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Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Uchenna Opara
Care Hope College
NUR315: Nursing Theory
Dr. Allison Sapp
9/27/2021
Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Introduction (Centered)
Patient-centered care is an essential nursing practice in healthcare setting aimed at providing meaningful care for patients and their families. Nurses are required to provide efficient care for the patients in ways that are meaningful and valuable to individual patients. Caring for patients incorporate essential practices such as listening to, informing and involving patients in their care in order to enhance better outcomes. Several nursing theories provide a framework that guides nurses in offering better care for patients. One of the most known theory that emphasize on patient care is the Jean Watson’s caring theory. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the Watson’s caring theory of nursing. (Capitalize name of theory)
Overview of the Watson’s Caring Theory
According to Watson (2009), the core of the Theory of Caring is that “humans cannot be treated as objects and that humans cannot be separated from self, other, nature, and the larger workforce.” (Watson, 2009). Nursing is defined by caring; Watson’s caring theory encompasses essential aspects of human caring. Nurses are identified as the potential care giver while patients are the core recipient of care. Watson founded this theory to emphasize on the centrality of human caring. This implies that nurses need to provide holistic care for patients in a respectful manner while observing the dignity of life. Existence of good relationship between the nurse and the individual patient often increase the capacity of healing among patients. As a result, nurses are required to adopt good interpersonal relationships with their patients while attending to them in order to enhance better outcomes (Watson & Woodward, 2010). Caring for patients often develops a high level of consciousness in the patients, making the person to emerge with harmony of mind-body-soul.
My Encounter with Mrs. Jacky
Mrs. Jacky had been married for 12-years, but she has not been able to conceive. Her marriage life has had numerous challenges, including brutal treatment by her husband due to infertility. Mrs. Jacky shared with her story about how she has struggled looking for a solution for her infertility. She narrated to me how a nurse from one of the facility she visited refused to care for her as she was barren. (elaborate more)
Discussion
My encounter with Mrs. Jacky reminded me of how nurses should care for all patients regardless of their conditions. The story resonates with Watson’s arguments about caring for patients. For instance, the nurses needed to listen to Mrs. Jacky, inform and create a friendly environment with her in order to provide effective care for the patient. Infertility is a common condition that can occur to any person. Discriminating the patient on the basis of infertility con ...
Fundamentals of Nursing
Definition of Theory
Components of Theory
Phenomenon
Concepts
The Domain of Nursing
Evolution of Nursing Theory
Goals of Theoretical Nursing Models
Types of Theory
Overview Of Select Shared Theories
Overview Of Select Grand and Middle-Range Nursing Theories
Link Between Theory and Knowledge Development in Nursing
Relationship Between Nursing Theory and Nursing Research
Theory Generating Research
Theory Testing Research
Chapter four. Theoretical found. in nursing practiceOmar Osman Eid
In this chapter, the central concepts of health, person, environment, nursing, and caring will be explored. Theoretical emphasis will be placed on theories related to the development of therapeutic relationships, modes of effective communication, and nursing therapeutics.
Fundamentals of Nursing
Definition of Theory
Components of Theory
Phenomenon
Concepts
The Domain of Nursing
Evolution of Nursing Theory
Goals of Theoretical Nursing Models
Types of Theory
Overview Of Select Shared Theories
Overview Of Select Grand and Middle-Range Nursing Theories
Link Between Theory and Knowledge Development in Nursing
Relationship Between Nursing Theory and Nursing Research
Theory Generating Research
Theory Testing Research
Chapter four. Theoretical found. in nursing practiceOmar Osman Eid
In this chapter, the central concepts of health, person, environment, nursing, and caring will be explored. Theoretical emphasis will be placed on theories related to the development of therapeutic relationships, modes of effective communication, and nursing therapeutics.
Week 3 Concept Synthesis TemplatePlease use these Headings for.docxjessiehampson
Week 3 Concept Synthesis Template
Please use these Headings for your Week 3 Concept synthesis Paper
Concept Synthesis Paper: One way for you to provide items clearly is to use headings and subheadings.
Title (not bold)
Short introductory paragraph (but do not label as "Introduction")
Autobiography (bold)
Insert your autobiography here
Metaparadigm Concepts (in the order you desire)
Nursing (bold)
Define/describe nursing here
Health
Define/describe health here
Person
Define/describe person here
Environment
Define/describe environment here
Additional Concepts
Additional concept one (name your concept)
Define/describe first additional concept here
Additional concept two (name your concept)
Define/describe second additional concept here
Propositions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Present Clinical Example
Conclusion
If you follow this outline/these headings, it will be much easier for me to see that you completed the requirements for the paper but it will also make organizing the paper easier for you.
Scholarly academic references
Week 1The Theory Era
The theory era began with a strong emphasis on knowledge development. Although in the previous two decades proponents of nursing theory and nursing theorists had begun to publish their works, it is noteworthy that they denied being theorists when they were introduced as such at the 1978 Nurse Educator Conference in New York with the Nursing Theory theme. There was understanding among those attending the conference that the presenters were theorists, and by the second day, the audience responded to their denials with laughter. This seems strange today, but this was the first time most of the theorists even met each other. Their works had grown out of content organization in nursing education courses, nursing practice administration in large agencies, and structures for the thought and action of practice. It was clear that their works were nursing theoretical structures even before they recognized them as such. The theory era, coupled with the research and graduate education eras, led to understanding of the scientific process beyond production of a scientific product Theory forms the foundation of knowledge. Nursing theories form the foundation of nursing practice, research, and education. Throughout your professional life, you will be applying theory and the knowledge derived from theory in your practice environment regardless of the setting. An understanding of the nature of nursing knowledge from a historical perspective will help you relate better to where nursing theory development is today.
Theory
Theory is defined as "an organized, coherent, and systematic articulation of a set of statements related to significant questions in a discipline that are communicated in a meaningful whole; a symbolic depiction of aspects of reality that are discovered or invented for describing, explaining, predicting, or prescribing responses, events, situations, conditions, or relationships" ( ...
Biomedical Sciences in NursingTheories from the biomedical scien.docxaman341480
Biomedical Sciences in Nursing
Theories from the biomedical sciences have shaped nursing practice, as well as research, throughout the years. In order to engage in the highest level of practice and aid in addressing current and future issues in health care, it is important for nurses to become more cognizant of these theories.
For this Discussion, you will differentiate among theories within the basic, or pure, sciences, and consider how they may be applied to improve outcomes in health care.
Example of theories:
1)
Web of causation
by MacMahon and Pugh (1970) developed the concept of
“chain causation,” later termed the “web of causation.”
2)
The Germ Theory and Principles of Infection
by Louis Pasteur, he first proposed the germ theory in 1858
3)
The Natural History of Disease
which refers to the progress of a disease process in an individual over time. In their classic model, Leavell and Clark (1965) described two periods in the natural history of the disease, prepathogenesis and pathogenesis (Primary prevention, secondary prevention and tertiary prevention).
4)
Homeostasis Theory
by Claude Bernard, a physiologist in the 20
th
century who first conceived the idea of homeostasis.
5)
Stress and Adaptation: General Adaptation Syndrome
by Walter Canon who developed the concept of fight or flight to explain the body’s reaction to emergencies.
6)
Theory of Immunity and Immune Function
:
the immune system comprises a complex, coordinated group of systems that produces physiologic responses to injuries or infection.
7)
Genetic Principles and Theories
:
The Human Genome Project is an organized effort initiated in 1990 and completed in 2003 to create a biologically and medically full database of the genome structure and sequence in humans.
To prepare:
Review the concepts and principles of the various biomedical theories and models presented in this week’s Learning Resources, and consider how they influence clinical practice. Which biomedical theories and models are used most frequently in health care? How do they relate to improved health outcomes? Reflect on your specific practice area and identify at least one biomedical theory or model that is utilized.
By tomorrow 7/25/17, post 550 words essay in APA format with 3 references from the list below, that include the level one heading as numbered below:
post
a cohesive response that addresses the following:
1)
Describe one biomedical theory or model frequently used in health care and provide your rational for how it relates to improved patient outcomes.
2)
Describe one biomedical theory or model that is utilized in your specific practice area. (I’m a CRITICAL CARE CARDIOVASCULAR NURSE). Provide at least two examples related to its application
Required Readings
McEwin, M., & Wills, E.M. (2014). Theoretical basis for nursing. (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Chapter 15, "Theories from the Biomedical Sciences"
Chapter 15 highlights some of the most commonly used ...
Reply to my peers responsesBegin reviewing and replying to pe.docxchris293
Reply to my peers' responses
Begin reviewing and replying to peer postings/responses. Participate in the discussion by asking a question, providing a statement of clarification, providing viewpoints with a rationale, challenging aspects of the discussion, or indicating relationships between two or more lines of reasoning in the discussion.
As in all assignments, cite your sources in your work and provide references for the citations in APA format. You may use this
APA Citation Helper
as a convenient reference for properly citing resources.
Task
Consider one of the nursing theories, conceptual frameworks, or mid-range theories presented in the textbook and class.
· Which philosophy/conceptual framework/theory/middle-range theory describes nursing the way you think about it?
· What is your rationale for selecting this theory/framework?
· Discuss how you could utilize the philosophy/conceptual framework/theory/middle-range theory to organize your thoughts for critical thinking and decision making in nursing practice.
Peer #1
Hildegard Peplau’s Interpersonal Relations Theory
Peplau’s interpersonal relations theory is the mid-range theory that captures what nursing ought to be. In this regard, it is the assertion that nursing is a therapeutic interpersonal process where nurses work with others to make health possible (Alligood, 2018, pg. 45). It is, therefore, the expectation that nurses work together with their patients, understand their health needs, and work together to ensure that the patients go back to their health status.
The rationale for the choice of this theory is because it appreciates that nursing is an interpersonal process; an assertion that is coherent with what the principle of evidence and patient-centered care expects from nurses. The exchange between the nurse and the patient is what allows a nurse to access critical information which in turn helps a nurse to realign the care towards securing better care for the patient. Moreover, the interpersonal relations theory also expects the nurse-patient relationship should be a learning experience (Smith, 2019, pg. 78). This is a phenomenon that is coherent with the fact that nursing skills need to be constantly improved. As a result, the nurses must keep on learning about health needs as this ultimately helps improve relevant skills by nurses.
Consequently, Peplau’s interpersonal relations theory demands that a nurse ensure that securing of health for the patient is done in a manner where the patient is an active party to the treatment process decisions. Therefore, my critical thinking will be comprised of both professional expertise together with the insights collected from the patient. This will ensure that the final decision is sensitive to both the principle of evidence-based practice and the patient’s taste and preferences when it comes to health services. As a result, from this approach to critical thinking, the final decision-making pr.
Problem 1
Problem 2 (two screen shots)
Problem 3 (two screen shots)
Problem 4 (three screen shots)
Problem 5 (one screen shot)
Problem 6 (six screenshots plus a data table)
.
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entrie.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entries L.O. P1, P2, P3, P4
[The following information applies to the questions displayed below.]
Edison Company manufactures wool blankets and accounts for product costs using process costing. The following information is available regarding its May inventories.
Beginning
Inventory
Ending
Inventory
Raw materials inventory
$
60,000
$
41,000
Goods in process inventory
449,000
521,500
Finished goods inventory
610,000
342,001
The following additional information describes the company's production activities for May.
Raw materials purchases (on credit)
$
250,000
Factory payroll cost (paid in cash)
1,850,300
Other overhead cost (Other Accounts credited)
82,000
Materials used
Direct
$
200,500
Indirect
50,000
Labor used
Direct
$
1,060,300
Indirect
790,000
Overhead rate as a percent of direct labor
115
%
Sales (on credit)
$
3,000,000
The predetermined overhead rate was computed at the beginning of the year as 115% of direct labor cost.
\\\\\
rev: 11_02_2011
references
1.
value:
2.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 1
Required:
1(a)
Compute the cost of products transferred from production to finished goods. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of products transferred
$
1(b)
Compute the cost of goods sold. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of goods sold
$
rev: 10_31_2011
check my workeBook Links (4)references
2.
value:
5.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 2
2(a)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the raw materials purchases. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(b)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(c)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(d)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the payroll costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(e)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(f)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(g)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the other overhead costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(h)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the overhead applied. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(i)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the goods transferred from production to finished goods.(Omit the "$" sign in yo.
Problem 2 Obtain Io.Let x be the current through j2, ..docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 2: Obtain Io.
Let x be the current through j2, .
Let .
.
.
.
………..1.
…………2.
.
.
…………3.
……………….4.
Solving these 4 equations we can get .
.
Problem 1:Find currents I1, I2, and I3
Problem 2: Obtain Io
Problem 3:Obtain io
.
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000 in cash and executing a $400,000 note payable to the former owner. The note bears interest at 10% per annum, with interest being payable annually on March 31 of each year. Rojas is also required to make a $100,000 payment toward the note's principal on every March 31.(a)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the land purchase on April 1, 20X4.(b)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X4.(c)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X5.(d)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X5.(e)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X6.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Worksheet 1(a), (b), (c), (d), (e)GENERAL JOURNALDateAccountsDebitCredit04-01-X412-31-X403-31-X512-31-X503-31-X6
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Problem 2Ace Brick company issued $100,000 of 5-year bonds. The bonds were issued at par on January 1, 20X1, and bear interest at a rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the bond issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Worksheet 2(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Problem 3Erik Food Supply Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 4-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issued at 98, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The discount is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issuance on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Worksheet 3(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Problem 4Horton Micro Chip Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 6-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issed at 103, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The premium is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad We.
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]Dark Day, Inc., has declar.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]
Dark Day, Inc., has declared a $5.60 per share dividend. Suppose capital gains are not taxed, but dividends are taxed at 15 percent. New IRS regulations require that taxes be withheld at the time the dividend is paid. Dark Day sells for $94.10 per share, and the stock is about to go ex-dividend.
What do you think the ex-dividend price will be? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
Ex-dividend price
$
Problem 17-2 Stock Dividends [LO3]
The owners’ equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here:
Common stock ($0.60 par value)
$
45,000
Capital surplus
340,000
Retained earnings
748,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,133,120
a-1
If Alexander stock currently sells for $30 per share and a 10 percent stock dividend is declared, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
a-2
Show how the equity accounts would change.
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
b-1
If instead Alexander declared a 20 percent stock dividend, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
b-2
Show how the equity accounts would change. (Negative amount should be indicated by a minus sign.)
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
Problem 17-3 Stock Splits [LO3]
The owners' equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here.
Common stock ($0.50 par value)
$
35,000
Capital surplus
320,000
Retained earnings
708,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,063,120
a-1
If Alexander declares a five-for-one stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
a-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 3 decimal places. (e.g., 32.161))
New par value
$ per share
b-1
If Alexander declares a one-for-seven reverse stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
b-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New par value
$ per share
Problem 17-4 Stock Splits and Stock Dividends [LO3]
Red Rocks Corporation (RRC) currently has 485,000 shares of stock outstanding that sell for $40 per share. Assuming no market imperfections or tax effects exist, what will the share price be after:
a.
RRC has a four-for-three stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
b.
RRC has a 15 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
c.
RRC has a 54.5 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
d.
RRC has a two-for-seven reverse stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
Determine the new number of shares outstanding in parts (a) through (d).
a.
New shares outstanding
b.
New shares o.
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value of a common stock if the firm's earnings and dividends are growing annually at 10%, the current dividend is $1.32,and investors require a 15% return on investment?What is the stock's rate of return if the market price of the stock is $35?
Problem 2Problem 2 - Preferred Stock Price and ReturnA firm has preferred stock outstanding with a $1,000 par value and a $40 annual dividend with no maturity. If the required rate of return is 9%, what is the price of the preferred stock?The market price of a firm's preferred stock is $24 and pays an annual dividend of $2.50. If the stock's par value is $1,000 and it has no maturity, what is the return on the preferred stock?
Problem 3Problem 3 - Bond Valuation and YieldA bond has a par value of $1,000, pays $50 semiannually and has a maturity of 10 years.If the bond earns 12% per year, what is the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat would be the bond's price if the rate earned declined to 8% per year?RateNperPMTFVTypePVIf the maturity period is reduced to 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%, what would be the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond when the maturity is 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat generalizations about bond prices, interest rates and maturity periods can be made based on the calculations made above?
Problem 4Problem 4 - Callable BondsThe following bonds have a par value of $1,000 and the required rate of return is 10%.Bond XY: 5¼ percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsBond AB: 14 percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsWhat is each bond's current market price?Bond XYBond ABRateNperPMTFVTypePVIf current interest rates are 9%, which bond would you expect to be called? Explain.
Exercise 10-5
During the month of March, Olinger Company’s employees earned wages of $69,500. Withholdings related to these wages were $5,317 for Social Security (FICA), $8,145 for federal income tax, $3,366 for state income tax, and $434 for union dues. The company incurred no cost related to these earnings for federal unemployment tax but incurred $760 for state unemployment tax.
Prepare the necessary March 31 journal entry to record salaries and wages expense and salaries and wages payable. Assume that wages earned during March will be paid during April. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
SHOW LIST OF ACCOUNTS
LINK TO TEXT
Prepare the entry to record the company’s payroll tax expense. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
===========================================
E.
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activi.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activity-based costing system. Prescott's activity areas and related data follows:ActivityBudgeted Cost
of ActivityAllocation BaseCost Allocation
RateMaterials handling$230,000Number of parts$0.50Assembly3,200,000Direct labor hours16.00Finishing180,000Number of finished
units4.50Prescott produced two styles of bookcases in October: the standard bookcase and an unfinished bookcase, which has fewer parts and requires no finishing. The totals for quantities, direct
materials costs, and other data follow:ProductTotal Units
ProducedTotal Direct
Materials CostsTotal Direct
Labor CostsTotal Number
of PartsTotal Assembling
Direct Labor HoursStandard bookcase3,000$36,000$45,0009,0004,500Unfinished bookcase3,50035,00035,0007,0003,500Requirements:1. Compute the manufacturing product cost per unit of each type of bookcase.2. Suppose that pre-manufacturing activities, such as product design, were assigned to the standard bookcases at $7 each, and to the unfinished bookcases at $2 each. Similar analyses
were conducted of post-manufacturing activities such as distribution, marketing, and customer service. The post-manufacturing costs were $22 per standard bookcase and $14 per
unfinished bookcase. Compute the full product costs per unit.3. Which product costs are reported in the external financial statements? Which costs are used for management decision making? Explain the difference.4. What price should Prescott's managers set for unfinished bookcases to earn $15 per bookcase?
Problem 2Corbertt Pharmaceuticals manufactures an over-the-counter allergy medication. The company sells both large commercial containers of 1,000 capsules to health-care facilities
and travel packs of 20 capsules to shops in airports, train stations, and hotels. The following information has been developed to determine if an activity-based costing system
would be beneficial:ActivityEstimated Indirect Activity
CostsAllocation BaseEstimated Quantity of
Allocation BaseMaterials handling$95,000Kilos19,000 kilosPackaging219,000Machine hours5,475 hoursQuality assurance124,500Samples2,075 samplesTotal indirect costs$438,500Other production information includes the following:Commercial ContainersTravel PacksUnits produced3,500 containers57,000 packsWeight in kilos14,0005,700Machine hours2,625570Number of samples700855Requirements:1. Compute the cost allocation rate for each activity.2. Use the activity-based cost allocation rates to compute the activity costs per unit of the commercial containers and the travel packs. (Hint: First compute the total activity
cost allocated to each product line, and then compute the cost per unit.)3. Corbertt's original single-allocation-base costing system allocated indirect costs to produce at $157 per machine hour. Compute the total indirect costs allocated to the
commercial containers and to the travel packs under the original system. Then compute the indirect cost per unit for ea.
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses flexible budgeting and a standard cost system. Preston allocates overhead based on yards of direct materials. The company's performance report includes the following selected data:Static Budget
(1,000 recliners)Actual Results
(980 recliners)Sales (1,000 recliners X $495)$495,000 (980 recliners X $475)$465,500Variable manufacturing costs: Direct materials (6,000 yds @ $8.80/yard)52,800 (6,150 yds @ $8.60/yard)52,890 Direct labor (10,000 hrs @ $9.20/hour)92,000 (9,600 hrs @ $9.30/hour)89,280Variable overhead (6,000 yds @ $5.00/yard)30,000 (6,510 yds @ $6.40/yard)39,360Fixed manufacturing costs: Fixed overhead60,00062,000Total cost of goods sold$234,800$243,530Gross profit$260,200$221,970Requirements:1. Prepare a flexible budget based on the actual number of recliners sold.2. Compute the price variance and the efficiency variance for direct materials and for direct labor. For manufacturing overhead, compute the variable overhead spending, variable overhead efficiency, fixed overhead spending, and fixed overhead volume variances.3. Have Preston's managers done a good job or a poor job controlling materials, labor, and overhead costs? Why?4. Describe how Preston's managers can benefit from the standard costing system.
Problem 2AllTalk Technologies manufactures capacitors for cellular base stations and other communications applications. The company's January 2012 flexible budget income statement shows output levels of 6,500, 8,000, and 10,000 units. The static budget was based on expected sales of 8,000 units.ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Flexible Budget Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Per UnitBy Units (Capacitors)6,5008,00010,000Sales revenue$24$156,000$192,000$240,000Variable expenses$1065,00080,000100,000Contribution margin$91,000$112,000$140,000Fixed expenses53,00053,00053,000Operating income$38,000$59,000$87,000The company sold 10,000 units during January, and its actual operating income was as follows:ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Sales revenue$246,000Variable expenses104,500Contribution margin$141,500Fixed expenses54,000Operating income$87,500Requirements:1. Prepare an income statement performance report for January.2. What was the effect on AllTalk's operating income of selling 2,000 units more than the static budget level of sales?3. What is AllTalk's static budget variance? Explain why the income statement performance report provides more useful information to AllTalk's managers than the simple static budget variance. What insights can AllTalk's managers draw from this performance report?
Problem 3Java manufacturers coffee mugs that it sells to other companies for customizing with their own logos. Java prepares flexible budgets and uses a standard cost system to control manufacturing costs. The standard unit.
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the .docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the income statement and balance sheet for Blue Bill Corporation for 2013. Based on the historical statements and theadditional information provided, construct the firm's pro forma income statement and balance sheet for 2014.Blue Bill CorporationIncome StatementFor the year ended 2013Projected201220132014Revenue$60,000$63,000Cost of goods sold42,00044,100Gross margin18,00018,900SG&A expense6,0006,300Depreciation expense1,8002,000Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT)10,20010,600Interest expense1,5001,800Taxable income8,7008,800Income Tax Expense3,0453,080Net income5,6555,720Dividends750800To retained earnings$4,905$4,920Additional income statement information:Sales will increase by 5% in 2014 from 2013 levels.COGS and SG&A will be the average percent of sales for the last 2 years.Depreciation expense will increase to $2,200.Interest expense will be $1,900.The tax rate is 35%.Dividend payout will increase to $850.Blue Bill CorporationBalance SheetDecember 31, 2013Projected20132014Current assetsCash$8,000Accounts receivable3,150Inventory9,450Total current assets20,600Property, plant, and equipment (PP&E)28,500Accumulated depreciation16,400Net PP&E12,100Total assets$32,700Current liabilitesAccounts payable$3,780Bank loan (10%)3,200Other current liabilities1,250Total current liabilities8,230Long-term debt (12%)4,800Common stock1,250Retained earnings18,420Total liabilities and equity$32,700Additional balance sheet information:The minimum cash balance is 12% of sales.Working capital accounts (accounts receivable, accounts payable, and inventory) will be the same percent of sales in 2014 as they were in 2013.$8,350 of new PP&E will be purchased in 2014.Other current liabilities will be 3% of sales in 2014.There will be no changes in the common stock or long-term debt accounts.The plug figure (the last number entered that makes the balance sheet balance) is bank loan.
1
Rough Draft
Rough Draft
Rasmussen College
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Managing financial reports, and the quality of service they provide to their customers. Furthermore, the dentists and staff at Metro Dental Care know how important your smile is. Their mission statement states “We pride ourselves in making your smile look great so you not only look good, but feel confident with your smile.”
Metro Dental Care offers convenience for their patients with more than 40 offices throughout the Minneapolis and St. Paul metro area offering flexible hours including early morning, evening and Saturday appointments. Whether you work or live Metro Dental Care has a location near you. Metro Dental .
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Similar to 13Where is running header Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Week 3 Concept Synthesis TemplatePlease use these Headings for.docxjessiehampson
Week 3 Concept Synthesis Template
Please use these Headings for your Week 3 Concept synthesis Paper
Concept Synthesis Paper: One way for you to provide items clearly is to use headings and subheadings.
Title (not bold)
Short introductory paragraph (but do not label as "Introduction")
Autobiography (bold)
Insert your autobiography here
Metaparadigm Concepts (in the order you desire)
Nursing (bold)
Define/describe nursing here
Health
Define/describe health here
Person
Define/describe person here
Environment
Define/describe environment here
Additional Concepts
Additional concept one (name your concept)
Define/describe first additional concept here
Additional concept two (name your concept)
Define/describe second additional concept here
Propositions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Present Clinical Example
Conclusion
If you follow this outline/these headings, it will be much easier for me to see that you completed the requirements for the paper but it will also make organizing the paper easier for you.
Scholarly academic references
Week 1The Theory Era
The theory era began with a strong emphasis on knowledge development. Although in the previous two decades proponents of nursing theory and nursing theorists had begun to publish their works, it is noteworthy that they denied being theorists when they were introduced as such at the 1978 Nurse Educator Conference in New York with the Nursing Theory theme. There was understanding among those attending the conference that the presenters were theorists, and by the second day, the audience responded to their denials with laughter. This seems strange today, but this was the first time most of the theorists even met each other. Their works had grown out of content organization in nursing education courses, nursing practice administration in large agencies, and structures for the thought and action of practice. It was clear that their works were nursing theoretical structures even before they recognized them as such. The theory era, coupled with the research and graduate education eras, led to understanding of the scientific process beyond production of a scientific product Theory forms the foundation of knowledge. Nursing theories form the foundation of nursing practice, research, and education. Throughout your professional life, you will be applying theory and the knowledge derived from theory in your practice environment regardless of the setting. An understanding of the nature of nursing knowledge from a historical perspective will help you relate better to where nursing theory development is today.
Theory
Theory is defined as "an organized, coherent, and systematic articulation of a set of statements related to significant questions in a discipline that are communicated in a meaningful whole; a symbolic depiction of aspects of reality that are discovered or invented for describing, explaining, predicting, or prescribing responses, events, situations, conditions, or relationships" ( ...
Biomedical Sciences in NursingTheories from the biomedical scien.docxaman341480
Biomedical Sciences in Nursing
Theories from the biomedical sciences have shaped nursing practice, as well as research, throughout the years. In order to engage in the highest level of practice and aid in addressing current and future issues in health care, it is important for nurses to become more cognizant of these theories.
For this Discussion, you will differentiate among theories within the basic, or pure, sciences, and consider how they may be applied to improve outcomes in health care.
Example of theories:
1)
Web of causation
by MacMahon and Pugh (1970) developed the concept of
“chain causation,” later termed the “web of causation.”
2)
The Germ Theory and Principles of Infection
by Louis Pasteur, he first proposed the germ theory in 1858
3)
The Natural History of Disease
which refers to the progress of a disease process in an individual over time. In their classic model, Leavell and Clark (1965) described two periods in the natural history of the disease, prepathogenesis and pathogenesis (Primary prevention, secondary prevention and tertiary prevention).
4)
Homeostasis Theory
by Claude Bernard, a physiologist in the 20
th
century who first conceived the idea of homeostasis.
5)
Stress and Adaptation: General Adaptation Syndrome
by Walter Canon who developed the concept of fight or flight to explain the body’s reaction to emergencies.
6)
Theory of Immunity and Immune Function
:
the immune system comprises a complex, coordinated group of systems that produces physiologic responses to injuries or infection.
7)
Genetic Principles and Theories
:
The Human Genome Project is an organized effort initiated in 1990 and completed in 2003 to create a biologically and medically full database of the genome structure and sequence in humans.
To prepare:
Review the concepts and principles of the various biomedical theories and models presented in this week’s Learning Resources, and consider how they influence clinical practice. Which biomedical theories and models are used most frequently in health care? How do they relate to improved health outcomes? Reflect on your specific practice area and identify at least one biomedical theory or model that is utilized.
By tomorrow 7/25/17, post 550 words essay in APA format with 3 references from the list below, that include the level one heading as numbered below:
post
a cohesive response that addresses the following:
1)
Describe one biomedical theory or model frequently used in health care and provide your rational for how it relates to improved patient outcomes.
2)
Describe one biomedical theory or model that is utilized in your specific practice area. (I’m a CRITICAL CARE CARDIOVASCULAR NURSE). Provide at least two examples related to its application
Required Readings
McEwin, M., & Wills, E.M. (2014). Theoretical basis for nursing. (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Chapter 15, "Theories from the Biomedical Sciences"
Chapter 15 highlights some of the most commonly used ...
Reply to my peers responsesBegin reviewing and replying to pe.docxchris293
Reply to my peers' responses
Begin reviewing and replying to peer postings/responses. Participate in the discussion by asking a question, providing a statement of clarification, providing viewpoints with a rationale, challenging aspects of the discussion, or indicating relationships between two or more lines of reasoning in the discussion.
As in all assignments, cite your sources in your work and provide references for the citations in APA format. You may use this
APA Citation Helper
as a convenient reference for properly citing resources.
Task
Consider one of the nursing theories, conceptual frameworks, or mid-range theories presented in the textbook and class.
· Which philosophy/conceptual framework/theory/middle-range theory describes nursing the way you think about it?
· What is your rationale for selecting this theory/framework?
· Discuss how you could utilize the philosophy/conceptual framework/theory/middle-range theory to organize your thoughts for critical thinking and decision making in nursing practice.
Peer #1
Hildegard Peplau’s Interpersonal Relations Theory
Peplau’s interpersonal relations theory is the mid-range theory that captures what nursing ought to be. In this regard, it is the assertion that nursing is a therapeutic interpersonal process where nurses work with others to make health possible (Alligood, 2018, pg. 45). It is, therefore, the expectation that nurses work together with their patients, understand their health needs, and work together to ensure that the patients go back to their health status.
The rationale for the choice of this theory is because it appreciates that nursing is an interpersonal process; an assertion that is coherent with what the principle of evidence and patient-centered care expects from nurses. The exchange between the nurse and the patient is what allows a nurse to access critical information which in turn helps a nurse to realign the care towards securing better care for the patient. Moreover, the interpersonal relations theory also expects the nurse-patient relationship should be a learning experience (Smith, 2019, pg. 78). This is a phenomenon that is coherent with the fact that nursing skills need to be constantly improved. As a result, the nurses must keep on learning about health needs as this ultimately helps improve relevant skills by nurses.
Consequently, Peplau’s interpersonal relations theory demands that a nurse ensure that securing of health for the patient is done in a manner where the patient is an active party to the treatment process decisions. Therefore, my critical thinking will be comprised of both professional expertise together with the insights collected from the patient. This will ensure that the final decision is sensitive to both the principle of evidence-based practice and the patient’s taste and preferences when it comes to health services. As a result, from this approach to critical thinking, the final decision-making pr.
Problem 1
Problem 2 (two screen shots)
Problem 3 (two screen shots)
Problem 4 (three screen shots)
Problem 5 (one screen shot)
Problem 6 (six screenshots plus a data table)
.
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entrie.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 20-1A Production cost flow and measurement; journal entries L.O. P1, P2, P3, P4
[The following information applies to the questions displayed below.]
Edison Company manufactures wool blankets and accounts for product costs using process costing. The following information is available regarding its May inventories.
Beginning
Inventory
Ending
Inventory
Raw materials inventory
$
60,000
$
41,000
Goods in process inventory
449,000
521,500
Finished goods inventory
610,000
342,001
The following additional information describes the company's production activities for May.
Raw materials purchases (on credit)
$
250,000
Factory payroll cost (paid in cash)
1,850,300
Other overhead cost (Other Accounts credited)
82,000
Materials used
Direct
$
200,500
Indirect
50,000
Labor used
Direct
$
1,060,300
Indirect
790,000
Overhead rate as a percent of direct labor
115
%
Sales (on credit)
$
3,000,000
The predetermined overhead rate was computed at the beginning of the year as 115% of direct labor cost.
\\\\\
rev: 11_02_2011
references
1.
value:
2.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 1
Required:
1(a)
Compute the cost of products transferred from production to finished goods. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of products transferred
$
1(b)
Compute the cost of goods sold. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Cost of goods sold
$
rev: 10_31_2011
check my workeBook Links (4)references
2.
value:
5.00 points
Problem 20-1A Part 2
2(a)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the raw materials purchases. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(b)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(c)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect materials usage. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(d)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the payroll costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(e)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the direct labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(f)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the indirect labor costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(g)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the other overhead costs. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(h)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the overhead applied. (Omit the "$" sign in your response.)
Date
General Journal
Debit
Credit
May 31
2(i)
Prepare journal entry dated May 31 to record the goods transferred from production to finished goods.(Omit the "$" sign in yo.
Problem 2 Obtain Io.Let x be the current through j2, ..docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 2: Obtain Io.
Let x be the current through j2, .
Let .
.
.
.
………..1.
…………2.
.
.
…………3.
……………….4.
Solving these 4 equations we can get .
.
Problem 1:Find currents I1, I2, and I3
Problem 2: Obtain Io
Problem 3:Obtain io
.
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1On April 1, 20X4, Rojas purchased land by giving $100,000 in cash and executing a $400,000 note payable to the former owner. The note bears interest at 10% per annum, with interest being payable annually on March 31 of each year. Rojas is also required to make a $100,000 payment toward the note's principal on every March 31.(a)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the land purchase on April 1, 20X4.(b)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X4.(c)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X5.(d)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the year-end interest accrual on December 31, 20X5.(e)Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record the payment of interest and principal on March 31, 20X6.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Worksheet 1(a), (b), (c), (d), (e)GENERAL JOURNALDateAccountsDebitCredit04-01-X412-31-X403-31-X512-31-X503-31-X6
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.01
B-13.01
Problem 2Ace Brick company issued $100,000 of 5-year bonds. The bonds were issued at par on January 1, 20X1, and bear interest at a rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the bond issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Ace would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Worksheet 2(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.06
B-13.06
Problem 3Erik Food Supply Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 4-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issued at 98, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The discount is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issuance on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Erik would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Worksheet 3(a)(b)(c)GENERAL JOURNAL DateAccountsDebitCreditIssueInterestMaturity
&L&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&12Name:
Date: Section: &R&"Myriad Web Pro,Bold"&20B-13.08
B-13.08
Problem 4Horton Micro Chip Company issued $100,000 of face amount of 6-year bonds on January 1, 20X1. The bonds were issed at 103, and bear interest at a stated rate of 8% per annum, payable semiannually. The premium is amortized by the straight-line method.(a)Prepare the journal entry to record the initial issue on January, 20X1.(b)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record on each interest date.(c)Prepare the journal entry that Horton would record at maturity of the bonds.
&R&"Myriad We.
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]Dark Day, Inc., has declar.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 17-1 Dividends and Taxes [LO2]
Dark Day, Inc., has declared a $5.60 per share dividend. Suppose capital gains are not taxed, but dividends are taxed at 15 percent. New IRS regulations require that taxes be withheld at the time the dividend is paid. Dark Day sells for $94.10 per share, and the stock is about to go ex-dividend.
What do you think the ex-dividend price will be? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
Ex-dividend price
$
Problem 17-2 Stock Dividends [LO3]
The owners’ equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here:
Common stock ($0.60 par value)
$
45,000
Capital surplus
340,000
Retained earnings
748,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,133,120
a-1
If Alexander stock currently sells for $30 per share and a 10 percent stock dividend is declared, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
a-2
Show how the equity accounts would change.
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
b-1
If instead Alexander declared a 20 percent stock dividend, how many new shares will be distributed?
New shares issued
b-2
Show how the equity accounts would change. (Negative amount should be indicated by a minus sign.)
Common stock
$
Capital surplus
Retained earnings
Total owners’ equity
$
Problem 17-3 Stock Splits [LO3]
The owners' equity accounts for Alexander International are shown here.
Common stock ($0.50 par value)
$
35,000
Capital surplus
320,000
Retained earnings
708,120
Total owners’ equity
$
1,063,120
a-1
If Alexander declares a five-for-one stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
a-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 3 decimal places. (e.g., 32.161))
New par value
$ per share
b-1
If Alexander declares a one-for-seven reverse stock split, how many shares are outstanding now?
New shares outstanding
b-2
What is the new par value per share? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New par value
$ per share
Problem 17-4 Stock Splits and Stock Dividends [LO3]
Red Rocks Corporation (RRC) currently has 485,000 shares of stock outstanding that sell for $40 per share. Assuming no market imperfections or tax effects exist, what will the share price be after:
a.
RRC has a four-for-three stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
b.
RRC has a 15 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
c.
RRC has a 54.5 percent stock dividend? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
d.
RRC has a two-for-seven reverse stock split? (Round your answer to 2 decimal places. (e.g., 32.16))
New share price
$
Determine the new number of shares outstanding in parts (a) through (d).
a.
New shares outstanding
b.
New shares o.
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Problem 1 - Constant-Growth Common StockWhat is the value of a common stock if the firm's earnings and dividends are growing annually at 10%, the current dividend is $1.32,and investors require a 15% return on investment?What is the stock's rate of return if the market price of the stock is $35?
Problem 2Problem 2 - Preferred Stock Price and ReturnA firm has preferred stock outstanding with a $1,000 par value and a $40 annual dividend with no maturity. If the required rate of return is 9%, what is the price of the preferred stock?The market price of a firm's preferred stock is $24 and pays an annual dividend of $2.50. If the stock's par value is $1,000 and it has no maturity, what is the return on the preferred stock?
Problem 3Problem 3 - Bond Valuation and YieldA bond has a par value of $1,000, pays $50 semiannually and has a maturity of 10 years.If the bond earns 12% per year, what is the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat would be the bond's price if the rate earned declined to 8% per year?RateNperPMTFVTypePVIf the maturity period is reduced to 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%, what would be the price of the bond?RateNperPMTFVTypePVWhat is the yield to maturity for the bond when the maturity is 5 years and the required rate of return is 8%?NperPMTPVFVTypeRateWhat generalizations about bond prices, interest rates and maturity periods can be made based on the calculations made above?
Problem 4Problem 4 - Callable BondsThe following bonds have a par value of $1,000 and the required rate of return is 10%.Bond XY: 5¼ percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsBond AB: 14 percent coupon, with interest paid annually for 20 yearsWhat is each bond's current market price?Bond XYBond ABRateNperPMTFVTypePVIf current interest rates are 9%, which bond would you expect to be called? Explain.
Exercise 10-5
During the month of March, Olinger Company’s employees earned wages of $69,500. Withholdings related to these wages were $5,317 for Social Security (FICA), $8,145 for federal income tax, $3,366 for state income tax, and $434 for union dues. The company incurred no cost related to these earnings for federal unemployment tax but incurred $760 for state unemployment tax.
Prepare the necessary March 31 journal entry to record salaries and wages expense and salaries and wages payable. Assume that wages earned during March will be paid during April. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
SHOW LIST OF ACCOUNTS
LINK TO TEXT
Prepare the entry to record the company’s payroll tax expense. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Mar. 31
===========================================
E.
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activi.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Prescott, Inc., manufactures bookcases and uses an activity-based costing system. Prescott's activity areas and related data follows:ActivityBudgeted Cost
of ActivityAllocation BaseCost Allocation
RateMaterials handling$230,000Number of parts$0.50Assembly3,200,000Direct labor hours16.00Finishing180,000Number of finished
units4.50Prescott produced two styles of bookcases in October: the standard bookcase and an unfinished bookcase, which has fewer parts and requires no finishing. The totals for quantities, direct
materials costs, and other data follow:ProductTotal Units
ProducedTotal Direct
Materials CostsTotal Direct
Labor CostsTotal Number
of PartsTotal Assembling
Direct Labor HoursStandard bookcase3,000$36,000$45,0009,0004,500Unfinished bookcase3,50035,00035,0007,0003,500Requirements:1. Compute the manufacturing product cost per unit of each type of bookcase.2. Suppose that pre-manufacturing activities, such as product design, were assigned to the standard bookcases at $7 each, and to the unfinished bookcases at $2 each. Similar analyses
were conducted of post-manufacturing activities such as distribution, marketing, and customer service. The post-manufacturing costs were $22 per standard bookcase and $14 per
unfinished bookcase. Compute the full product costs per unit.3. Which product costs are reported in the external financial statements? Which costs are used for management decision making? Explain the difference.4. What price should Prescott's managers set for unfinished bookcases to earn $15 per bookcase?
Problem 2Corbertt Pharmaceuticals manufactures an over-the-counter allergy medication. The company sells both large commercial containers of 1,000 capsules to health-care facilities
and travel packs of 20 capsules to shops in airports, train stations, and hotels. The following information has been developed to determine if an activity-based costing system
would be beneficial:ActivityEstimated Indirect Activity
CostsAllocation BaseEstimated Quantity of
Allocation BaseMaterials handling$95,000Kilos19,000 kilosPackaging219,000Machine hours5,475 hoursQuality assurance124,500Samples2,075 samplesTotal indirect costs$438,500Other production information includes the following:Commercial ContainersTravel PacksUnits produced3,500 containers57,000 packsWeight in kilos14,0005,700Machine hours2,625570Number of samples700855Requirements:1. Compute the cost allocation rate for each activity.2. Use the activity-based cost allocation rates to compute the activity costs per unit of the commercial containers and the travel packs. (Hint: First compute the total activity
cost allocated to each product line, and then compute the cost per unit.)3. Corbertt's original single-allocation-base costing system allocated indirect costs to produce at $157 per machine hour. Compute the total indirect costs allocated to the
commercial containers and to the travel packs under the original system. Then compute the indirect cost per unit for ea.
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Preston Recliners manufactures leather recliners and uses flexible budgeting and a standard cost system. Preston allocates overhead based on yards of direct materials. The company's performance report includes the following selected data:Static Budget
(1,000 recliners)Actual Results
(980 recliners)Sales (1,000 recliners X $495)$495,000 (980 recliners X $475)$465,500Variable manufacturing costs: Direct materials (6,000 yds @ $8.80/yard)52,800 (6,150 yds @ $8.60/yard)52,890 Direct labor (10,000 hrs @ $9.20/hour)92,000 (9,600 hrs @ $9.30/hour)89,280Variable overhead (6,000 yds @ $5.00/yard)30,000 (6,510 yds @ $6.40/yard)39,360Fixed manufacturing costs: Fixed overhead60,00062,000Total cost of goods sold$234,800$243,530Gross profit$260,200$221,970Requirements:1. Prepare a flexible budget based on the actual number of recliners sold.2. Compute the price variance and the efficiency variance for direct materials and for direct labor. For manufacturing overhead, compute the variable overhead spending, variable overhead efficiency, fixed overhead spending, and fixed overhead volume variances.3. Have Preston's managers done a good job or a poor job controlling materials, labor, and overhead costs? Why?4. Describe how Preston's managers can benefit from the standard costing system.
Problem 2AllTalk Technologies manufactures capacitors for cellular base stations and other communications applications. The company's January 2012 flexible budget income statement shows output levels of 6,500, 8,000, and 10,000 units. The static budget was based on expected sales of 8,000 units.ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Flexible Budget Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Per UnitBy Units (Capacitors)6,5008,00010,000Sales revenue$24$156,000$192,000$240,000Variable expenses$1065,00080,000100,000Contribution margin$91,000$112,000$140,000Fixed expenses53,00053,00053,000Operating income$38,000$59,000$87,000The company sold 10,000 units during January, and its actual operating income was as follows:ALLTALK TECHNOLOGIES
Income Statement
Month Ended January 31, 2012Sales revenue$246,000Variable expenses104,500Contribution margin$141,500Fixed expenses54,000Operating income$87,500Requirements:1. Prepare an income statement performance report for January.2. What was the effect on AllTalk's operating income of selling 2,000 units more than the static budget level of sales?3. What is AllTalk's static budget variance? Explain why the income statement performance report provides more useful information to AllTalk's managers than the simple static budget variance. What insights can AllTalk's managers draw from this performance report?
Problem 3Java manufacturers coffee mugs that it sells to other companies for customizing with their own logos. Java prepares flexible budgets and uses a standard cost system to control manufacturing costs. The standard unit.
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the .docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance SheetBelow is the income statement and balance sheet for Blue Bill Corporation for 2013. Based on the historical statements and theadditional information provided, construct the firm's pro forma income statement and balance sheet for 2014.Blue Bill CorporationIncome StatementFor the year ended 2013Projected201220132014Revenue$60,000$63,000Cost of goods sold42,00044,100Gross margin18,00018,900SG&A expense6,0006,300Depreciation expense1,8002,000Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT)10,20010,600Interest expense1,5001,800Taxable income8,7008,800Income Tax Expense3,0453,080Net income5,6555,720Dividends750800To retained earnings$4,905$4,920Additional income statement information:Sales will increase by 5% in 2014 from 2013 levels.COGS and SG&A will be the average percent of sales for the last 2 years.Depreciation expense will increase to $2,200.Interest expense will be $1,900.The tax rate is 35%.Dividend payout will increase to $850.Blue Bill CorporationBalance SheetDecember 31, 2013Projected20132014Current assetsCash$8,000Accounts receivable3,150Inventory9,450Total current assets20,600Property, plant, and equipment (PP&E)28,500Accumulated depreciation16,400Net PP&E12,100Total assets$32,700Current liabilitesAccounts payable$3,780Bank loan (10%)3,200Other current liabilities1,250Total current liabilities8,230Long-term debt (12%)4,800Common stock1,250Retained earnings18,420Total liabilities and equity$32,700Additional balance sheet information:The minimum cash balance is 12% of sales.Working capital accounts (accounts receivable, accounts payable, and inventory) will be the same percent of sales in 2014 as they were in 2013.$8,350 of new PP&E will be purchased in 2014.Other current liabilities will be 3% of sales in 2014.There will be no changes in the common stock or long-term debt accounts.The plug figure (the last number entered that makes the balance sheet balance) is bank loan.
1
Rough Draft
Rough Draft
Rasmussen College
Metro Dental Care is a dental office that provides affordable, convenient, and high quality of care to patients. As a patient at Metro, I personally believe that Metro Dental Care is one of the best dental clinics around, and that’s why I have chosen this company. Metro Dental Care measures their results by recording patient satisfaction.
Managing financial reports, and the quality of service they provide to their customers. Furthermore, the dentists and staff at Metro Dental Care know how important your smile is. Their mission statement states “We pride ourselves in making your smile look great so you not only look good, but feel confident with your smile.”
Metro Dental Care offers convenience for their patients with more than 40 offices throughout the Minneapolis and St. Paul metro area offering flexible hours including early morning, evening and Saturday appointments. Whether you work or live Metro Dental Care has a location near you. Metro Dental .
PROBLEM 14-6AProblem 14-6A Norwoods Borrowings1. Total amount of .docxChantellPantoja184
PROBLEM 14-6AProblem 14-6A: Norwoods Borrowings1. Total amount of each installment payment.Present value of an ordinary annuity$200,000Interest per period(i)0.08Number of periods(n)5Total amount of each installment payment($50,091.29)Therefore the total amount of each installment payment is $ 50,091.292.Norwoods Amortization TablePeriod Ending DateBeginning balance Interest expenseNotes PayableCash paymentEnding Balance10/31/15$200,000.00$16,000.00$34,091.29$50,091.29$165,908.7110/31/16$165,909.00$13,272.72$36,818.57$50,091.29$129,090.4310/31/17$129,090.43$10,327.23$39,764.06$50,091.29$89,326.3710/31/18$89,326.37$7,146.11$42,945.18$50,091.29$46,381.1910/31/19$46,381.19$3,710.50$46,380.79$50,091.29$0.403.a) Accrued interest as December 31st 2015Accrued interest expense = $200,000*8%*2/12= $2,666.67. Thus the journal entry is as shown below:DescriptionDr($)Cr($)interest expense $2,666.67 Interest payable $2,666.67b) The first annual payment on the note.Ten more months of interest has accrued $200,000*8%*10/12 =$13,333.33 accrued interest .Therefore the journal entry is as shown below:DescriptionDr($)Cr($)Notes payable$34,091.29interest expense$13,333.33interest payable$2,666.67 Cash$50,091.29
PROBLEM 14-7AProblem 14-7AQuestion 1a) Debt to equity ratiosPulaski CompanyScott Company Total liabilities$360,000.00$240,000.00Total Equity$500,000.00$200,000.00Debt-Equity Ratio0.721.2Question 2The debt to equity ratio measures the amount of debt a company uses has to finance its business for every dollar of equity it has. A higher debt to equity ratio implies that a company uses more debt than equity for financing. In this case, the debt to equity ratio for Pulaski Company is 0.72 which is less than 1 implying that the stockholder's equity exceeds the amount of debt borrowed. Thus Pulaski Company may not likely suffer from risks brought about by huge amount of debts in the capital structure. On the other hand, the debt to equity ratio of Scott Company is 1.2 which is greater than 1 implying that the debt exceeds the totalamount stockholders equity. Huge debts is associated with a lot of risks. First, there is the risk of defaulting whereby the company may be unable to repay its debt and therefore leading to bankruptcy. Second, a company may find it difficult to obtain additional funding from creditors.This is because the creditors prefer companies with low debt to equity ratio. Finally, there is the risks of violating the debt covenants. A covenant is an agreement that requires a company to maintain adequate financial ratio levels. Too much borrowings may violate this covenant. Since ScottCompany has a higher debt to equity ratio, it may experience these risks which may eventually lead to the company being declared bankrupt .
PROBLEM 14-6BProblem 14-6B: Gordon Enterprises Borrowings1. Total amount of each installment payment.Present value of an ordi.
Problem 13-3AThe stockholders’ equity accounts of Ashley Corpo.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 13-3A
The stockholders’ equity accounts of Ashley Corporation on January 1, 2012, were as follows.
Preferred Stock (8%, $49 par, cumulative, 10,200 shares authorized)
$ 387,100
Common Stock ($1 stated value, 1,937,100 shares authorized)
1,408,700
Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par—Preferred Stock
123,200
Paid-in Capital in Excess of Stated Value—Common Stock
1,496,800
Retained Earnings
1,814,400
Treasury Stock (10,300 common shares)
51,500
During 2012, the corporation had the following transactions and events pertaining to its stockholders’ equity.
Feb. 1
Issued 24,100 shares of common stock for $123,900.
Apr. 14
Sold 6,000 shares of treasury stock—common for $33,800.
Sept. 3
Issued 5,100 shares of common stock for a patent valued at $35,700.
Nov. 10
Purchased 1,100 shares of common stock for the treasury at a cost of $5,700.
Dec. 31
Determined that net income for the year was $456,600.
No dividends were declared during the year.
(a)
Journalize the transactions and the closing entry for net income. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
Feb. 1
Apr. 14
Sept. 3
Nov. 10
Dec. 31
Click if you would like to Show Work for this question:
Open Show Work
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Problem 12-9AYour answer is partially correct. Try again..docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 12-9A
Your answer is partially correct. Try again.
Condensed financial data of Odgers Inc. follow.
ODGERS INC.Comparative Balance Sheets
December 31
Assets
2014
2013
Cash
$ 131,704
$ 78,892
Accounts receivable
143,114
61,940
Inventory
183,375
167,646
Prepaid expenses
46,292
42,380
Long-term investments
224,940
177,670
Plant assets
464,550
395,275
Accumulated depreciation
(81,500
)
(84,760
)
Total
$1,112,475
$839,043
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
Accounts payable
$ 166,260
$ 109,699
Accrued expenses payable
26,895
34,230
Bonds payable
179,300
237,980
Common stock
358,600
285,250
Retained earnings
381,420
171,884
Total
$1,112,475
$839,043
ODGERS INC.Income Statement Data
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
Sales revenue
$633,190
Less:
Cost of goods sold
$220,800
Operating expenses, excluding depreciation
20,228
Depreciation expense
75,795
Income tax expense
44,466
Interest expense
7,710
Loss on disposal of plant assets
12,225
381,224
Net income
$ 251,966
Additional information:
1.
New plant assets costing $163,000 were purchased for cash during the year.
2.
Old plant assets having an original cost of $93,725 and accumulated depreciation of $79,055 were sold for $2,445 cash.
3.
Bonds payable matured and were paid off at face value for cash.
4.
A cash dividend of $42,430 was declared and paid during the year.
Prepare a statement of cash flows using the indirect method. (Show amounts that decrease cash flow with either a - sign e.g. -15,000 or in parenthesis e.g. (15,000).)
ODGERS INC.Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
$
Adjustments to reconcile net income to
$
$
Problem 12-10A
Condensed financial data of Odgers Inc. follow.
ODGERS INC.Comparative Balance Sheets
December 31
Assets
2014
2013
Cash
$ 151,904
$ 90,992
Accounts receivable
165,064
71,440
Inventory
211,500
193,358
Prepaid expenses
53,392
48,880
Long-term investments
259,440
204,920
Plant assets
535,800
455,900
Accumulated depreciation
(94,000
)
(97,760
)
Total
$1,283,100
$967,730
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
Accounts payable
$ 191,760
$ 126,524
Accrued expenses payable
31,020
39,480
Bonds payable
206,800
274,480
Common stock
413,600
329,000
Retained earnings
439,920
198,246
Total
$1,283,100
$967,730
ODGERS INC.Income Statement Data
For the Year Ended December 31, 2014
Sales revenue
$730,305
Less:
Cost of goods sold
$254,665
Operating expenses, excluding depreciation
23,331
Depreciation expense
87,420
Income taxes
51,286
Interest expense
8,892
Loss on disposal of plant assets
14,100
439,694
Net income
$ 290,611
Additional information:
1.
New plant assets costing $188,000 were purchased for c.
Problem 1123456Xf122437455763715813910106Name DateTopic.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1123456Xf122437455763715813910106
Name: Date:
Topic One: Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation
Please type your answer in the cell beside the question.
5. The following is the heart rate for 10 randomly selected patients on the unit. Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the data using the descriptive statistics option in the data analysis toolpak.
75, 80, 62, 97, 107, 59, 76, 83, 84, 69
6. The following is a frequency distribution fo the number of times patience use the call light in a days time. X is the number of times the call light is used and f is the frequency (meaning the number of patients). Create a histogram of the data.
Sheet2
Sheet3
EXERCISE 11 USING STATISTICS TO DESCRIBE A STUDY SAMPLE
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE IN REVIEW
Most studies describe the subjects that comprise the study sample. This description of the sample is called the sample characteristics which may be presented in a table or the narrative of the article. The sample characteristics are often presented for each of the groups in a study (i.e. experimental and control groups). Descriptive statistics are used to generate sample characteristics, and the type of statistic used depends on the level of measurement of the demographic variables included in a study (Burns & Grove, 2007). For example, measuring gender produces nominal level data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, and mode. Measuring educational level usually produces ordinal data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, mode, median, and range. Obtaining each subject's specific age is an example of ratio data that can be described using mean, range, and standard deviation. Interval and ratio data are analyzed with the same type of statistics and are usually referred to as interval/ratio level data in this text.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Source: Troy, N. W., & Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2003). The effectiveness of a self-care intervention for the management of postpartum fatigue. Applied Nursing Research, 16 (1), 38–45.
Introduction
Troy and Dalgas-Pelish (2003) conducted a quasi-experimental study to determine the effectiveness of a self-care intervention (Tiredness Management Guide [TMG]) on postpartum fatigue. The study subjects included 68 primiparous mothers, who were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (32 subjects) or the control group (36 subjects) using a computer program. The results of the study indicated that the TMG was effective in reducing levels of morning postpartum fatigue from the 2nd to 4th weeks postpartum. These researchers recommend that “mothers need to be informed that they will probably experience postpartum fatigue and be taught to assess and manage this phenomenon” (Troy & Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, pp. 44-5).
Relevant Study Results
“A total of 80 women were initially enrolled [in the study] … twelve of these women dropped out of the study resulting in a final sample of 68.” (Troy & Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, p. 39). The researchers presen.
Problem 1. For the truss and loading shown below, calculate th.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1. For the truss and loading shown below, calculate the horizontal
displacement of point "D" using the method of virtual work. Show ALL your work!
HW No. 8 - Part 1
Solution
HW FA15 2 Page 1
Problem 1 Continued
Member L (in.) N (lb) N (in) NnL
HW No. 8 - Part 1
.
Problem 1 (30 marks)Review enough information about .docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1 (30 marks)
Review enough information about Trinidad Drilling Ltd. to propose a vision and strategic objectives for the company. Develop a balanced scorecard that will help the company achieve this vision and monitor how well it is accomplishing its strategic objectives. Include a strategy map in table format that shows objectives and performance measures, with arrows illustrating hypothesized cause-and -effect relationships. Provide rationale for your strategy map. The body of your report should not exceed 1,000 words. Cite material you used to prepare the response and provide references in an appendix.
Problem 2 (20 marks)
Ajax Auto Upholstery Ltd. manufactures upholstered products for automobiles, vans, and trucks. Among the various Ajax plants around Canada is the Owlseye plant located in rural Alberta.
The chief financial officer has just received a report indicating that Ajax could purchase the entire annual output of the Owlseye plant from a foreign supplier for $37 million per year.
The budgeted operating costs (in thousands) for the Owlseye plant’s for the coming year is as follows:
Materials $15,000
Labor
Direct $12,000
Supervision 4,000
Indirect plant 5,000 19,000
Overhead
Depreciation – plant 6,000
Utilities, property tax, maintenance 2,000
Pension expense 4,500
Plant manager and staff 2,500
Corporate headquarters overhead allocation 3,000 18,000
Total budgeted costs $52,000
If material purchase orders are cancelled as a consequence of the plant closing, termination charges would amount to 10 percent of the annual cost of direct materials in the first year (zero thereafter).
A clause in the Ajax union contract requires the company to provide employment assistance to its former employees for 12 months after a plant closes. The estimated cost to administer this service if the Owlseye plant closes would be $2 million. $3.6 million of next year’s pension expense would continue indefinitely whether or not the plant remains open. About $900,000 of labour would still be required in the first year after closure to decommission the plant. After that, the plant would be sold for an estimated $1 million. Utilities, property taxes, and maintenance costs would remain unchanged in the first year after closure, but disappear when the plant is sold.
The plant manager and her staff would be somewhat affected by the closing of the Owlseye plant. Some managers would still be responsible for managing three other plants. As a result, total management salaries would be about 50% of the current level, starting at closure and remaining into the future.
Required:
Assume you are the company’s chief financial officer. Perform a five-year financial analysis and make a recommendation whether to close the Owlseye plant on this basis. Provide support for and cautions about your recommendation with organized, clearly-labeled data. Use bullet points where appropriate.
Problem 3 (16 marks)
Br.
Problem 1 (10 points) Note that an eigenvector cannot be zero.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1 (10 points): Note that an eigenvector cannot be zero, but an eigenvalue can
be 0. Suppose that 0 is an eigenvalue of A. What does it say about A? (Hint: One of the
most important properties of a matrix is whether or not it is invertible. Think about the
Invertible Matrix Theorem and all the ‘good things’ of dealing with invertible matrices)
Problem 5: (20 points): The figure below shows a network of one-way streets with
traffic flowing in the directions indicated. The flow rate along the streets are measured
as the average number of vehicles per hour.
a) Set up a mathematical model whose solution provides the unknown flow rates
b) Solve the model for the unknown flow rates
c) If the flow rates along the road A to B must be reduced for construction, what is
the minimum flow that is required to keep traffic flowing on all roads?
Problem 6 (20 points): Problem 7 (9 points): Prove that if A and B are matrices of the same
size, then tr(A+B)=tr(A)+tr(B)
Given:
Goal:
Proof:
Problem 7 (20 points)*: In the 1990, the northern spotted owl became the center of a
nationwide controversy over the use and misuse of the majestic forests in the Pacific
Northwest. Environmentalists convinced the federal government that the owl was
threatened with extinction if logging continued in the old-growth forests (with trees over
200 years old), where the owls prefer to live. The timber industry, anticipating the loss of
30,000 to 100,000 jobs as a result of new government restrictions on logging, argued that
the owl should not be classified as a “threatened species” and cited a number of published
scientific reports to support its case.
Caught in the crossfire of the two lobbying groups, mathematical ecologists
intensified their drive to understand the population dynamics of the spotted owl. The life
cycle of a spotted owl divides naturally into three stages: juvenile (up to 1 year old),
subadult (1 to 2 years), and adult (over 2 years). The owls mate for life during the subadult
and adult stages, begin to breed as adults, and live for up to 20 years. Each owl pair
requires about 1,000 hectares (4 square miles) for its own home territory. A critical time in
the life cycle is when the juveniles leave the nest. To survive and become a subadult, a
juvenile must successfully find a new home range (and usually a mate).
A first step in studying the population dynamics is to model the population at yearly
intervals, at times denoted by 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2, …. Usually, one assumes that there is a 1:1 ratio of
males to females in each life stage and counts only the females. The population at year 𝑘𝑘
can be described by a vector 𝒙𝒙𝒌𝒌 = (𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 , 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 , 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 ), where 𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 , 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 , and 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 are the numbers of
females in the juvenile, subadult, and adult stages, respectively. Using actual field data from
demographic studies, a rese
Probation and Parole 3Running head Probation and Parole.docxChantellPantoja184
Probation and Parole 3
Running head: Probation and Parole
Probation and Parole
Student Name
Allied American University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Probation and Parole, Module 8 Check Your Understanding taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].
Directions: Respond to the following questions using complete sentences. Your answer should be at least 1 paragraph in length, which must be composed of three to five sentences.
1. What is meant by intermediate punishments and what programs are included in this category?
2. How do intermediate punishments serve to keep down prison populations?
3. Why has electronic monitoring proven so popular?
4. What is meant by shock probation/parole?
5. What are the essential features of the boot camp program?
6. Why has intensive supervision been a public relations success?
7. What are the criticisms of boot camp programs?
8. What has research revealed with respect to intensive supervision?
9. What are the criticisms of electronic monitoring in probation and parole?
10. What are the criticisms leveled at intensive supervision?
11. What are the purposes of and services offered by a day reporting center?
12. Why would heroin addicts who have no intention of giving up drug use voluntarily enter a drug treatment program? What are the advantages of using methadone to treat heroin addicts?
13. Why is behavior modification difficult to use in treating drug abusers?
14. What are the characteristics of chemical dependency (CD) programs?
15. What are the primary characteristics of the therapeutic community (TC) approach for treating drug abusers?
16. What are criticisms of the Alcoholics Anonymous approach?
17. What are the problems inherent in drug testing?
18. What are the typical characteristics of sex offenders? How have sex offender laws affected P/P supervision?
19. What are the pros and cons of restitution and charging offenders fees in probation or parole?
20. What are the problems encountered in using the interstate compact?
.
Problem 1(a) Complete the following ANOVA table based on 20 obs.docxChantellPantoja184
Problem 1:
(a) Complete the following ANOVA table based on 20 observations for the regression equation
(a) Is the overall regression significant? Fill in the missing values in the table.
Source DF SS MS F
Regression ___ 350 ____ ____
Error ___ _____
Total 500
(b) Suppose that you have computed the following sequential sums of squares due to regression:
Regressor Variables in Model SS Regression
………………………………………. 300
……………………………………… 250
…………………………………….. 340
……………………………………. 325
Fill in the missing values in the following “computer output”:
Source DF Partial SS F-value Pr>F
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 0.1245
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.3841
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.0042
………………………………………………………………………………………. 0.0401
Problem 2:
The time required for a merchandise to stock a grocery store shelf with a soft drink product as well as the number of cases of product stocked are given below. Consider a linear regression of delivery time against number of cases.
X=number of cases
Y=delivery time
Delivery time number of cases Hat diagonals
1.41 4 0.5077
2.96 6 0.3907
6.04 14 0.2013
7.57 19 0.3092
9.38 24 0.5912
Observations used L.S. Model
4,6,14,19,24
6,14,19,24
4,14,19,24
4,14,19,24
4,6,14,24
4,6,14,19
(a)
Calculate the PRESS statistic for the model .
(b) Calculate the regular residual for the model above. Then, compare these residuals with the PRESS residuals for this model.
Exercises from the Text
Use SAS whenever possible to do these exercises:
# 3.4 on p 122
# 3.5
# 3.8
# 3.15
# 3.21
# 3.27
# 3.28
# 3.31
# 3.38
# 3.39
Example with SAS on Sequential and Partial Sum of Squares
Data Weather;
Title 'Lows and Highs from N&O Jan 28,29,30 1992';
Title2 'using actual numbers (yesterday values)';
input city $ hi2 lo2 yhi ylo thi tlo;
* Mon Tues Wed ;
cards;
seattle 51 44 52 44 59 47
.
.
.
;
proc reg; model thi = yhi hi2 tlo ylo lo2/ss1 ss2;
test tlo=0, ylo=0, lo2=0;
/*-----------------------------------------------
| Showing sequential and partial sums of squares|
| Note t**2 = F relationship for partial F. By |
| hand, construct F to leave out .
Probe 140 SPrecipitation in inchesTemperature in F.docxChantellPantoja184
Probe 1
40 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
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8
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0
10
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POTET 26.8
Precip 27.1
MAT(F) 59.8
Probe 2
6 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 69.2
Precip 124.6
MAT(F) 77.9
Probe 3
57 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 21.5
Precip 38.7
MAT(F) 43.5
Probe 4
38 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 30.3
Precip 16.5
MAT(F) 53.6
Probe 5
55 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
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0
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POTET 21.3
Precip 28.1
MAT(F) 40.6
Probe 6
43 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
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POTET 25.4
Precip 14.4
MAT(F) 47.2
Probe 7
42 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 17.3
Precip 31.2
MAT(F) 26.0
Probe 8
42 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 29.6
Precip 38.8
MAT(F) 51.6
Probe 9
18 S
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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POTET 66.1
Precip 74.8
MAT(F) 77.7
Probe 10
58 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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0
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POTET 16.5
Precip 24.8
MAT(F) 36.9
Probe 11
26 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
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POTET 47.6
Precip 3.8
MAT(F) 70.1
Probe 12
29 N
Precipitation in inches
Temperature in F
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
4
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0
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POTET 44.0
Precip 47.3
MAT(F) 63.2
Probe 4
Probe 2
Probe 10
Probe 5
Probe 6
Probe 7
Probe 11
Probe 12
Probe 8
Probe 9
Probe 3
Probe 1
Map 1
20 N
40 N
60 N
80 N
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13Where is running header Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
1. 1
3
Where is running header?
Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Uchenna Opara
Care Hope College
NUR315: Nursing Theory
Dr. Allison Sapp
9/27/2021
Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Introduction (Centered)
Patient-centered care is an essential nursing practice in
healthcare setting aimed at providing meaningful care for
patients and their families. Nurses are required to provide
efficient care for the patients in ways that are meaningful and
valuable to individual patients. Caring for patients incorpora te
essential practices such as listening to, informing and involving
patients in their care in order to enhance better outcomes.
Several nursing theories provide a framework that guides nurses
2. in offering better care for patients. One of the most known
theory that emphasize on patient care is the Jean Watson’s
caring theory. The objective of this paper is to provide an
overview of the Watson’s caring theory of nursing. (Capitalize
name of theory)
Overview of the Watson’s Caring Theory
According to Watson (2009), the core of the Theory of Caring is
that “humans cannot be treated as objects and that humans
cannot be separated from self, other, nature, and the larger
workforce.” (Watson, 2009). Nursing is defined by caring;
Watson’s caring theory encompasses essential aspects of human
caring. Nurses are identified as the potential care giver while
patients are the core recipient of care. Watson founded this
theory to emphasize on the centrality of human caring. This
implies that nurses need to provide holistic care for patients in a
respectful manner while observing the dignity of life. Existence
of good relationship between the nurse and the individual
patient often increase the capacity of healing among patients.
As a result, nurses are required to adopt good interpersonal
relationships with their patients while attending to them in
order to enhance better outcomes (Watson & Woodward, 2010).
Caring for patients often develops a high level of consciousness
in the patients, making the person to emerge with harmony of
mind-body-soul.
My Encounter with Mrs. Jacky
Mrs. Jacky had been married for 12-years, but she has not been
able to conceive. Her marriage life has had numerous
challenges, including brutal treatment by her husband due to
infertility. Mrs. Jacky shared with her story about how she has
struggled looking for a solution for her infertility. She narrated
to me how a nurse from one of the facility she visited refused to
care for her as she was barren. (elaborate more)
Discussion
My encounter with Mrs. Jacky reminded me of how nurses
should care for all patients regardless of their conditions. The
story resonates with Watson’s arguments about caring for
3. patients. For instance, the nurses needed to listen to Mrs. Jacky,
inform and create a friendly environment with her in order to
provide effective care for the patient. Infertility is a common
condition that can occur to any person. Discriminating the
patient on the basis of infertility condition when providing care
is wrong. (elaborate)
Conclusion
Caring for patients incorporate essential practices such as
listening to, informing and involving patients in their care in
order to enhance better outcomes. Watson’s caring theory
encompasses essential aspects of human caring. Nurses are
identified as the potential care giver while patients are the core
recipient of care. Watson founded this theory to emphasize on
the centrality of human caring. Same thing, three sentences is
too short
References
Watson, J. (2009). Caring science and human caring theory:
Transforming personal and professional practices of nursing and
health care. Journal of health and human services
administration, 466-482.
Watson, J., & Woodward, T. K. (2010). Jean Watson’s theory of
human caring. Nursing theories and nursing practice, 3, 351-
369.
The start was decent but for an academic paper, your body of
the paper is 2 pages long. Way too short. You need a good 8 to
10 resources and 5 pages iin the body.
Grade- 85%
-10 length and lacl of elaboration
-5 formatting
Running head: ROUGH DRAFT EXEMPLAR PAPER
1
4. ROUGH DRAFT EXEMPLAR PAPER
5
Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Jane Doe
Care Hope College
NUR315: Nursing Theory
Dr. Edward Kyle
Rough Draft Exemplar Paper
Introduction
Articulate your purpose/point of paper: pull the readers in –
make them interested in reading your paper, state what the
purpose of your paper is – what are you trying to accomplish.
Overview of Nursing Theory
For your paper, specify selected theory in your title, i.e.,
“Overview of Watson’s Caring Theory. Provide readers with
basic information and concepts related to your selected theory
[be sure to include pertinent primary references to the theory so
that the reader may access this information for further
exploration]. This is not a “term” paper or “critique” of the
selected theory – but you need to provide enough information
for readers so that they can clearly understand the application
and “fit” of the selected nursing theory to your exemplar/story.
Exemplar Encounter: My Encounter with Mr. Smith
Adapt title/heading as you see fit for your exemplar/story. This
section of the paper includes a verbatim [narrative] report of
your patient/nurse experience that will then be reflected on
when you discuss how this particular nursing practice
experience fits with your selected theory. For example, one
5. student wrote an exemplar paper about a patient/nurse encounter
that clearly involved the major concepts and element of Orem’s
Self Care theory – after sharing her story, the student was able
to discuss how Orem’s theory applied to how she cared for her
pre-op patient.
Discuss Application of Theory
Highlight aspects of your “story”; explain how story/experience
fits with theory – makes sense, etc. Paraphrasing aspects of
your story – or the inclusion of direct quotes from the above
section help to validate how your exemplar ties into the theory.
Conclusion
This section includes the “take away” from your paper. What
can readers conclude from your paper, your exemplar
experience, i.e., your exemplar promotes use of theory –
reinforces how your selected theory is practical, useful,
facilitates improved patient outcomes, etc.
Quality
Grammar, proper sentence structure, clarity of writing, flow of
writing, adherence to course format for paper and selected
journal, appropriate citation of references [use format required
by journal].
References
Cribs, N. (2009). Nursing theory and theorists. Retrieved from
http://nursingcrib.com/nursing-theory-theorists/
McEwen, M., & Wills, E. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing,
(3 ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.
University of San Diego. (2009). Nursing theory page.
Retrieved from
http://www.sandiego.edu/academics/nursing/theory/
7. reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly
changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own
experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments
described herein. In using such informa-
tion or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified,
readers are advised to check the most
current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii)
by the manufacturer of each product to be
administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the
method and duration of administration, and
contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners,
relying on their own experience and knowledge of
their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the
best treatment for each individual patient,
and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the
authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence
8. or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nursing theorists and their work / [edited by] Martha Raile
Alligood. — Eighth edition.
p. ; cm.
Includes biographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-323-09194-7 9pbk. ; alk. Paper)
I. Alligood, Martha Raile, editor of compilation.
[DNLM: 1. Nursing Theory. 2. Models, Nursing. 3. Nurses—
Biography. Philosophy, Nursing. WY 86]
RT84.5
610.7301—dc23
2013023220
Printed in the United States of America
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Senior Content Strategist: Yvonne Alexopoulos
Content Development Specialist: Danielle M. Frazier
Publishing Services Manager: Deborah L. Vogel
Project Manager: Pat Costigan
Design Direction: Karen Pauls
Dedicated to the memory of my mother:
Winifred Havener Raile, RN
1914-2012
Class of 1936,
9. Good Samaritan School of Nursing,
Zanesville, Ohio
This page intentionally left blank
vii
Contributors
Herdis Alvsvåg, RN, Cand Polit
Associate Professor
Department of Education and Health Promotion
University of Bergen
Bergen, Norway;
Associate Professor II
Bergen Deaconess University College
Bergen, Norway
Donald E. Bailey, Jr., PhD, RN
Associate Professor
School of Nursing
Duke University
Durham, North Carolina
Barbara Banfield, RN, PhD
Farmington Hills, Michigan
Violeta A. Berbiglia, EdD, MSN, RN
Associate Professor, Retired
The University of Texas Health Science Center
10. at San Antonio School of Nursing
San Antonio, Texas
Debra A. Bournes, RN, PhD
Director of Nursing
New Knowledge and Innovation
University Health Network
Toronto, Canada
Nancy Brookes, PhD, RN, BC, MSc (A),
CPMHN (C)
Nurse Scholar and Adjunct Professor
Royal Ottawa Health Care Group
Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre
University of Ottawa Faculty of Health Sciences
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Janet Witucki Brown, PhD, RN, CNE
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Karen A. Brykczynski, PhD, RN, FNP-BC,
FAANP, FAAN
Professor
School of Nursing at Galveston
The University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas
Sherrilyn Coffman, PhD, RN
Professor and Assistant Dean
School of Nursing
Nevada State College
Henderson, Nevada
11. Doris Dickerson Coward, RN, PhD
Associate Professor, Retired
School of Nursing
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
Thérèse Dowd, PhD, RN, HTCP
Associate Professor Emeritus
College of Nursing
The University of Akron
Akron, Ohio
Nellie S. Droes, DNSc, RN
Associate Professor, Emerita
College of Nursing
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina
Contributorsviii
Margaret E. Erickson, PhD, RN, CNS, AHN-BC
Executive Director
American Holistic Nurses’ Certification Corporation
Cedar Park, Texas
Mary E. Gunther, RN, MSN, PhD
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Dana M. Hansen, RN, MSN, PhD
Assistant Professor
College of Nursing
12. Kent State University
Kent, Ohio
Sonya R. Hardin, PhD, RN, CCRN, NP-C
Professor
College of Nursing
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina
Robin Harris, PhD, ANP-BC, ACNS-BC
Nurse Practitioner
Wellmont CVA Heart Institute
Kingsport, Tennessee
Patricia A. Higgins, PhD, RN
Assistant Professor
Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland, Ohio
Bonnie Holaday, DNS, RN, FAAN
Professor and Director, Graduate Studies
School of Nursing and Institute on Family and
Neighborhood Life
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina
Eun-Ok Im, PhD, MPH, RN, CNS, FAAN
Professor and Marjorie O. Rendell Endowed
Professor
School of Nursing
The University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
13. D. Elizabeth Jesse, PhD, RN, CNM
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina
Lisa Kitko, PhD, RN, CCRN
Assistant Professor
School of Nursing
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Theresa Gunter Lawson, PhD, APRN, FNP-BC
Assistant Professor
Department of Nursing
Lander University
Greenwood, South Carolina
Unni Å. Lindström, PhD, RN
Professor
Department of Caring Science
Faculty of Social and Caring Sciences
Åbo Academy University
Vasa, Finland
M. Katherine Maeve, PhD, RN
Nurse Researcher
Charlie Norwood VAMC
Augusta, Georgia
Marilyn R. McFarland, PhD, RN, FNP, BC, CTN
Associate Professor of Nursing and Family Nurse
Practitioner
Urban Health and Wellness Center
University of Michigan
14. Flint, Michigan
Gwen McGhan, PhD(c), RN
Jonas/Hartford Doctoral Scholar
School of Nursing
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Molly Meighan, RNC, PhD
Professor Emerita
Division of Nursing
Carson-Newman College
Jefferson City, Tennessee
Contributors ix
Patricia R. Messmer, PhD, RN-BC, FAAN
Director
Patient Care Services Research
Children’s Mercy Hospital and Clinics
Kansas City, Missouri
Gail J. Mitchell, PhD, RN, MScN, BScN
Professor
School of Nursing
Chair/Director
York-UHN Nursing Academy
York University
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Lisbet Lindholm Nyström, PhD, RN
Associate Professor
Department of Caring Science
Faculty of Social and Caring Sciences
15. Åbo Academy University
Vasa, Finland
Janice Penrod, PhD, RN, FGSA, FAAN
Director, Center for Nursing Research
Associate Professor
School of Nursing
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Susan A. Pfettscher, DNSc, RN
Retired
Bakersfield, California
Kenneth D. Phillips, PhD, RN
Professor and Associate Dean for Research and
Evaluation
College of Nursing
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Marie E. Pokorny, PhD, RN
Director of the PhD Program
College of Nursing
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina
Marguerite J. Purnell, PhD, RN, AHN-BC
Assistant Professor
Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, Florida
Teresa J. Sakraida, PhD, RN
Assistant Professor
16. College of Nursing
University of Colorado, Denver
Aurora, Colorado
Karen Moore Schaefer, PhD, RN
Associate Chair and Associate Professor, Retired
Department of Nursing
College of Health Professions
Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Ann M. Schreier, PhD, RN
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
East Carolina University
Greenville, North Carolina
Carrie J. Scotto, PhD, RN
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
University of Akron
Akron, Ohio
Christina L. Sieloff, PhD, RN, NE, BC
Associate Professor
College of Nursing
Montana State University
Billings, Montana
Janet L. Stewart, PhD, RN
Assistant Professor
Department of Health Promotion and Development
School of Nursing
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
17. Contributorsx
Danuta M. Wojnar, PhD, RN, MEd, IBCLC
Assistant Professor
College of Nursing
Seattle University
Seattle, Washington
Joan E. Zetterlund, PhD, RN
Professor Emerita of Nursing
School of Nursing
North Park University
Chicago, Illinois
xi
Jean Logan, RN, PhD
Professor
Grand View University
Des Moines, Iowa
Karen Pennington, PhD, RN
Associate Professor
Regis University
Denver, Colorado
Reviewers
Nancy Stahl, RN, MSN, CNE
Associate Professor
BSN Coordinator
University of North Georgia
18. Dahlonega, Georgia
xii
About the Editor
Martha Raile Alligood is professor emeritus at East Carolina
University College of Nursing in Greenville,
North Carolina, where she was Director of the Nursing PhD
program. A graduate of Good Samaritan School of
Nursing, she also holds a bachelor of sacred literature (BSL)
from Johnson University, a BSN from University of
Virginia, an MS from The Ohio State University, and a PhD
from New York University.
Her career in nursing education began in Zimbabwe (formerly
Rhodesia) in Africa and has included graduate
appointments at the University of Florida, University of South
Carolina, and University of Tennessee. Among
her professional memberships are Epsilon and Beta Nu Chapters
of Sigma Theta Tau International (STTI),
Southern Nursing Research Society (SNRS), North Carolina
Nurses Association/American Nurses Association
(NCNA/ANA), and Society of Rogerian Scholars (SRS).
A recipient of numerous awards and honors, she is a Fellow of
the National League for Nursing (NLN) Acad-
emy of Nursing Education, received the SNRS Leadership in
Research Award, and was honored with the East
Carolina University Chancellors’s Women of Distinction
Award. A member of the Board of Trustees at Johnson
University, Dr. Alligood chairs the Academic Affairs
Committee.
19. She served as contributing editor for the Theoretical Concerns
column in Nursing Science Quarterly, Vol. 24,
2011, and is author/editor of Nursing Theory: Utilization &
Application, fifth edition, as well as this eighth edition
of Nursing Theorists and Their Work.
xiii
This book is a tribute to nursing theorists and a classic in
theoretical nursing literature. It presents many major thinkers in
nursing, reviews their important knowledge-building ideas, lists
their publications, and points the reader to those using the
works and writing about them in their own theoretical
publications.
Unit I introduces the text with a brief history of nursing
knowledge development and its significance to the
discipline and practice of the profession in Chapter 1. Other
chapters in Unit I discuss the history, philosophy
of science and the framework for analysis used throughout the
text, logical reasoning and theory development
processes, and the structure of knowledge and types of
knowledge within that structure. Ten works from earlier
editions of Nursing Theorists and Their Work are introduced
and discussed briefly as nursing theorists of
historical significance in Chapter 5. They are Peplau;
Henderson; Abdellah; Wiedenbach; Hall; Travelbee;
Barnard; Adam; Roper, Logan, Tierney, and Orlando.
In Unit II, the philosophies of Nightingale, Watson, Ray,
Benner, Martinsen, and Eriksson are presented.
Unit III includes nursing models by Levine, Rogers, Orem,
King, Neuman, Roy, and Johnson. The work of
Boykin and Schoenhofer begins Unit IV on nursing theory,
20. followed by the works of Meleis; Pender; Leininger;
Newman; Parse; Erickson, Tomlin, and Swain; and the Husteds.
Unit V presents middle range theoretical works
of Mercer; Mishel; Reed; Wiener and Dodd; Eakes, Burke, and
Hainsworth; Barker; Kolcaba; Beck; Swanson;
Ruland and Moore. Unit VI addresses the state of the art and
science of nursing theory from three perspectives:
the philosophy of nursing science, the expansion of theory
development, and the global nature and expanding
use of nursing theoretical works.
The works of nurse theorists from around the world are featured
in this text, including works by international
theorists that have been translated into English. Nursing
Theorists and Their Work has also been translated into
numerous languages for nursing faculty and students in other
parts of the world as well as nurses in practice.
Nurses and students at all stages of their education are
interested in learning about nursing theory and
the use of nurse theorist works from around the world. Those
who are just beginning their nursing education,
such as associate degree and baccalaureate students, will be
interested in the concepts, definitions, and theoreti-
cal assertions. Graduate students, at the masters and doctoral
levels, will be more interested in the logical form,
acceptance by the nursing community, the theoretical sources
for theory development, and the use of empirical
data. The references and extensive bibliographies are
particularly useful to graduate students for locating
primary and secondary sources that augment the websites
specific to the theorist. The following comprehensive
websites are excellent resources with information about theory
resources and links to the individual theorists
featured in this book:
21. • Nursing Theory link page, Clayton College and State
University, Department of Nursing: http: //www.
healthsci.clayton.edu/eichelberger/nursing.htm
• Nursing Theory page, Hahn School of Nursing and Health
Science, University of San Diego: http: //www.
sandiego.edu/academics/nursing/theory/
• A comprehensive collection of nursing theory media, The
Nurse Theorists: Portraits of Excellence, Vol. I and
Vol. II and Nurse Theorists: Excellence in Action: http:
//www.fitne.net/
The works of the theorists presented in this text have stimulated
phenomenal growth in nursing literature and
enriched the professional lives of nurses around the world by
guiding nursing research, education, administra-
tion, and practice. The professional growth continues to
multiply as we analyze and synthesize these works,
Preface
http: //www.healthsci.clayton.edu/eichelberger/nursing.htm
http: //www.sandiego.edu/academics/nursing/theory/
http: //www.fitne.net/
http: //www.healthsci.clayton.edu/eichelberger/nursing.htm
http: //www.sandiego.edu/academics/nursing/theory/
http: //www.fitne.net/
Prefacexiv
generate new ideas, and develop new theory and applications for
education in the discipline and quality care in
practice by nurses.
22. The work of each theorist is presented with a framework using
the following headings to facilitate uniformity
and comparison among the theorists and their works:
• Credentials and background
• Theoretical sources for theory development
• Use of empirical data
• Major concepts and definitions
• Major assumptions
• Theoretical assertions
• Logical form
• Acceptance by the nursing community
• Further development
• Critique of the work
• Summary
• Case study based on the work
• Critical thinking activities
• Points for further study
• References and bibliographies
Acknowledgments
I am very thankful to the theorists who critiqued the original
and many subsequent chapters about themselves
to keep the content current and accurate. The work of Paterson
and Zderad was omitted at their request.
I am very grateful to those who have contributed or worked
behind the scenes with previous editions to
develop this text over the years. In the third edition, Martha
Raile Alligood joined Ann Marriner Tomey, to
reorder the chapters, serve as a contributing author, and edit for
consistency with the new organization of the
text. Subsequently Dr. Tomey recommended Dr. Alligood to
Mosby-Elsevier to design and coedit a practice
focused text, Nursing Theory: Utilization and Application and
based on Alligood’s expertise in nursing theory,
23. invited her to become coeditor and contributing author to future
editions of this text, Nursing Theorists and Their
Work. I want to recognize and thank Ann Marriner Tomey for
her vision to develop the first six editions of this
book. Her mentorship, wisdom, and collegial friendship have
been special to me in my professional career. Most
of all, she is to be commended for her dedication to this text
that continues to make an important and valuable
contribution to the discipline and the profession of nursing. I
wish Ann well in her retirement.
Finally, I would like to thank the publishers at Mosby-Elsevier
for their guidance and assistance through
the years to bring this text to this eighth edition. The external
reviews requested by Mosby-Elsevier editors
have contributed to the successful development of each new
edition. The chapter authors who over the years
have contributed their expert knowledge of the theorists and
their work continue to make a most valuable
contribution.
Martha Raile Alligood
xv
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories
1
IntroductiontoNursingTheory:ItsHistory,Significance,andAnalys
is,2
MarthaRaileAlligood
2 HistoryandPhilosophyofScience,14
SonyaR.Hardin
27. UNIT V Middle Range Nursing Theories
27 RamonaT.Mercer:MaternalRoleAttainment—
BecomingaMother,538
MollyMeighan
28 MerleH.Mishel:UncertaintyinIllnessTheory,555
DonaldE.Bailey,Jr.andJanetL.Stewart
Contents xvii
29 PamelaG.Reed:Self-TranscendenceTheory,574
DorisD.Coward
30
CarolynL.WienerandMarylinJ.Dodd:TheoryofIllnessTrajectory,5
93
JanicePenrod,LisaKitko,andGwenMcGhan
31
GeorgeneGaskillEakes,MaryLermannBurke,andMargaretA.Hains
worth:
TheoryofChronicSorrow,609
AnnM.SchreierandNellieS.Droes
32 PhilBarker:TheTidalModelofMentalHealthRecovery,626
NancyBrookes
33 KatharineKolcaba:TheoryofComfort,657
ThérèseDowd
34 CherylTatanoBeck:PostpartumDepressionTheory,672
M.KatherineMaeve
28. 35 KristenM.Swanson:TheoryofCaring,688
DanutaM.Wojnar
36 CorneliaM.RulandandShirleyM.Moore:PeacefulEnd-of-
LifeTheory,701
PatriciaA.HigginsandDanaM.Hansen
UNIT VI The Future of Nursing Theory
37 StateoftheArtandScienceofNursingTheory,712
MarthaRaileAlligood
Index,721
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n Searching for specialized nursing knowledge led nurse
scholars to theories
that guide research, education, administration, and professional
practice.
n Nursing followed a path from concepts to conceptual
frameworks to models
to theories, and finally to middle range theory, in this theory
utilization era.
n Nursing history demonstrates the significance of theory for
nursing as a
division of education (the discipline) and a speci alized field of
practice
(the profession).
n Knowledge of the theory development process is basic to a
29. personal
understanding of the theoretical works of the discipline.
n Analysis facilitates learning through systematic review and
critical reflection
of the theoretical works of the discipline.
n Theory analysis begins the process of identifying a decision
making
framework for nursing research or nursing practice.
Evolution of Nursing Theories
U N I T I
2
“The systematic accumulation of knowledge is essential to
progress in any
profession . . . however theory and practice must be constantly
interactive.
Theory without practice is empty and practice without theory is
blind.”
(Cross, 1981, p. 110).
Introduction to Nursing Theory:
Its History, Significance, and Analysis
Martha Raile Alligood
C H A P T E R 1
Bixler, 1959; Chinn & Kramer, 2011; George, 2011;
30. Im & Chang, 2012; Judd, Sitzman & Davis, 2010;
Meleis, 2007; Shaw, 1993).
This text is designed to introduce the reader to nursing theorists
and their work. Nursing theory
became a major theme in the last century, and it con-
tinues today to stimulate phenomenal professional
growth and expansion of nursing literature and edu-
cation. Selected nursing theorists are presented in
this text to expose students at all levels of nursing
to a broad range of nurse theorists and various types
of theoretical works. Nurses of early eras delivered
excellent care to patients; however, much of what
was known about nursing was passed on through
forms of education that were focused on skills and
functional tasks. Whereas many nursing practices
seemed effective, they were not tested nor used uni-
formly in practice or education. Therefore, a major
goal put forth by nursing leaders in the twentieth
century was the development of nursing knowledge
on which to base nursing practice, improve quality of
care, and gain recognition of nursing as a profession.
The history of nursing clearly documents sustained
efforts toward the goal of developing a specialized
body of nursing knowledge to guide nursing practice
(Alligood, 2010a; Alligood & Tomey, 1997; Bixler &
Previous authors: Martha Raile Alligood, Elizabeth Chong Choi,
Juanita Fogel Keck, and Ann Marriner Tomey.
This chapter introduces nursing theory from three
different perspectives: history, significance, and anal -
ysis. Each perspective contributes understanding of
the contributions of the nursing theorists and their
work. A brief history of nursing development from
vocational to professional describes the search for
31. nursing substance that led to this exciting time in
nursing history as linkages were strengthened be-
tween nursing as an academic discipline and as pro-
fessional practice. The history of this development
provides context and a perspective to understand the
continuing significance of nursing theory for the dis-
cipline and profession of nursing. The history and
significance of nursing theory leads logically into
analysis, the third section of the chapter and final
perspective. Analysis of nursing theoretical works
and its role in knowledge development is presented
as an essential process of critical reflection. Criteria
for analysis of the works of theorists are presented,
along with a brief discussion of how each criterion
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Nursing Theory: Its History,
Significance, and Analysis 3
and individual hospital procedure manuals (Alligood,
2010a; Kalisch & Kalisch, 2003). Although some nurs-
ing leaders aspired for nursing to be recognized as a
profession and become an academic discipline, nursing
practice continued to reflect its vocational heritage
more than a professional vision. The transition from
vocation to profession included successive eras of his-
tory as nurses began to develop a body of specialized
knowledge on which to base nursing practice. Nurs-
ing had begun with a strong emphasis on practice,
and nurses worked throughout the century toward
the development of nursing as a profession. Progress
toward the goal of developing a specialized basis for
nursing practice has been viewed from the perspec-
tive of historical eras recognizing the thrust toward
professional development within each era (Alligood,
32. 2010a; Alligood & Tomey, 1997).
The curriculum era addressed the question of
what content nurses should study to learn how to be
a nurse. During this era, the emphasis was on what
courses nursing students should take, with the goal
of arriving at a standardized curriculum (Alligood,
2010a). By the mid-1930s, a standardized curriculum
had been published and adopted by many diploma
programs. However, the idea of moving nursing edu-
cation from hospital-based diploma programs into
colleges and universities also emerged during this
era (Judd, Sitzman & Davis, 2010). In spite of this
early idea for nursing education, it was the middle of
the century before many states acted upon this goal,
and during the second half of the twentieth century,
diploma programs began closing and significant
numbers of nursing education programs opened in
colleges and universities (Judd, Sitzman, & Davis,
2010; Kalisch & Kalisch, 2003). The curriculum era
emphasized course selection and content for nursing
programs and gave way to the research era, which
focused on the research process and the long-range
goal of acquiring substantive knowledge to guide
nursing practice.
As nurses increasingly sought degrees in higher
education, the research emphasis era began to emerge.
This era began during the mid-century as more nurse
leaders embraced higher education and arrived at a
common understanding of the scientific age—that
research was the path to new nursing knowledge.
Nurses began to participate in research, and research
courses were included in the nursing curricula of early
contributes to a deeper understanding of the work
33. (Chinn & Kramer, 2011).
History of Nursing Theory
The history of professional nursing began with Flor-
ence Nightingale. Nightingale envisioned nurses as
a body of educated women at a time when women
were neither educated nor employed in public service.
Following her wartime service of organizing and car-
ing for the wounded in Scutari during the Crimean
War, Nightingale’s vision and establishment of a School
of Nursing at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London marked
the birth of modern nursing. Nightingale’s pioneering
activities in nursing practice and education and her
subsequent writings became a guide for establishing
nursing schools and hospitals in the United States at
the beginning of the twentieth century (Kalisch &
Kalisch, 2003; Nightingale, 1859/1969).
Nightingale’s (1859/1969) vision of nursing has
been practiced for more than a century, and theory
development in nursing has evolved rapidly over the
past 6 decades, leading to the recognition of nursing
as an academic discipline with a specialized body
of knowledge (Alligood, 2010a, 2010b; Alligood &
Tomey, 2010; Bixler & Bixler, 1959; Chinn & Kramer,
2011; Fawcett, 2005; Im & Chang, 2012; Walker &
Avant, 2011). It was during the mid-1800s that Night-
ingale recognized the unique focus of nursing and
declared nursing knowledge as distinct from medical
knowledge. She described a nurse’s proper function
as putting the patient in the best condition for nature
(God) to act upon him or her. She set forth the follow-
ing: that care of the sick is based on knowledge of
persons and their surroundings —a different knowl-
edge base than that used by physicians in their prac-
tice (Nightingale, 1859/1969). Despite this early edi ct
34. from Nightingale in the 1850s, it was 100 years later,
during the 1950s, before the nursing profession began
to engage in serious discussion of the need to develop
nursing knowledge apart from medical knowledge to
guide nursing practice. This beginning led to aware-
ness of the need to develop nursing theory (Alligood,
2010a; Alligood, 2004; Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Meleis,
2007; Walker & Avant, 2011). Until the emergence of
nursing as a science in the 1950s, nursing practice was
based on principles and traditions that were handed
down through an apprenticeship model of education
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories4
developing graduate nursing programs (Alligood,
2010a). In the mid-1970s, an evaluation of the first
25 years of the journal Nursing Research revealed that
nursing studies lacked conceptual connections and
theoretical frameworks, accentuating the need for
conceptual and theoretical frameworks for develop-
ment of specialized nursing knowledge (Batey, 1977).
Awareness of the need for concept and theory devel-
opment coincided with two other significant mile-
stones in the evolution of nursing theory. The first
milestone is the standardization of curricula for nurs-
ing master’s education by the National League for
Nursing accreditation criteria for baccalaureate and
higher-degree programs, and the second is the deci-
sion that doctoral education for nurses should be in
nursing (Alligood, 2010a).
The research era and the graduate education era
developed in tandem. Master’s degree programs in
nursing emerged across the country to meet the pub-
35. lic need for nurses for specialized clinical nursing
practice. Many of these graduate programs included
a course that introduced the student to the research
process. Also during this era, nursing master’s pro-
grams began to include courses in concept develop-
ment and nursing models, introducing students to
early nursing theorists and knowledge development
processes (Alligood, 2010a). Development of nursing
knowledge was a major force during this period. The
baccalaureate degree began to gain wider acceptance
as the first educational level for professional nursing,
and nursing attained nationwide recognition and
acceptance as an academic discipline in higher edu-
cation. Nurse researchers worked to develop and
clarify a specialized body of nursing knowledge, with
the goals of improving the quality of patient care,
providing a professional style of practice, and achiev-
ing recognition as a profession. There were debates
and discussions in the 1960s regarding the proper
direction and appropriate discipline for nursing
knowledge development. In the 1970s, nursing con-
tinued to make the transition from vocation to pro-
fession as nurse leaders debated whether nursing
should be other-discipline based or nursing based.
History records the outcome, that nursing practice
is to be based on nursing science (Alligood, 2010a;
Fawcett, 1978; Nicoll, 1986). It is as Meleis (2007)
noted, “theory is not a luxury in the discipline of
nursing . . . but an integral part of the nursing lexicon
in education, administration, and practice” (p. 4). An
important precursor to the theory era was the gen-
eral acceptance of nursing as a profession and an
academic discipline in its own right.
The theory era was a natural outgrowth of the re-
36. search and graduate education eras (Alligood, 2010a;
Im & Chang, 2012). The explosive proliferation of
nursing doctoral programs from the 1970s and
nursing theory literature substantiated that nursing
doctorates should be in nursing (Nicoll, 1986, 1992,
1997; Reed, Shearer, & Nicoll, 2003; Reed & Shearer,
2009; 2012). As understanding of research and
knowledge development increased, it became obvi-
ous that research without conceptual and theoretical
frameworks produced isolated information. Rather,
there was an understanding that research and theory
together were required to produce nursing science
(Batey, 1977; Fawcett, 1978; Hardy, 1978). Doctoral
education in nursing began to flourish with the
introduction of new programs and a strong emphasis
on theory development and testing. The theory
era accelerated as works began to be recognized as
theory, having been developed as frameworks for
curricula and advanced practice guides. In fact, it
was at the Nurse Educator Conference in New York
City in 1978 that theorists were recognized as nurs-
ing theorists and their works as nursing conceptual
models and theories (Fawcett, 1984; Fitzpatrick &
Whall, 1983).
The 1980s was a period of major developments in
nursing theory that has been characterized as a tran-
sition from the pre-paradigm to the paradigm period
(Fawcett, 1984; Hardy, 1978; Kuhn, 1970). The pre-
vailing nursing paradigms (models) provided per-
spectives for nursing practice, administration, educa-
tion, research, and further theory development. In
the 1980s, Fawcett’s seminal proposal of four global
nursing concepts as a nursing metaparadigm served
as an organizing structure for existing nursing frame-
works and introduced a way of organizing individual
37. theoretical works in a meaningful structure (Fawcett,
1978, 1984, 1993; Fitzpatrick & Whall, 1983). Clas-
sifying the nursing models as paradigms within a
metaparadigm of the person, environment, health,
and nursing concepts systematically united the nurs-
ing theoretical works for the discipline. This system
clarified and improved comprehension of knowledge
development by positioning the theorists’ works in a
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Nursing Theory: Its History,
Significance, and Analysis 5
larger context, thus facilitating the growth of nursing
science (Fawcett, 2005). The body of nursing science
and research, education, administration, and prac-
tice continues to expand through nursing scholar-
ship. In the last decades of the century, emphasis
shifted from learning about the theorists to utiliza-
tion of the theoretical works to generate research
questions, guide practice, and organize curricula.
Evidence of this growth of theoretical works has pro-
liferated in podium presentations at national and
international conferences, newsletters, journals, and
books written by nurse scientists who are members
of societies as communities of scholars for nursing
models and theories. Members contribute to the gen-
eral nursing literature and communicate their re-
search and practice with a certain paradigm model or
framework at conferences of the societies where they
present their scholarship and move the science of the
selected paradigm forward (Alligood, 2004; Alligood
2014, in press; Fawcett & Garity, 2009; Im & Chang,
2012; Parker, 2006).
38. These observations of nursing theory develop-
ment bring Kuhn’s (1970) description of normal
science to life. His philosophy of science clarifies our
understanding of the evolution of nursing theory
through paradigm science. It is important histori-
cally to understand that what we view collectively
today as nursing models and theories is the work of
individuals in various areas of the country who pub-
lished their ideas and conceptualizations of nursing.
These works later were viewed collectively within
a systematic structure of knowledge according to
analysis and evaluation (Fawcett, 1984, 1993, 2005).
Theory development emerged as a process and prod-
uct of professional scholarship and growth among
nurse leaders, administrators, educators, and practi-
tioners who sought higher education. These leaders
recognized limitations of theory from other disci-
plines to describe, explain, or predict nursing out-
comes, and they labored to establish a scientific basis
for nursing management, curricula, practice, and
research. The development and use of theory con-
veyed meaning for nursing processes, resulting in
what is recognized today as the nursing theory era
(Alligood, 2010a; Alligood 2010b; Nicoll, 1986, 1992,
1997; Reed, Shearer, & Nicoll, 2003; Reed & Shearer,
2012; Wood, 2010). It was as Fitzpatrick and Whall
(1983) had said, “. . . nursing is on the brink of an
exciting new era” (p. 2). This awareness ushered in
the theory utilization era.
The accomplishments of normal science accompa-
nied the theory utilization era as emphasis shifted
to theory application in nursing practice, education,
administration, and research (Alligood, 2010c; Wood,
2010). In this era, middle-range theory and valuing
39. of a nursing framework for thought and action of
nursing practice was realized. This shift to the appli -
cation of nursing theory was extremely important for
theory-based nursing, evidence-based practice, and
future theory development (Alligood, 2011a; Alligood,
2014, in press; Alligood & Tomey, 2010; Alligood &
Tomey, 1997, 2002, 2006; Chinn & Kramer, 2011;
Fawcett, 2005; Fawcett & Garity, 2009).
The theory utilization era has restored a balance
between research and practice for knowledge devel-
opment in the discipline of nursing. The reader is
referred to the fifth edition of Nursing Theory: Utili-
zation & Application (Alligood, 2014, in press) for
case applications and evidence of outcomes from
utilization of nursing theoretical works in practice.
Table 1-1 presents a summary of the eras of nursing’s
search for specialized nursing knowledge. Each era
addressed nursing knowledge in a unique way that
contributed to the history. Within each era, the per-
vading question “What is the nature of the knowl-
edge that is needed for the practice of nursing?” was
addressed at a level of understanding that prevailed
at the time (Alligood, 2010a).
This brief history provides some background and
context for your study of nursing theorists and their
work. The theory utilization era continues today,
emphasizing the development and use of nursing
theory and producing evidence for professional
practice. New theory and new methodologies from
qualitative research approaches continue to expand
ways of knowing among nurse scientists. The utili-
zation of nursing models, theories, and middle-
range theories for the thought and action of nursing
practice contributes important evidence for quality
40. care in all areas of practice in the twenty-first
century (Alligood, 2010b; Fawcett, 2005; Fawcett &
Garity, 2009; Peterson, 2008; Smith & Leihr, 2008;
Wood, 2010). Preparation for practice in the pro-
fession of nursing today requires knowledge of
and use of the theoretical works of the discipline
(Alligood, 2010c).
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories6
Significance of Nursing Theory
At the beginning of the twentieth century, nursing
was not recognized as an academic discipline or a
profession. The accomplishments of the past century
led to the recognition of nursing in both areas. The
terms discipline and profession are interrelated, and
some may even use them interchangeably; however
they are not the same. It is important to note their
differences and specific meaning, as noted in Box 1-1:
The achievements of the profession over the past
century were highly relevant to nursing science devel-
opment, but they did not come easily. History shows
that many nurses pioneered the various causes and
challenged the status quo with creative ideas for both
the health of people and the development of nursing.
Their achievements ushered in this exciting time
when nursing became recognized as both an aca-
demic discipline and a profession (Fitzpatrick, 1983;
Kalisch & Kalisch, 2003; Meleis, 2007; Shaw, 1993).
This section addresses the significance of theoretical
works for the discipline and the profession of nursing.
Nursing theoretical works represent the most com-
prehensive presentation of systematic nursing knowl-
41. edge; therefore, nursing theoretical works are vital to
the future of both the discipline and the profession
of nursing.
Significance for the Discipline
Nurses entered baccalaureate and higher-degree
programs in universities during the last half of the
twentieth century, and the goal of developing knowl-
edge as a basis for nursing practice began to be real -
ized. University baccalaureate programs proliferated,
master’s programs in nursing were developed, and
TA B L E 1-1 Historical Eras of Nursing’s Search for
Specialized Knowledge
Historical Eras Major Question Emphasis Outcomes Emerging
Goal
Curriculum
Era:
1900 to 1940s
What curriculum content
should student nurses
study to be nurses?
Courses included in
nursing programs
Standardized curricula
for diploma programs
Develop specialized
knowledge and higher
education
42. Research Era:
1950 to 1970s
What is the focus for
nursing research?
Role of nurses and what
to research
Problem studies and
studies of nurses
Isolated studies do not
yield unified knowledge
Graduate Edu-
cation Era:
1950 to 1970s
What knowledge is
needed for the
practice of nursing?
Carving out an advanced
role and basis for
nursing practice
Nurses have an impor-
tant role in health
care
Focus graduate educa-
tion on knowledge
development
43. Theory Era:
1980 to 1990s
How do these frame-
works guide research
and practice?
There are many ways to
think about nursing
Nursing theoretical
works shift the focus
to the patient
Theories guide nursing
research and practice
Theory
Utilization Era:
Twenty-first
Century
What new theories
are needed to produce
evidence of quality
care?
Nursing theory guides
research, practice,
education, and
administration
Middle-range theory
may be from quanti-
44. tative or qualitative
approaches
Nursing frameworks
produce knowledge
(evidence) for quality
care
Alligood, M. R. (2014, in press). Nursing theory: Utilization &
application. Maryland Heights, (MO): Mosby-Elsevier.
n A discipline is specific to academia and refers
to a branch of education, a department of
learning, or a domain of knowledge.
n A profession refers to a specialized field of prac-
tice, founded upon the theoretical structure of
the science or knowledge of that discipline and
accompanying practice abilities.
B OX 1-1 The Meaning of a Discipline
and a Profession
Data from Donaldson, S. K., & Crowley, D. M. (1978). The
discipline of
nursing. Nursing Outlook, 26(2), 1113–1120.; Orem, D. (2001).
Nursing:
Concepts of practice (6th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.; Styles, M. M.
(1982).
On nursing: Toward a new endowment. St. Louis: Mosby.
http://refhub.elsevier.com/B978-0-323-09194-7.00010-
2/sbr0090
http://refhub.elsevier.com/B978-0-323-09194-7.00010-
2/sbr0295
45. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Nursing Theory: Its History,
Significance, and Analysis 7
a standardized curriculum was realized through
accreditation. Nursing had passed through eras of
gradual development, and nursing leaders offered
their perspectives on the development of nursing sci-
ence. They addressed significant disciplinary ques-
tions about whether nursing was an applied science
or a basic science (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978;
Johnson, 1959; Rogers, 1970). History provides
evidence of the consensus that was reached, and
nursing doctoral programs began to open to generate
nursing knowledge.
The 1970s was a significant period of development.
In 1977, after Nursing Research had been published for
25 years, studies were reviewed comprehensively, and
strengths and weaknesses were reported in the journal
that year. Batey (1977) called attention to the impor-
tance of nursing conceptualization in the research
process and the role of a conceptual framework in the
design of research for the production of science. This
emphasis led the theory development era and moved
nursing forward to new nursing knowledge for nursing
practice. Soon the nursing theoretical works began to
be recognized to address Batey’s call (Johnson, 1968,
1974; King, 1971; Levine, 1969; Neuman, 1974; Orem,
1971; Rogers, 1970; Roy, 1970).
In 1978, Fawcett presented her double helix meta-
phor, now a classic publication, on the interdependent
relationship of theory and research. Also at this time,
nursing scholars such as Henderson, Nightingale,
Orlando, Peplau, and Wiedenbach were recognized
46. for the theoretical nature of their earlier writings.
These early works were developed by educators as
frameworks to structure curriculum content in nurs-
ing programs. Similarly, Orlando’s (1961, 1972) theory
was derived from the report of an early nationally
funded research project designed to study nursing
practice.
I attended the Nurse Educator Nursing Theory
Conference in New York City in 1978, where the ma-
jor theorists were brought together on the same stage
for the first time. Most of them began their presenta-
tions by stating that they were not theorists. Although
complete understanding of the significance of these
works for nursing was limited at the time, many in the
audience seemed to be aware of the significance of
the event. After the first few introductions, the audi-
ence laughed at the theorists’ denial of being theorists
and listened carefully as each theorist described the
theoretical work they had developed for curricula,
research, or practice.
Also noteworthy, Donaldson and Crowley (1978)
presented the keynote address at the Western Com-
mission of Higher Education in Nursing Conference
in 1977, just as their nursing doctoral program was
about to open. They reopened the discussion of the
nature of nursing science and the nature of knowl-
edge needed for the discipline and the profession. The
published version of their keynote address has be-
come classic for students to learn about nursing and
recognize the difference between the discipline and
the profession. These speakers called for both basic
and applied research, asserting that knowledge was
vital to nursing as both a discipline and a profession.
47. They argued that the discipline and the profession are
inextricably linked, but failure to separate them from
each other anchors nursing in a vocational rather
than a professional view.
Soon nursing conceptual frameworks began to be
used to organize curricula in nursing programs and
were recognized as models that address the values
and concepts of nursing. The creative conceptualiza-
tion of a nursing metaparadigm (person, environ-
ment, health, and nursing) and a structure of knowl-
edge clarified the related nature of the collective
works of major nursing theorists as conceptual frame-
works and paradigms of nursing (Fawcett, 1984).
This approach organized nursing works into a system
of theoretical knowledge, developed by theorists at
different times and in different parts of the country.
Each nursing conceptual model was classified on
the basis of a set of analysis and evaluation criteria
(Fawcett, 1984; 1993). Recognition of the separate
nursing works collectively with a metaparadigm um-
brella enhanced the recognition and understanding
of nursing theoretical works as a body of nursing
knowledge. In short, the significance of theory for
the discipline of nursing is that the discipline is
dependent upon theory for its continued existence,
that is, we can be a vocation, or we can be a discipline
with a professional style of theory-based practice.
The theoretical works have taken nursing to higher
levels of education and practice as nurses have moved
from the functional focus, or what nurses do, to a
knowledge focus, or what nurses know and how they
use what they know for thinking and decision mak-
ing while concentrating on the patient.
48. UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories8
Frameworks and theories are structures about
human beings and their health; these structures pro-
vide nurses with a perspective of the patient for profes-
sional practice. Professionals provide public service
in a practice focused on those whom they serve. The
nursing process is useful in practice, but the primary
focus is the patient, or human being. Knowledge of
persons, health, and environment forms the basis for
recognition of nursing as a discipline, and this knowl-
edge is taught to those who enter the profession. Every
discipline or field of knowledge includes theoretical
knowledge. Therefore, nursing as an academic disci-
pline depends on the existence of nursing knowledge
(Butts & Rich, 2011). For those entering the profes-
sion, this knowledge is basic for their practice in the
profession. Kuhn (1970), noted philosopher of science,
stated, “The study of paradigms . . . is what mainly
prepares the student for membership in the particular
scientific community with which he [or she] will later
practice” (p. 11). This is significant for all nurses, but it
is particularly important to those who are entering the
profession because “in the absence of a paradigm . . .
all of the facts that could possibly pertain to the devel -
opment of a given science are likely to seem equally
relevant” (Kuhn, 1970, p. 15). Finally, with regard to the
priority of paradigms, Kuhn states, “By studying them
and by practicing with them, the members of their cor-
responding community learn their trade” (Kuhn,
1970, p. 43). Master’s students apply and test theoreti -
cal knowledge in their nursing practice. Doctoral
students studying to become nurse scientists develop
nursing theory, test theory, and contribute nursing sci-
ence in theory-based and theory-generating research
49. studies.
Significance for the Profession
Not only is theory essential for the existence of nursing
as an academic discipline, it is vital to the practice of
professional nursing. Recognition as a profession was
a less urgent issue as the twentieth century ended
because nurses had made consistent progress toward
professional status through the century. Higher-degree
nursing is recognized as a profession today having used
the criteria for a profession to guide development.
Nursing development was the subject of numerous
studies by sociologists. Bixler and Bixler (1959) pub-
lished a set of criteria for a profession tailored to nurs -
ing in the American Journal of Nursing (Box 1-2).
These criteria have historical value for enhancing
our understanding of the developmental path that
nurses followed. For example, a knowledge base that is
well defined, organized, and specific to the discipline
was formalized during the last half of the twentieth
century, but this knowledge is not static. Rather, it
continues to grow in relation to the profession’s goals
for the human and social welfare of the society that
nurses serve. So although the body of knowledge is
important, the theories and research are vital to the
discipline and the profession, so that new knowledge
continues to be generated. The application of nursing
knowledge in practice is a criterion that is currently at
the forefront, with emphasis on accountability for
nursing practice, theory-based evidence for nursing
practice, and the growing recognition of middle-range
theory for professional nursing practice (Alligood,
2014, in press).
1. Utilizes in its practice a well-defined and well-
50. organized body of specialized knowledge
[that] is on the intellectual level of the higher
learning
2. Constantly enlarges the body of knowledge it
uses and improves its techniques of education
and service through use of the scientific
method
3. Entrusts the education of its practitioners to
institutions of higher education
4. Applies its body of knowledge in practical
services vital to human and social welfare
5. Functions autonomously in the formulation of
professional policy and thereby in the control
of professional activity
6. Attracts individuals with intellectual and
personal qualities of exalting service above
personal gain who recognize their chosen
occupation as a life work
7. Strives to compensate its practitioners by
providing freedom of action, opportunity for
continuous professional growth, and economic
security
B OX 1-2 Criteria for Development of the
Professional Status of Nursing
Data from Bixler, G. K., & Bixler, R. W. (1959). The
professional status of
nursing. American Journal of Nursing, 59(8), 1142–1146.
51. http://refhub.elsevier.com/B978-0-323-09194-7.00010-
2/sbr0070
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Nursing Theory: Its History,
Significance, and Analysis 9
In the last decades of the twentieth century, in
anticipation of the new millennium, ideas targeted
toward moving nursing forward were published.
Styles (1982) described a distinction between the col -
lective nursing profession and the individual profes-
sional nurse and called for internal developments
based on ideals and beliefs of nursing for continued
professional development. Similarly, Fitzpatrick (1983)
presented a historical chronicle of twentieth century
achievements that led to the professional status of
nursing. Both Styles (1982) and Fitzpatrick (1983)
referenced a detailed history specific to the develop-
ment of nursing as a profession. Now that nursing is
recognized as a profession, emphasis in this text is
placed on the relationship between nursing theoreti-
cal works and the status of nursing as a profession.
Similarities and differences have been noted in sets
of criteria used to evaluate the status of professions;
however, they all call for a body of knowledge that is
foundational to the practice of the given profession
(Styles, 1982).
As individual nurses grow in their professional
status, the use of substantive knowledge for theory-
based evidence for nursing is a quality that is charac-
teristic of their practice (Butts & Rich, 2011). This
commitment to theory-based evidence for practice is
beneficial to patients in that it guides systematic,
knowledgeable care. It serves the profession as nurses
52. are recognized for the contributions they make to the
health care of society. As noted previously in relation
to the discipline of nursing, the development of knowl -
edge is an important activity for nurse scholars to
pursue. It is important that nurses have continued
recognition and respect for their scholarly discipline
and for their contribution to the health of society.
Finally and most important, the continued recognition
of nursing theory as a tool for the reasoning, critical
thinking, and decision making required for quality
nursing practice is important because of the following:
Nursing practice settings are complex, and the
amount of data (information) confronting nurses
is virtually endless. Nurses must analyze a vast
amount of information about each patient and
decide what to do. A theoretical approach helps
practicing nurses not to be overwhelmed by the
mass of information and to progress through the
nursing process in an orderly manner. Theory
enables them to organize and understand what
happens in practice, to analyze patient situations
critically for clinical decision making; to plan
care and propose appropriate nursing interven-
tions; and to predict patient outcomes from the
care and evaluate its effectiveness.
(Alligood, 2004, p. 247)
Professional practice requires a systematic approach
that is focused on the patient, and the theoretical works
provide just such perspectives of the patient. The theo-
retical works presented in this text illustrate those
various perspectives. Philosophies of nursing, concep-
tual models of nursing, nursing theories, and middle-
53. range theories provide the nurse with a view of the
patient and a guide for data processing, evaluation of
evidence, and decisions regarding action to take in
practice (Alligood 2014, in press; Butts & Rich, 2011;
Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Fawcett & Garity, 2009). With
this background of the history and significance of
nursing theory for the discipline and the profession,
we turn to analysis of theory, a systematic process of
critical reflection for understanding nursing theoreti-
cal works (Chinn & Kramer, 2011).
Analysis of Theory
Analysis, critique, and evaluation are methods used
to study nursing theoretical works critically. Analysis
of theory is carried out to acquire knowledge of theo-
retical adequacy. It is an important process and the
first step in applying nursing theoretical works to
education, research, administration, or practice. The
analysis criteria used for each theoretical work in this
text are included in Box 1-3 with the questions that
guide the critical reflection of analysis.
n Clarity: How clear is this theory?
n Simplicity: How simple is this theory?
n Generality: How general is this theory?
n Accessibility: How accessible is this theory?
n Importance: How important is this theory?
B OX 1-3 Analysis Questions to
Determine Theoretical Adequacy
Data from Chinn, P. L., & Kramer, M. K. (2011). Integrated
knowledge
development in nursing (8th ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier-Mosby.
http://refhub.elsevier.com/B978-0-323-09194-7.00010-
54. 2/sbr0080
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories10
The analysis process is useful for learning about
the works and is essential for nurse scientists who
intend to test, expand, or extend the works. When
nurse scientists consider their research interests in
the context of one of the theoretical works, areas for
further development are discovered through the pro-
cesses of critique, analysis, and critical reflection.
Therefore, analysis is an important process for learn-
ing, for developing research projects, and for expand-
ing the science associated with the theoretical works
of nursing in the future. Understanding a theoretical
framework is vital to applying it in your practice.
Clarity
Clarity and structure are reviewed in terms of seman-
tic clarity and consistency and structural clarity and
consistency. Clarity speaks to the meaning of terms
used, and definitional consistency and structure speaks
to the consistent structural form of terms in the the-
ory. Analysis begins as the major concepts and sub-
concepts and their definitions are identified. Words
have multiple meanings within and across disciplines;
therefore, a word should be defined carefully and
specifically according to the framework (philosophy,
conceptual model, or theory) within which it is de-
veloped. Clarity and consistency are facilitated with
diagrams and examples. The logical development and
type of structure used should be clear, and assumptions
should be stated clearly and be consistent with the goal
of the theory (Chinn & Kramer, 2011; Reynolds,
1971; Walker & Avant, 2011). Reynolds (1971) speaks
55. to intersubjectivity and says, “There must be shared
agreement of the definitions of concepts and relation-
ships between concepts within a theory” (p. 13). Hardy
(1973) refers to meaning and logical adequacy and
says, “Concepts and relationships between concepts
must be clearly identified and valid” (p. 106). Ellis
(1968) used “the criterion of terminology” to evaluate
theory and warns about “the danger of lost meaning
when terms are borrowed from other disciplines and
used in a different context” (p. 221). Walker and Avant
(2011) assess “logical adequacy” according to “the
logical structure of the concepts and statements” pro-
posed in the theory (p. 195).
Simplicity
Simplicity is highly valued in nursing theory devel-
opment. Chinn and Kramer (2011) called for simple
forms of theory, such as middle range, to guide prac-
tice. A theory should be sufficiently comprehensive,
presented at a level of abstraction to provide guid-
ance, and have as few concepts as possible with
simplistic relations to aid clarity. Reynolds (1971)
contends, “The most useful theory provides the greatest
sense of understanding” (p. 135). Walker and Avant
(2011) describe theory parsimony as “brief but com-
plete” (p. 195).
Generality
The generality of a theory speaks to the scope of
application and the purpose within the theory (Chinn
& Kramer, 2011). Ellis (1968) stated, “The broader
the scope . . . the greater the significance of the the-
ory” (p. 219). The generality of a theoretical work
varies by how abstract or concrete it is (Fawcett,
2005). Understanding the levels of abstraction by
56. doctoral students and nurse scientists facilitated the
use of abstract frameworks for the development
of middle-range theories. Rogers’ (1986) Theory of
Accelerating Change is an example of an abstract
theory from which numerous middle-range theories
have been generated.
Accessibility
Accessibility is linked to the empirical indicators for
testability and ultimate use of a theory to describe
aspects of practice (Chinn & Kramer, 2011). Acces-
sible” addresses the extent to which empiric indica-
tors for the concepts can be identified and to what
extent the purposes of the theory can be attained”
(Chinn & Kramer, 2011, p. 203). Reynolds (1971)
evaluates empirical relevance by examining “the cor-
respondence between a particular theory and the
objective empirical data” (p. 18). He suggests that
scientists should be able to evaluate and verify results
by themselves. Walker and Avant (2011) evaluate
testability based on the theory’s capacity to “generate
hypotheses and be subjected to empirical research”
(p. 195).
Importance
A parallel can be drawn between outcome and impor-
tance. Because research, theory, and practice are
closely related, nursing theory lends itself to research
testing, and research testing leads to knowledge for
practice. Nursing theory guides research and practice,
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Nursing Theory: Its History,
Significance, and Analysis 11
57. generates new ideas, and differentiates the focus
of nursing from that of other professions (Chinn &
Kramer, 2011). Ellis (1968) indicates that to be con-
sidered useful, “it is essential for theory to develop
and guide practice . . . theories should reveal what
knowledge nurses must, and should, spend time pur-
suing” (p. 220).
The five criteria for the analysis of theory—clarity,
simplicity, generality, accessibility, and importance—
guide the critical reflection of each theoretical work
in Chapters 6 to 36. These broad criteria facilitate
the analysis of theoretical works, whether they are
applied to works at the level of philosophies, concep-
tual models, theories, or middle-range theories.
Summary
This chapter presents an introduction to nursing
theory with a discussion of its history, significance,
and analysis. A nurse increases professional power
when using theoretical research as systematic evi-
dence for critical thinking and decision making.
When nurses use theory and theory-based evidence
to structure their practice, it improves the quality of
care. They sort patient data quickly, decide on appro-
priate nursing action, deliver care, and evaluate out-
comes. They also are able to discuss the nature of
their practice with other health professionals. Con-
sidering nursing practice in a theory context helps
students to develop analytical skills and critical
thinking ability and to clarify their values and as-
sumptions. Theory guides practice, education, and
research (Alligood 2014, in press; Chinn & Kramer,
2011; Fawcett, 2005; Meleis, 2007).
Globally, nurses are recognizing the rich heritage
58. of the works of nursing theorists, that is, the philoso-
phies, conceptual models, theories, and middle-
range theories of nursing. The publication of this
text in multiple (at least 10) languages reflects the
global use of theory. The contributions of global
theorists present nursing as a discipline and provide
knowledge structure for further development. The
use of theory-based research supports evidence-
based practice. There is worldwide recognition of
the rich diversity of nursing values the models rep-
resent. Today we see added clarification of the theo-
retical works in the nursing literature as more and
more nurses learn and use theory-based practice.
Most important, the philosophies, models, theories,
and middle-range theories are used broadly in all
areas—nursing education, administration, research,
and practice.
There is recognition of normal science in the
theoretical works (Wood, 2010). The scholarship
of the past 3 decades has expanded the volume
of nursing literature around the philosophies, mod-
els, theories, and middle-range theories. Similarly,
the philosophy of science has expanded and fos-
tered nursing knowledge development with new
qualitative approaches. As more nurses have ac-
quired higher education, understanding of the im-
portance of nursing theory has expanded. The use
of theory by nurses has increased knowledge devel-
opment and improved the quality of nursing prac-
tice (Alligood, 2010a; Alligood, 2011b; Chinn &
Kramer, 2011; Fawcett & Garity, 2009; George,
2011; Im & Chang, 2012; Reed & Shearer, 2012;
Wood, 2010).
POINTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
59. n Judd, D., Sitzman, K., & Davis, G. M. (2010). A his-
tory of American nursing. Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
n The Nursing Theory Page at Hahn School of
Nursing, University of San Diego: Retrieved from:
http://www.sandiego.edu/ACADEMICS/nursing/
theory.
n Donaldson, S. K., & Crowley, D. M. (1978). The disci-
pline of nursing. Nursing Outlook, 26(2), 1113–1120.
n Fawcett, J. (1984). The metaparadigm of nursing:
current status and future refinements. Image: The
Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 16, 84–87.
n Kalisch, P. A., & Kalisch, B. J. (2003). American
nursing: A history (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
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2/sbr0105
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2/sbr0170
http://www.sandiego.edu/ACADEMICS/nursing/theory
http://www.sandiego.edu/ACADEMICS/nursing/theory
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories12
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69. truth. As nurses our practice should be based upon truth and we
need the ability to interpret the
results of science. Nursing science provides us with knowledge
to describe, explain and predict
outcomes. The legitimacy of any profession is built on its
ability to generate and apply theory.”
(McCrae, 2011, p. 222)
History and Philosophy of Science
Sonya R. Hardin
C H A P T E R 2
Modern science was established over 400 years ago as an
intellectual activity to formalize given
phenomena of interest in an attempt to describe,
explain, predict, or control states of affairs in nature.
Scientific activity has persisted because it has improved
quality of life and has satisfied human needs for
creative work, a sense of order, and the desire to under-
stand the unknown (Bronowski, 1979; Gale, 1979;
Piaget, 1970). The development of nursing science has
evolved since the 1960s as a pursuit to be understood
as a scientific discipline. Being a scientific discipline
means identifying nursing’s unique contribution to the
care of patients, families, and communities. It means
that nurses can conduct clinical and basic nursing
research to establish the scientific base for the care of
individuals across the life span. For example, research
revealed gaps between the pain management needs
of patients and the information communicated by
patients and clinicians during office visits. Although
many older adults have painful but not readily visible
conditions (e.g., symptomatic osteoarthritis), little re-
70. search has examined how the style or format of a health
care practitioner’s questions influence the quality and
amount of diagnostic information obtained from older
adults. A recent study tested the theory that a certain
type of question would elicit the most response. The
theory was confirmed when findings supported that
the open-ended questions prompted patients to provide
a larger amount of diagnostically useful pain informa-
tion than did the closed-ended questions (McDonald,
Shea, Rose, & Fedo, 2009). While this study is one
example of nursing science, advance practice nurses
should be familiar with the long history of the science
of nursing.
Previous author: Sue Marquis Bishop.
Historical Views of the Nature
of Science
To formalize the science of nursing, basic questions
must be considered, such as: What is science, knowl-
edge, and truth? What methods produce scientific
knowledge? These are philosophical questions. The
term epistemology is concerned with the theory of
knowledge in philosophical inquiry. The particular
philosophical perspective selected to answer these
questions will influence how scientists perform sci-
entific activities, how they interpret outcomes, and
even what they regard as science and knowledge
CHAPTER 2 History and Philosophy of Science 15
additional research is conducted or modifications
71. are made in the theory and further tests are devised;
otherwise, the theory is discarded in favor of an
alternative explanation (Gale, 1979; Zetterberg, 1966).
Popper (1962) argued that science would evolve more
rapidly through the process of conjectures and refuta-
tions by devising research in an attempt to refute new
ideas. For example, his point is simple; you can never
prove that all individuals without social support have
frequent rehospitalizations since there might be one
individual that presents with no rehospitalization. A
single person with no social support that does not have
a readmission disproves the theory that all individuals
with a lack of social support have hospital readmis-
sions. From Popper’s perspective, “research consists
of generating general hypotheses and then attempting
to refute them” (Lipton, 2005, p. 1263). So the hypoth-
esis that a lack of social support results in hospital
readmission is the phenomena of interest to be refuted.
The rationalist view is most clearly evident in the
work of Einstein, the theoretical physicist, who made
extensive use of mathematical equations in developing
his theories. The theories Einstein constructed offered
an imaginative framework, which has directed research
in numerous areas (Calder, 1979). As Reynolds (1971)
noted, if someone believes that science is a process of
inventing descriptions of phenomena, the appropriate
strategy for theory construction is the theory-then-
research strategy. In Reynolds’ view, “as the continuous
interplay between theory construction (invention) and
testing with empirical research progresses, the theory
becomes more precise and complete as a description
of nature and, therefore, more useful for the goals of
science” (Reynolds, 1971, p. 145).
Empiricism
72. The empiricist view is based on the central idea that
scientific knowledge can be derived only from sensory
experience (i.e., seeing, feeling, hearing facts). Francis
Bacon (Gale, 1979) received credit for popularizing
the basis for the empiricist approach to inquiry. Bacon
believed that scientific truth was discovered through
generalizing observed facts in the natural world. This
approach, called the inductive method, is based on the
idea that the collection of facts precedes attempts to
formulate generalizations, or as Reynolds (1971) called
it, the research-then-theory strategy. One of the best
examples to demonstrate this form of logic in nursing
(Brown, 1977). Although philosophy has been docu-
mented as an activity for 3000 years, formal science
is a relatively new human pursuit (Brown, 1977;
Foucault, 1973). Scientific activity has only recently
become the object of investigation.
Two competing philosophical foundations of sci-
ence, rationalism and empiricism, have evolved in
the era of modern science with several variations.
Gale (1979) labeled these alternative epistemologies
as centrally concerned with the power of reason and
the power of sensory experience. Gale noted similarity
in the divergent views of science in the time of the
classical Greeks. For example, Aristotle believed that
advances in biological science would develop through
systematic observation of objects and events in the
natural world, whereas Pythagoras believed that knowl-
edge of the natural world would develop from mathe-
matical reasoning (Brown, 1977; Gale, 1979).
Nursing science has been characterized by two
branching philosophies of knowledge as the discipline
developed. Various terms are utilized to describe these
73. two stances: empiricist and interpretive, mechanistic
and holistic, quantitative and qualitative, and deductive
and inductive forms of science. Understanding the
nature of these philosophical stances facilitates appre-
ciation for what each form contributes to nursing
knowledge.
Rationalism
Rationalist epistemology (scope of knowledge) empha-
sizes the importance of a priori reasoning as the
appropriate method for advancing knowledge. A priori
reasoning utilizes deductive logic by reasoning from
the cause to an effect or from a generalization to a
particular instance. An example in nursing is to reason
that a lack of social support (cause) will result in hos-
pital readmission (effect). This causal reasoning is a
theory until disproven. The traditional approach pro-
ceeds by explaining hospitalization with a systematic
explanation (theory) of a given phenomenon (Gale,
1979). This conceptual system is analyzed by address-
ing the logical structure of the theory and the logical
reasoning involved in its development. Theoretical
assertions derived by deductive reasoning are then
subjected to experimental testing to corroborate the
theory. Reynolds (1971) labeled this approach the
theory-then-research strategy. If the research findings
fail to correspond with the theoretical assertions,
UNIT I Evolution of Nursing Theories16
has to do with formulating differential diagnoses. For-
mulating a differential diagnosis requires collecting
the facts and then devising a list of possible theories to
explain the facts.
74. The strict empiricist view is reflected in the work
of the behaviorist Skinner. In a 1950 paper, Skinner
asserted that advances in the science of psychology
could be expected if scientists would focus on the
collection of empirical data. He cautioned against
drawing premature inferences and proposed a mora-
torium on theory building until further facts were
collected. Skinner’s (1950) approach to theory con-
struction was clearly inductive. His view of science
and the popularity of behaviorism have been credited
with influencing psychology’s shift in emphasis from
the building of theories to the gathering of facts
between the 1950s and 1970s (Snelbecker, 1974). The
difficulty with the inductive mode of inquiry is that
the world presents an infinite number of possible
observations, and, therefore, the scientist must bring
ideas to his or her experiences to decide what to
observe and what to exclude (Steiner, 1977).
In summary, deductive inquiry uses the theory-
then-research approach, and inductive inquiry uses
the research-then-theory approach. Both approaches
are utilized in the field of nursing.
Early Twentieth Century Views
of Science and Theory
During the first half of this century, philosophers
focused on the analysis of theory structure, whereas
scientists focused on empirical research (Brown,
1977). There was minimal interest in the history of
science, the nature of scientific discovery, or the simi-
larities between the philosophical view of science and
the scientific methods (Brown, 1977). Positivism, a
term first used by Comte, emerged as the dominant
75. view of modern science (Gale, 1979). Modern logical
positivists believed that empirical research and logical
analysis (deductive and inductive) were two ap-
proaches that would produce scientific knowledge
(Brown, 1977).
The logical empiricists offered a more lenient view
of logical positivism and argued that theoretical propo-
sitions (proposition affirms or denies something) must
be tested through observation and experimentation
(Brown, 1977). This perspective is rooted in the idea
that empirical facts exist independently of theories and
offer the only basis for objectivity in science (Brown,
1977). In this view, objective truth exists independently
of the researcher, and the task of science is to discover
it, which is an inductive method (Gale, 1979). This
view of science is often presented in research method
courses as: “The scientist first sets up an experiment;
observes what occurs . . . reaches a preliminary hy-
pothesis to describe the occurrence; runs further ex-
periments to test the hypothesis [and] finally corrects
or modifies the hypothesis in light of the results” (Gale,
1979, p. 13).
The increasing use of computers, which permit the
analysis of large data sets, may have contributed to the
acceptance of the positivist approach to modern sci -
ence (Snelbecker, 1974). However, in the 1950s, the
literature began to reflect an increasing challenge to
the positivist view, thereby ushering in a new view of
science in the late twentieth century (Brown, 1977).
Emergent Views of Science and Theory
in the Late Twentieth Century
76. In the latter years of the twentieth century, several
authors presented analyses challenging the positivist
position, thus offering the basis for a new perspective
of science (Brown, 1977; Foucault, 1973; Hanson,
1958; Kuhn, 1962; Toulmin, 1961). Foucault (1973)
published his analysis of the epistemology (knowledge)
of human sciences from the seventeenth to the nine-
teenth century. His major thesis stated that empirical
knowledge was arranged in different patterns at a
given time and in a given culture and that humans
where emerging as objects of study. In The Phenome-
nology of the Social World, Schutz (1967) argued that
scientists seeking to understand the social world could
not cognitively know an external world that is indepen-
dent of their own life experiences. Phenomenology, set
forth by Edmund Husserl (1859 to 1938) proposed that
the objectivism of science could not provide an ade-
quate apprehension of the world (Husserl 1931, 1970).
A phenomenological approach reduces observations or
text to the meanings of phenomena independent of
their particular context. This approach focuses on the
lived meaning of experiences.
In 1977, Brown argued an intellectual revolution
in philosophy that emphasized the history of science
was replacing formal logic as the major analytical tool
CHAPTER 2 History and Philosophy of Science 17
in the philosophy of science. One of the major per-
spectives in the new philosophy emphasized science
as a process of continuing research rather than a
product focused on findings. In this emergent episte-
mology, emphasis shifted to understanding scientific
77. discovery and process as theories change over time.
Empiricists view phenomena objectively, collect
data, and analyze it to inductively proposed theory
(Brown, 1977). This position is based upon objective
truth existing in the world, waiting to be discovered.
Brown (1977) set forth a new epistemology challenging
the empiricist view proposing that theories play a
significant role in determining what the scientist
observes and how it is interpreted. The following story
illustrates Brown’s premise that observations are con-
cept laden; that is, an observation is influenced by
values and ideas in the mind of the observer:
“An elderly patient has been in a trauma and
appears to be crying. The nurse on admission
observes that the patient has marks on her body
and believes that she has been abused; the ortho-
pedist has viewed an x-ray and believes that the
crying patient is in pain due to a fractured femur
that will not require surgery only a closed reduc-
tion; the chaplain observes the patient crying and
believes the patient needs spiritual support. Each
observation is concept laden.”
Brown (1977) presented the example of a chemist
and a child walking together past a steel mill. The
chemist perceived the odor of sulfur dioxide and the
child smelled rotten eggs. Both observers in the exam-
ples responded to the same observation but with dis-
tinctly different interpretations. Concepts and theories
set up boundaries and specify pertinent phenomena
for reasoning about specific observed patterns. These
examples represent different ideas that emerge for
each person.
78. If scientists perceive patterns in the empirical
world based on their presupposed theories, how can
new patterns ever be perceived or new discoveries
become formulated? Gale (1979) answered by pro-
posing that the scientist is able to perceive forceful
intrusions from the environment that challenge his
or her a priori mental set, thereby raising questions
regarding the current theoretical perspective. Brown
(1977) maintained that a presupposed theoretical
framework influences perception, however theories
are not the single determining factor of the scientist’s
perception. He identified the following three differ-
ent views of the relationship between theories and
observation:
1. Scientists are merely passive observers of occur-
rences in the empirical world. Observable data are
objective truth waiting to be discovered.
2. Theories structure what the scientist perceives in
the empirical world.
3. Presupposed theories and observable data interact
in the process of scientific investigation (Brown,
1977, p. 298).
Brown’s argument for an interactionist’s perspective
coincides with the scientific consensus in the study of
pattern recognition in how humans process informa-
tion. The following distinct mini-theories have directed
research efforts in this area: (1) the data-driven, or
bottom-up, theory and (2) the conceptually driven,
or top-down, theory (Norman, 1976). In the former,
cognitive expectations (what is known or ways of orga-
nizing meaning) are used to select input and process