWA
CHIPPEWA
OTTOWAMENOMINEE

88. WINNEBAGO
POTAWATOMI
ASSINIBOINE
CHEYENNE SIOUX
TLINGIT
TSHIMSHIAN
KWAKIUTLS
NOOTKIN SHUSWAP
KOOTENAY
BLACKFEET
SHOSHONE
FLATHEAD
HIDATSA
MANDAN
KIOWA
SIOUX
ARAPAHO
PAWNEE IOWA
CHUMASH

89. LUISENO
DIEGUENO
COSTANO
POMO
TILLAMOOK
CHINOOK
SKAGIT
WALLA
WALLA
CAYUSE
NEZ
PERCE
KLAMATH
MODOC
MAIDU
SOUTHERN
PAIUTE
HOPI
UTE
CHEMEHUEVI
SERRANO

90. CAHUILLA
ZUNI TEWA
JUMANO
YACHI
CONCHO
LAGUERNO
COAHUILTEC
KABANKAWA
NATCHEZ APALACHEE
CALUSA
ARAWAK
CHOCTAW
YAMASEE
TIMUCUA
CREEK
CHEROKEE
CHICKASAW
PAMLICO
TUSCARORA

91. MOSOPELEA
SHAWNEESAUK
KICKAPOO
ILLINOIS
KASKASKIA
MESCALERO
COMANCHE
WICHITA
CADDO
t h i n l y
p o p u l a t e d
th
i n
l y p o p u l a t e d
L. Sup
erior
L.
M
ic
hi
ga
n

92. L. Huron
L. E
rie
L. O
ntar
io
Gulf of Mexico
Hudson
Bay
Paci f ic
Oc ean
0
0
250
250
500 miles
500 kilometers
Arctic hunter-gatherers
Subarctic hunter-fisher-gatherers
Northwest coast marine economy
Plains hunter-gatherers
Plains horticulturalists

93. Non-horticultural rancherian peoples
Rancherian peoples with low-intensity horticulture
Rancherian peoples with intensive horticulture
Pueblos with intensive horticulture
Seacoast foragers
Ways of Life in North America, AD 1515
Marginal horticultural hunters
River-based horticultural chiefdoms
Orchard-growing alligator hunters
Tidewater horticulturalists
Fishers and wild-rice gatherers
N A T I V E W A Y S O F L I F E , c a . 1 5 0 0
The native population of North America at the time of first
contact with Europeans consisted of numerous tribes with their
own
languages, religious beliefs, and economic and social structures.
This map suggests the numerous ways of life existing at the
time.
9T H E F I R S T A M E R I C A N S
What were the major patterns of Native American life in North
America before Europeans arrived?
believed, suffused the world, and sacred spirits could be found
in all kinds
of living and inanimate things—animals, plants, trees, water,
and wind.
Through religious ceremonies, they aimed to harness the aid of

94. powerful
supernatural forces to serve human interests. Indian villages
also held elab-
orate religious rites, participation in which helped to define the
boundaries
of community membership. In all Indian societies, those who
seemed to pos-
sess special abilities to invoke supernatural powers—shamans,
medicine
men, and other religious leaders—held positions of respect and
authority.
In some respects, Indian religion was not that different from
popular
spiritual beliefs in Europe. Most Indians held that a single
Creator stood
atop the spiritual hierarchy. Nonetheless, nearly all Europeans
arriving in
the New World quickly concluded that Indians were in dire need
of being
converted to a true, Christian faith.
Land and Property
Equally alien in European eyes were Indian attitudes toward
property.
Generally, village leaders assigned plots of land to individual
families to
use for a season or more, and tribes claimed specific areas for
hunting.
Unclaimed land remained free for anyone to use. Families
“owned” the
right to use land, but they did not own the land itself. Indians
saw land as
a common resource, not an economic commodity. There was no
market in

95. real estate before the coming of Europeans.
Land as a common resource
Indian religious rituals
A Catawba map illustrates the
differences between Indian and
European conceptions of landed
property. The map depicts not
possession of a specific territory, but
trade and diplomatic connections
between various native groups
and with the colony of Virginia,
represented by the rectangle on the
lower right. The map, inscribed on
deerskin, was originally presented
by Indian chiefs to Governor Francis
Nicholson of South Carolina in 1721.
This copy, the only version that
survives, was made by the governor

96. for the authorities in London. It added
English labels that conveyed what the
Indians had related orally with the gift.
Nor were Indians devoted to the accumulation of wealth and
mate-
rial goods. Especially east of the Mississippi River, where
villages moved
every few years when soil or game became depleted, acquiring
numer-
ous possessions made little sense. However, status certainly
mattered in
Indian societies. Tribal leaders tended to come from a small
number of
families, and chiefs lived more splendidly than average
members of soci-
ety. But their reputation often rested on their willingness to
share goods
with others rather than hoarding them for themselves.
Generosity was among the most valued social qualities, and gift
giv-
ing was essential to Indian society. Trade, for example, meant
more than
a commercial transaction—it was accompanied by elaborate
ceremonies
of gift exchange that bound different groups in webs of mutual
obligation.
“There are no beggars among them,” reported the English
colonial leader

97. Roger Williams of New England’s Indians.
Gender Relations
The system of gender relations in most Indian societies also
differed mark-
edly from that of Europe. Membership in a family defined
women’s lives,
but they openly engaged in premarital sexual relations and
could even
choose to divorce their husbands. Most, although not all, Indian
societies
were matrilineal—that is, centered on clans or kinship groups in
which
children became members of the mother’s family, not the
father’s. Under
English law, a married man controlled the family’s property and
a wife had
no independent legal identity. In contrast, Indian women owned
dwellings
and tools, and a husband generally moved to live with the
family of his wife.
Because men were frequently away on the hunt, women took
responsibility
not only for household duties but for most agricultural work as
well.
European Views of the Indians
Europeans tended to view Indians in extreme terms.
They were regarded either as “noble savages,” gentle,
friendly, and superior in some ways to Europeans, or
as uncivilized and brutal savages. Over time, however,
n egative images of Indians came to overshadow positive
ones. Early European descriptions of North American
Indians as barbaric centered on three areas—religion,

98. land use, and gender relations. Whatever their country
of origin, European newcomers concluded that Indians
Gift giving
Matrilineal societies
Indian women planting crops while
men break the sod. An engraving by
Theodor de Bry, based on a painting
by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues.
Morgues was part of an expedition
of French Huguenots to Florida in
1564; he escaped when the Spanish
destroyed the outpost in the following
year.
11I N D I A N F R E E D O M , E U R O P E A N F R E E D
O M
What were the major patterns of Native American life in North
America before Europeans arrived?
lacked genuine religion, or in fact worshiped the devil. Whereas
the
Indians saw nature as a world of spirits and souls, the

99. Europeans viewed it
as a collection of potential commodities, a source of economic
opportunity.
Europeans invoked the Indians’ distinctive pattern of land use
and
ideas about property to answer the awkward question raised by a
British
minister at an early stage of England’s colonization: “By what
right or
warrant can we enter into the land of these Savages, take away
their right-
ful inheritance from them, and plant ourselves in their places?”
While
the Spanish claimed title to land in America by right of
conquest and
papal authority, the English, French, and Dutch came to rely on
the idea
that Indians had not actually “used” the land and thus had no
claim to it.
Despite the Indians’ highly developed agriculture and well-
established
towns, Europeans frequently described them as nomads without
settled
communities.
In the Indians’ gender division of labor and matrilineal family
struc-
tures, Europeans saw weak men and mistreated women. Hunting
and
fishing, the primary occupations of Indian men, were
considered leisure
activities in much of Europe, not “real” work. Because Indian
women worked
in the fields, Europeans often described them as lacking
freedom. Europeans

100. insisted that by subduing the Indians, they were actually
bringing them
freedom—the freedom of true religion, private property, and the
liberation of
both men and women from uncivilized and unchristian gender
roles.
I N D I A N F R E E D O M , E U R O P E A N F R E E D O
M
Indian Freedom
Although many Europeans initially saw Indians as embodying
freedom,
most colonizers quickly concluded that the notion of “freedom”
was alien
to Indian societies. European settlers reached this conclusion in
part
because Indians did not appear to live under established
governments or
fixed laws, followed their own—not European—definitions of
authority,
and lacked the kind of order and discipline common in European
society.
Indians also did not define freedom as individual autonomy or
tie it to the
ownership of property—two attributes important to Europeans.
What were the Indians’ ideas of freedom? The modern notion of
free-
dom as personal independence had little meaning in most Indian
societies,
but individuals were expected to think for themselves and did
not always
have to go along with collective decision making. Far more
important

101. A seventeenth-century engraving by
a French Jesuit priest illustrates many
Europeans’ view of Indian religion.
A demon hovers over an Iroquois
longhouse, suggesting that Indians
worship the devil.
Freedom in the group
than individual autonomy were kinship ties, the ability to follow
one’s
spiritual values, and the well-being and security of one’s
community. In
Indian culture, group autonomy and self-determination, and the
mutual
obligations that came with a sense of belonging and
connectedness, took
precedence over individual freedom. Ironically, the coming of
Europeans,
armed with their own language of liberty, would make freedom
a preoc-
cupation of American Indians, as part and parcel of the very
process by
which they were reduced to dependence on the colonizers.
Christian Liberty

102. On the eve of colonization, Europeans held numerous ideas of
freedom.
Some were as old as the city-states of ancient Greece, others
arose during
the political struggles of the early modern era. Some laid the
foundations
for modern conceptions of freedom, others are quite unfamiliar
today.
Freedom was not a single idea but a collection of distinct rights
and privi-
leges, many enjoyed by only a small portion of the population.
One conception common throughout Europe understood freedom
less as a political or social status than as a moral or spiritual
condition.
Freedom meant abandoning the life of sin to embrace the
teachings of Christ.
“Christian Liberty,” however, had no connection to later ideas
of religious
toleration, a notion that scarcely existed anywhere on the eve of
colonization.
Every nation in Europe had an established church that decreed
what forms
of religious worship and belief were acceptable. Dissenters
faced persecu-
tion by the state as well as condemnation by church authorities.
Religious
uniformity was thought to be essential to public order; the
modern idea that
a person’s religious beliefs and practices are a matter of private
choice, not
legal obligation, was almost unknown.
Freedom and Authority

103. In its secular form, the equating of liberty with obedience to a
higher
authority suggested that freedom meant not anarchy but
obedience to law.
The identification of freedom with the rule of law did not,
though, mean
that all subjects of the crown enjoyed the same degree of
freedom. Early
modern European societies were extremely hierarchical, with
marked gra-
dations of social status ranging from the king and hereditary
aristocracy
down to the urban and rural poor. Inequality was built into
virtually every
social relationship.
Within families, men exercised authority over their wives and
chil-
dren. According to the widespread legal doctrine known as
“coverture,”
when a woman married she surrendered her legal identity, which
became
Freedom as a spiritual
condition
Hierarchy in the family
13T H E E X P A N S I O N O F E U R O P E
How did Indian and European ideas of freedom differ on the eve
of contact?
“covered” by that of her husband. She could not own property

104. or sign
contracts in her own name, control her wages if she worked,
write a
separate will, or, except in the rarest of circumstances, go to
court seeking
a divorce. The husband had the exclusive right to his wife’s
“company,”
including domestic labor and sexual relations.
Everywhere in Europe, family life depended on male dominance
and female submission. Indeed, political writers of the sixteenth
century
explicitly compared the king’s authority over his subjects with
the hus-
band’s over his family. Both were ordained by God.
Liberty and Liberties
In this hierarchical society, liberty came from knowing one’s
social place
and fulfilling the duties appropriate to one’s rank. Most men
lacked the
freedom that came with economic independence. Property
qualifications
and other restrictions limited the electorate to a minuscule part
of the adult
male population. The law required strict obedience of
employees, and
breaches of labor contracts carried criminal penalties.
European ideas of freedom still bore the imprint of the Middle
Ages,
when “liberties” meant formal, specific privileges such as self-
government,
exemption from taxation, or the right to practice a particular
trade, granted

105. to individuals or groups by contract, royal decree, or purchase.
Only those
who enjoyed the “freedom of the city,” for example, could
engage in cer-
tain economic activities. Numerous modern civil liberties did
not exist.
The law decreed acceptable forms of religious worship. The
government
regularly suppressed publications it did not like, and criticism
of author-
ity could lead to imprisonment. Nonetheless, every European
country that
colonized the New World claimed to be spreading freedom—for
its own
population and for Native Americans.
T H E E X P A N S I O N O F E U R O P E
It is fitting that the second epochal event that Adam Smith
linked to
Columbus’s voyage of 1492 was the discovery by Portuguese
navigators
of a sea route from Europe to Asia around the southern tip of
Africa. The
European conquest of America began as an offshoot of the quest
for a sea
route to India, China, and the islands of the East Indies, the
source of the
silk, tea, spices, porcelain, and other luxury goods on which
international
trade in the early modern era centered. For centuries, this
commerce had
been conducted across land, from China and South Asia to the
Middle East
Hierarchy in society

106. Sea route to the East
and the Mediterranean region. Profit and piety—the desire to
eliminate
Islamic middlemen and win control of the lucrative trade for
Christian
western Europe—combined to inspire the quest for a direct
route to Asia.
Chinese and Portuguese Navigation
At the beginning of the fifteenth century, one might have
predicted that
China would establish the world’s first global empire. Between
1405 and
1433, Admiral Zheng He led seven large naval expeditions in
the Indian
Ocean. The first convoy consisted of 62 ships that were larger
than those of
any European nation, along with 225 support vessels and more
than 25,000
men. On his sixth voyage, Zheng explored the coast of East
Africa. Had his
ships continued westward, they could easily have reached North
and South
America. But as a wealthy land-based empire, China did not feel
the need for
overseas expansion, and after 1433 the government ended
support for long-
distance maritime expeditions.

107. It fell to Portugal, far removed from the overland route to Asia,
to begin
exploring the Atlantic. Taking advantage of new long-distance
ships known
as caravels and new navigational devices such as the compass
and quadrant,
the Portuguese showed that it was possible to sail down the
coast of Africa
and return to Portugal. No European sailor had seen the coast of
Africa below
the Sahara. But in that year, a Portuguese ship brought a sprig
of rosemary
from West Africa, proof that one could sail beyond the desert
and return.
Little by little, Portuguese ships moved farther down the coast.
In
1485, they reached Benin, an imposing city whose craftsmen
produced
bronze sculptures that still inspire admiration for their artistic
beauty and
superb casting techniques. The Portuguese established fortified
trading
posts on the western coast of Africa. The profits reaped by these
Portuguese
“factories”—so named because merchants were known as
“factors”—
inspired other European powers to follow in their footsteps.
Portugal also began to colonize Madeira, the Azores, and the
Canary
and Cape Verde Islands, which lie in the Atlantic off the
African coast. The
Portuguese established plantations on the Atlantic islands,
eventually
replacing the native populations with thousands of slaves

108. shipped from
Africa—an ominous precedent for the New World.
Freedom and Slavery in Africa
Slavery in Africa long predated the coming of Europeans.
Traditionally,
African slaves tended to be criminals, debtors, and captives in
war. They
worked within the households of their owners and had well-
defined rights,
such as possessing property and marrying free persons. It was
not uncom-
Zheng He’s voyages
New techniques of sailing and
navigation
Portuguese explorations
15T H E E X P A N S I O N O F E U R O P E
What impelled European explorers to look west across the
Atlantic?
mon for African slaves to acquire their freedom. Slavery was
one of several
forms of labor, not the basis of the economy as it would become
in large
parts of the New World. The coming of the Portuguese, soon
followed by
traders from other European nations, accelerated the buying and
selling of

109. slaves within Africa. At least 100,000 African slaves were
transported to
Spain and Portugal between 1450 and 1500.
Having reached West Africa, Portuguese mariners pushed their
explo-
rations ever southward along the coast. Bartholomeu Dias
reached the Cape
of Good Hope at the continent’s southern tip in 1487. In 1498,
Vasco da
Gama sailed around it to India, demonstrating the feasibility of
a sea route
to the East. With a population of under 1 million, Portugal
established a
vast trading empire, with bases in India, southern China, and
Indonesia.
But six years before da Gama’s voyage, Christopher Columbus
had, he
believed, discovered a new route to China and India by sailing
west.
T H E O L D W O R L D O N T H E E V E O F A M E R I
C A N
C O L O N I Z A T I O N , c a . 1 5 0 0
In the fifteenth century, the world
known to Europeans was limited to
Europe, parts of Africa, and Asia.
Explorers from Portugal sought to
find a sea route to the East in order to
circumvent the Italian city-states and

110. Middle Eastern rulers who controlled
the overland trade.
Lisbon
Genoa
Venice
da Gama
da G
ama
Dias
Zh
en
g
He
Zhe
ng
He
PORTUGAL SPAIN
FRANCE
ENGLAND
SCOTLAND

111. IRELAND
NETHERLANDS
PERSIA
INDIA
CHINA
EAST INDIES
MALI
BENIN
CHAMPA
MALACCA
H o rmuz
HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Made i ra I s .
Canary I s .
Cape o f
Good Hope

112. Cape
Verde
I s .
Azores
Cyprus
Crete
S A H A R A D E S E R T
J ava
Sumatra
Cey lo n
Mediterranean Sea
Atlantic
Ocean
Indian
Oce an
Paci f ic
Oce an
0
0
1,000

113. 1,000
2,000 miles
2,000 kilometers
The Voyages of Columbus
A seasoned mariner and fearless explorer from Genoa, a major
port in
northern Italy, Columbus had for years sailed the Mediterranean
and
North Atlantic, studying ocean currents and wind patterns. Like
nearly all
navigators of the time, Columbus knew the earth was round. But
he drasti-
cally underestimated its size. He believed that by sailing
westward he could
relatively quickly cross the Atlantic and reach Asia. No one in
Europe knew
that two giant continents lay 3,000 miles to the west. The
Vikings, to be
sure, had sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland around the
year 1000
and established a settlement, Vinland. But this outpost was
abandoned
after a few years and had been forgotten, except in Norse
legends.
For Columbus, as for other figures of the time, religious and
com-
mercial motives reinforced one another. A devout Catholic, he

114. drew on the
Bible for his estimate of the size of the globe. Along with
developing trade
with the East, he hoped to convert Asians to Christianity and
enlist them
in a crusade to redeem Jerusalem from Muslim control.
Columbus sought financial support throughout Europe for the
planned
voyage. Eventually, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of
Spain agreed
to become sponsors. Their marriage in 1469 had united the
warring king-
doms of Aragon and Castile. In 1492, they completed the
reconquista—the
“reconquest” of Spain from the Moors, African Muslims who
had occupied
part of the Iberian Peninsula for centuries. With Spain’s
territory united,
Ferdinand and Isabella—like the rulers of the Italian city-
states—were anx-
ious to circumvent the Muslim stranglehold on eastern
trade. It is not surprising, then, that Columbus set sail
with royal letters of introduction to Asian rulers, autho-
rizing him to negotiate trade agreements.
C O N T A C T
Columbus in the New World
On October 12, 1492, after only thirty-three days of sail-
ing from the Canary Islands, where he had stopped to
resupply his three ships, Columbus and his expedition
arrived at the Bahamas. Soon afterward, he encountered
the far larger islands of Hispaniola (today the site of Haiti

115. and the Dominican Republic) and Cuba. When one of his
ships ran aground, he abandoned it and left thirty-eight
Columbus’s Landfall, an engraving
from La lettera dell’isole (Letter from
the Islands). This 1493 pamphlet
reproduced, in the form of a poem,
Columbus’s first letter describing his
voyage of the previous year. Under
the watchful eye of King Ferdinand
of Spain, Columbus and his men land
on a Caribbean island, while local
Indians flee.
Norse settlement
17C O N T A C T
What happened when the peoples of the Americas came in
contact with Europeans?
men behind on Hispaniola. But he found room to bring ten
inhabitants of
the island back to Spain for conversion to Christianity.

116. In the following year, 1493, Columbus returned with seventeen
ships
and more than 1,000 men to explore the area and establish a
Spanish
outpost. Columbus’s settlement on the island of Hispaniola,
which he
named La Isabella, failed, but in 1502 another Spanish explorer,
Nicolás
de Ovando, arrived with 2,500 men and established a permanent
base,
the first center of the Spanish empire in America. Columbus
went to his
grave believing that he had discovered a westward route to
Asia. The
explorations of another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, along the
coast of South
America between 1499 and 1502 made plain that a continent
entirely
unknown to Europeans had been encountered. The New World
would
come to bear not Columbus’s name but one based on
Vespucci’s—America.
Vespucci also realized that the native inhabitants were distinct
peoples,
not residents of the East Indies as Columbus had believed,
although the
name “Indians,” applied to them by Columbus, has endured to
this day.
Exploration and Conquest
Thanks to Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press
in the
1430s, news of Columbus’s achievement traveled quickly, at
least among
the educated minority in Europe. Other explorers were inspired

117. to follow
in his wake. John Cabot, a Genoese merchant who had settled in
England,
reached Newfoundland in 1497. Soon, scores of fishing boats
from France,
Spain, and England were active in the region. Pedro Cabral
claimed Brazil
for Portugal in 1500.
But the Spanish took the lead in exploration and conquest.
Inspired by
a search for wealth, national glory, and the desire to spread
Catholicism,
Spanish conquistadores, often accompanied by religious
missionaries and
carrying flags emblazoned with the sign of the cross, radiated
outward
from Hispaniola. In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa trekked
across the isth-
mus of Panama and became the first European to gaze upon the
Pacific
Ocean. Between 1519 and 1522, Ferdinand Magellan led the
first expedition
to sail around the world, encountering Pacific islands and
peoples previ-
ously unknown to Europe.
The first explorer to encounter a major American civilization
was
Hernán Cortés, who in 1519 arrived at Tenochtitlán, the nerve
center of
the Aztec empire, whose wealth and power rested on domination
of
numerous subordinate peoples nearby. The Aztecs were violent
warriors
who engaged in the ritual sacrifice of captives and others,

118. sometimes thou-
sands at a time. This practice thoroughly alienated their
neighbors.
Spain takes the lead
Cortés
Vespucci
Hispaniola settlement
Vinland
Magellan (1519-1522)
Cabot (1497)
Columbus (1492)
Ba
lbo
a (
151
3)
M
ag

119. ell
an
(1
51
9-
15
22
)
Ve
sp
uc
ci
(1
50
1-
15
02
)
Ca
br
al
(1
50
0)

120. Cor
tés (1519) Colum
bus (1
493)
Colu
mbus
(150
2)
Columbus (1498)
NEWFOUNDLAND
NORTH
AMERICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
EUROPE
At lant ic
Oce an
Paci f ic
Ocean
0
0

121. 1,000
1,000
2,000 miles
2,000 kilometers
V O Y A G E S O F D I S C O V E R Y
Christopher Columbus’s first Atlantic crossing, in 1492, was
soon followed by voyages of discovery by English, Portuguese,
Spanish,
and Italian explorers.
19C O N T A C T
What happened when the peoples of the Americas came in
contact with Europeans?
With only a few hundred European men, Cortés
conquered the Aztec city, relying on superior military
technology such as iron weapons and gunpowder, as
well as shrewdness in enlisting the aid of some of the
Aztecs’ subject peoples, who supplied him with thou-
sands of warriors. His most powerful ally, however,
was disease—a smallpox epidemic that devastated Aztec
society. A few years later, Francisco Pizarro conquered
the great Inca kingdom centered in modern-day Peru.
Pizarro’s tactics were typical of the conquistadores. He
captured the Incan king, demanded and received a ran-
som, and then killed the king anyway. Soon, treasure

122. fleets carrying cargoes of gold and silver from the mines
of Mexico and Peru were traversing the Atlantic to
enrich the Spanish crown.
The Demographic Disaster
The transatlantic flow of goods and people is sometimes called
the
Columbian Exchange. Plants, animals, and cultures that had
evolved inde-
pendently on separate continents were now thrown together.
Products
introduced to Europe from the Americas included corn,
tomatoes, pota-
toes, peanuts, and tobacco, while people from the Old World
brought
wheat, rice, sugarcane, horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep to the
New. But
Europeans also carried germs previously unknown in the
Americas.
No one knows exactly how many people lived in the Americas
at the
time of Columbus’s voyages—current estimates range between
50 and
90 million, most of whom lived in Central and South America.
In 1492, the
Indian population within what are now the borders of the United
States
was between 2 and 5 million. The Indian populations of the
Americas suf-
fered a catastrophic decline because of contact with Europeans
and their
wars, enslavement, and especially diseases like smallpox,
influenza, and
measles. Never having encountered these diseases, Indians had

123. not devel-
oped antibodies to fight them. The result was devastating. The
population
of Mexico would fall by more than 90 percent in the sixteenth
century,
from perhaps 20 million to under 2 million. As for the area that
now forms
the United States, its Native American population fell
continuously. It
reached its lowest point around 1900, at only 250,000.
Overall, the death of perhaps 80 million people—close to one-
fifth of
humankind—in the first century and a half after contact with
Europeans
Engravings, from the Florentine
Codex, of the forces of Cortés
marching on Tenochtitlán and
assaulting the city with cannon fire.
The difference in military technology
between the Spanish and Aztecs
is evident. Indians who allied with
Cortés had helped him build vessels
and carry them in pieces over
mountains to the city. The codex

124. (a volume formed by stitching
together manuscript pages) was
prepared under the supervision of
a Spanish missionary in sixteenth-
century Mexico.
Decline of Indian populations
represents the greatest loss of life in human history. It was
disease as
much as military prowess and more advanced technology that
enabled
Europeans to conquer the Americas.
T H E S P A N I S H E M P I R E
By the middle of the sixteenth century, Spain had established an
immense
empire that reached from Europe to the Americas and Asia. The
Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, once barriers separating different parts of
the world,
now became highways for the exchange of goods and the
movement of
people. Spanish galleons carried gold and silver from Mexico
and Peru east-
ward to Spain and westward to Manila in the Philippines and on
to China.

125. Stretching from the Andes Mountains of South America through
present-day Mexico and the Caribbean and eventually into
Florida and the
southwestern United States, Spain’s empire exceeded in size the
Roman
empire of the ancient world. Its center was Mexico City, a
magnificent capi-
tal built on the ruins of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán that
boasted churches,
hospitals, monasteries, government buildings, and the New
World’s first
university. Unlike the English and French New World empires,
Spanish
A late-seventeenth-century painting
of the Plaza Mayor (main square)
of Mexico City. The image includes
a parade of over 1,000 persons, of
different ethnic groups and
occupations, dressed in their
characteristic attire.
Extent of the empire
21T H E S P A N I S H E M P I R E
What were the chief features of the Spanish empire in

126. America?
America was essentially an urban civilization. For centuries, its
great cit-
ies, notably Mexico City, Quito, and Lima, far outshone any
urban centers
in North America and most of those in Europe.
Governing Spanish America
At least in theory, the government of Spanish America reflected
the absolut-
ism of the newly unified nation at home. Authority originated
with the king
and flowed downward through the Council of the Indies—the
main body
in Spain for colonial administration—and then to viceroys in
Mexico and
Peru and other local officials in America. The Catholic Church
also played a
significant role in the administration of Spanish colonies,
frequently exert-
ing its authority on matters of faith, morals, and treatment of
the Indians.
Successive kings kept elected assemblies out of Spain’s New
World
empire. Royal officials were generally appointees from Spain,
rather than
criollos, as persons born in the colonies of European ancestry
were called.
But as Spain’s power declined in Europe beginning in the
seventeenth
century, the local elite came to enjoy more and more effective
authority
over colonial affairs.

127. Colonists and Indians in Spanish America
Despite the decline in the native population, Spanish America
remained
populous enough that, with the exception of the West Indies and
a few cit-
ies, large-scale importations of African slaves were
unnecessary. Instead,
the Spanish forced tens of thousands of Indians to work in gold
and silver
mines, which supplied the empire’s wealth, and on large-scale
farms, or
haciendas, controlled by Spanish landlords. In Spanish America,
unlike
other New World empires, Indians performed most of the labor.
The opportunity for social advancement drew numerous
colonists
from Spain—225,000 in the sixteenth century and a total of
750,000 in
the three centuries of Spain’s colonial rule. Eventually, a
significant num-
ber came in families, but at first the large majority were young,
single men,
many of them laborers, craftsmen, and soldiers. Many also came
as gov-
ernment officials, priests, professionals, and minor aristocrats,
all ready
to direct the manual work of Indians, since living without
having to labor
was a sign of noble status. The most successful of these
colonists enjoyed
lives of luxury similar to those of the upper classes at home.
Unlike in the later British empire, Indian inhabitants always

128. out-
numbered European colonists and their descendants in Spanish
America,
and large areas remained effectively under Indian control for
many years.
Labor in Spanish America
Authority in Spanish America
Spanish authorities granted Indians certain rights within
colonial society
and looked forward to their eventual assimilation. Indeed, the
success
of the Spanish empire depended on the nature of the native
societies on
which it could build. In Florida, the Amazon, and Caribbean
islands like
Jamaica, which lacked major Indian cities and large native
populations,
Spanish rule remained tenuous.
The Spanish crown ordered wives of colonists to join them in
America
and demanded that single men marry. But with the population of
Spanish
women remaining low, the intermixing of the colonial and
Indian peoples
soon began. As early as 1514, the Spanish government formally
approved
of such marriages, partly as a way of bringing Christianity to
the native