1
3
Financial Plan
Michelle A. Cannon
ECO101
Professor Smith
February 19, 2021
1. Saving goal and Timeframe
Saving goal that has been identified is $5000 annually for eight years to reach $40,000 down payment for buying the house. Eight years is the selected timeframe because it is deemed appropriate and sustainable considering annual income ($50,000) and amount saved annually. Additionally, it is logical to make savings for 8 years to buy a house because this is a long-term personal investment which would increase my value and net worth.
2. Considerations for Choosing Housing Option
There are four factors that I did put into consideration when selecting a housing option for renting a room for $9,000 per year. First, the time frame for the saving goal was put into consideration. When all housing options were analyzed, renting a room for $9,000 was cheaper providing the money needed to finance saving for 8 years which if other options were considered, a set time frame could not be attained because less money would be saved each month. Second, the familial situation is another factor that was considered where the dependency rate was high from others and a slight mistake to go for higher housing option, would make desired financial goal remain a dream. Third, the desire to have improved quality of life is the driving force that caused me to consider renting a room for $9,000. This created an opportunity to have adequate finances to commit to saving to enable meet to buy a house, one asset that I need to have improved quality of life in the future especially at old age. Finally, trade-off decisions is another factor that caused me to choose to rent a room for $9000 instead of a house and apartment for $15,000 and $12,000 respectively. For example, I choose to live in a cheaper housing option to enable me to secure enough savings needed to meet desired financial goal.
3. Consideration for non-rent expenditures
Non-rent expenditures are selected based on their necessity and allocated adequate finances to ensure that no shortfall is experienced to interfere with the saving plan. For example, food is a basic necessity allocated 16%, transportation 17%, healthcare 11% and family care 7% of total income. These non-rent expenditures are given adequate allocation which helps to ensure they are sustained throughout the year with no interruption to established saving goals. Finally, expenditures selected are aligned with selected financial goals because allocations are made in such a way that ensure annual saving are met and, also all expenditures are essential to minimize wastages which could result to failure to meet desired saving goal.
4. Reflection on Productive Strategies
To a higher degree, I followed the plan that I thought through earlier in the instructions provided in the assignment. I considered it important because I was able to determine the main items that matter most in the financial plan and which if not carefully consi ...
Executive summary:From Evidence to Practice: Addressing the Second Translatio...NEQOS
Supporting paper for Collaborating for Better Care Partnership Master Class 23rd October 2014: Executive summary 'From Evidence to Practice: Addressing the Second Translational Gap for Complex Interventions in Primary Care'
1) The document discusses issues with how development aid projects are designed, implemented, and evaluated. It argues that the systems aid seeks to change are complex and dynamic, so rigid plans and measures of success often fail.
2) Common problems include overly mechanistic project design that does not adapt to local needs, defining objectives and targets focused on donor priorities rather than beneficiary needs, and over-engineering monitoring and evaluation tools that miss important impacts.
3) The key message is that development work requires humility, experimentation, and a focus on adaptive learning rather than rigidly implementing pre-determined plans. Metrics and targets should support learning about improving local conditions, not just meeting donor reporting needs.
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues
(You have to compare my post to 2 SEPARATE peer posts and respond to their posts and ask a question I have provided all three)
by noting the similarities and differences in the factors that would support or impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in his or her post to those that would impact your implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in your original post. Offer a solution for addressing one of the factors that would impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice.
IT does not have to be long but has to in text citation and full references
MY POST
SummerLove Holcomb
RE: Discussion - Week 1
Top of Form
The Characteristics of the evidence-based practice (EBP)
The evidence-based program is defined as the programs that are effective and this is based on the rigorous assessment. One of the key features of EBP is that they have been assessed thoroughly in an experimental or quasi-experimental study. The evaluation of the EBP has been subjected to critical peer review and this implies that a conclusion has been reached by the evaluation experts. The EBP requires the ability to differentiate between the unverified opinions concerning the psychosocial interventions and the facts about their effectiveness. It is involving the process of inquiry that is provided to the practitioners and described for the physicians. This is important in integrating the best evidence, clinical expertise, and patient values as well as the situations that are linked to the management of the patient, management of the practice, and health policy decision-making processes (Small & O'Connor, 2007).
The assessment of the factors that are supporting or impeding the adoption of the evidence-based practice
Several factors are associated with the failure to the successful adoption of EBP. The implementation of EBP for example in healthcare facilities requires the dedication of time. Therefore, lack of adequate time for the training and implementation of the EBP makes it hard to adopt it within the facility. The adoption of evidence-based practice also requires adequate resources. This, therefore, implies that there must be adequate resources to facilitate the effective implementation and the adoption of the EBP. This, therefore, implies that smaller organizations with unstable capital income might not adopt the EBP. Another barrier is the inability to understand the statistical terms or the jargons used in the EBP. This leads to barriers in understanding thus making it hard to implement the EBP (Duncombe, 2018). Therefore, the factors that might support the implementation of the EBP are the availability of resources and adequate time.
References
Duncombe, D. C. (2018). A multi‐institutional study of the perceived barriers and facilitators to implementing evidence‐based practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing,.
Guide to Helping With Paper· Description of the key program .docxshericehewat
Guide to Helping With Paper
· Description of the key program elements:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/11/30/prisoner-reentry-programs-ensuring-safe-and-successful-return-community
Drake, E. B., & Lafrance, S. (2007). Findings on Best Practices of Community Re-Entry Programs ... Retrieved from http://www.eisenhowerfoundation.org/docs/Ex-Offender Best Practices.pdf
Mosteller, J. (2019). Why Reentry Programs are Important. Retrieved from https://www.charleskochinstitute.org/issue-areas/criminal-justice-policing-reform/reentry-programs/
· A description of the strategies that the program uses to produce change
Caprizzo, C. (2011, November 30). Prisoner Reentry Programs: Ensuring a Safe and Successful Return to the Community. Retrieved fromhttps://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/11/30/prisoner-reentry-programs-ensuring-safe-and-successful-return-community
INTEGRATED REENTRYand EMPLOYMENT. (2013). Retrieved from https://www.bja.gov/Publications/CSG-Reentry-and-Employment.pdf
· A description of the needs of the target population
· An explanation of why a process evaluation is important for the program
See attachment to answer this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation) also look at this link below
Berghuis, M. (2018, October). Reentry Programs for Adult Male Offender Recidivism and Reintegration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6139987/
· A plan for building relationships with the staff and management
STRONG PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS - Leading Teams. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.leadingteams.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Whitepaper-Strong-Professional-Relationships-Drive-High-Performance.pdf
See attachment can help you in answering this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation)
· Broad questions to be answered by the process evaluation
Rossman, S., Willison, J., Lindquist, C., Walters, J., & Lattimore, P. (2016, December). The author(s) shown below used Federal funding provided by ... Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/250469.pdf
See attachment can help you in answering this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation)
· Specific questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· A plan for gathering and analyzing the information
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213675.pdf
Make Sure All Bullets Are Answered
:
· A description of the key program elements
· A description of the strategies that the program uses to produce change
· A description of the needs of the target population
· An explanation of why a process evaluation is important for the program
· A plan for building relationships with the staff and management
· Broad questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· Specific questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· A plan for gathering and analyzing the information
Workbook
for
Designing
a Process
Evaluation
Produced for the ...
The document discusses the process of implementing educational innovations. It describes three broad phases: initiation, which involves deciding to adopt a change; implementation, involving the first experiences putting the change into practice; and continuation, whether the change becomes incorporated into the system long-term. Many factors influence implementation, including the characteristics of the innovation itself (need, clarity, complexity), local factors (district, community, principal, teachers), and external factors (state/federal policies). Successful implementation depends on relevance, readiness of the organization in terms of capacity and skills, and sufficient resources being available throughout the process.
This document outlines key concepts in health planning, including:
1. Health planning aims to improve health outcomes by linking needs and resources through strategic action. There are different types like health system and population health planning.
2. Critical success factors include defining clear questions, choosing appropriate strategic or operational planning processes, engaging stakeholders, effective project management, and commitment to monitoring and evaluation.
3. Strategic planning addresses broad issues over multiple years while operational planning focuses on specific objectives and implementation within existing frameworks.
STRATEGIES IN TEACHING KEEPING BOOK KEEPING AND ACCOUNTINGvazhichal12
This document contains an online assignment submitted by Anoop A.V. to his instructor Mrs. Mary Jain. The assignment discusses strategies for teaching bookkeeping and accounting. It begins with an introduction to accounting and then discusses various instructional strategies and methods that can be used, including direct instruction methods like lecture and didactic questioning, indirect instruction like concept formation, and experiential learning methods like simulations. The document provides details on each method and how they can be effectively implemented.
UTSA is proposing an academic restructuring that will create six colleges from the current four. This will strengthen programs, increase development, improve advising, and attract faculty. The restructuring will replace division directors with rotating department chairs to alleviate communication problems. Currently, several division director positions are vacant due to complex duties. The changes aim to benefit students and the university.
Executive summary:From Evidence to Practice: Addressing the Second Translatio...NEQOS
Supporting paper for Collaborating for Better Care Partnership Master Class 23rd October 2014: Executive summary 'From Evidence to Practice: Addressing the Second Translational Gap for Complex Interventions in Primary Care'
1) The document discusses issues with how development aid projects are designed, implemented, and evaluated. It argues that the systems aid seeks to change are complex and dynamic, so rigid plans and measures of success often fail.
2) Common problems include overly mechanistic project design that does not adapt to local needs, defining objectives and targets focused on donor priorities rather than beneficiary needs, and over-engineering monitoring and evaluation tools that miss important impacts.
3) The key message is that development work requires humility, experimentation, and a focus on adaptive learning rather than rigidly implementing pre-determined plans. Metrics and targets should support learning about improving local conditions, not just meeting donor reporting needs.
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues
(You have to compare my post to 2 SEPARATE peer posts and respond to their posts and ask a question I have provided all three)
by noting the similarities and differences in the factors that would support or impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in his or her post to those that would impact your implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in your original post. Offer a solution for addressing one of the factors that would impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice.
IT does not have to be long but has to in text citation and full references
MY POST
SummerLove Holcomb
RE: Discussion - Week 1
Top of Form
The Characteristics of the evidence-based practice (EBP)
The evidence-based program is defined as the programs that are effective and this is based on the rigorous assessment. One of the key features of EBP is that they have been assessed thoroughly in an experimental or quasi-experimental study. The evaluation of the EBP has been subjected to critical peer review and this implies that a conclusion has been reached by the evaluation experts. The EBP requires the ability to differentiate between the unverified opinions concerning the psychosocial interventions and the facts about their effectiveness. It is involving the process of inquiry that is provided to the practitioners and described for the physicians. This is important in integrating the best evidence, clinical expertise, and patient values as well as the situations that are linked to the management of the patient, management of the practice, and health policy decision-making processes (Small & O'Connor, 2007).
The assessment of the factors that are supporting or impeding the adoption of the evidence-based practice
Several factors are associated with the failure to the successful adoption of EBP. The implementation of EBP for example in healthcare facilities requires the dedication of time. Therefore, lack of adequate time for the training and implementation of the EBP makes it hard to adopt it within the facility. The adoption of evidence-based practice also requires adequate resources. This, therefore, implies that there must be adequate resources to facilitate the effective implementation and the adoption of the EBP. This, therefore, implies that smaller organizations with unstable capital income might not adopt the EBP. Another barrier is the inability to understand the statistical terms or the jargons used in the EBP. This leads to barriers in understanding thus making it hard to implement the EBP (Duncombe, 2018). Therefore, the factors that might support the implementation of the EBP are the availability of resources and adequate time.
References
Duncombe, D. C. (2018). A multi‐institutional study of the perceived barriers and facilitators to implementing evidence‐based practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing,.
Guide to Helping With Paper· Description of the key program .docxshericehewat
Guide to Helping With Paper
· Description of the key program elements:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/11/30/prisoner-reentry-programs-ensuring-safe-and-successful-return-community
Drake, E. B., & Lafrance, S. (2007). Findings on Best Practices of Community Re-Entry Programs ... Retrieved from http://www.eisenhowerfoundation.org/docs/Ex-Offender Best Practices.pdf
Mosteller, J. (2019). Why Reentry Programs are Important. Retrieved from https://www.charleskochinstitute.org/issue-areas/criminal-justice-policing-reform/reentry-programs/
· A description of the strategies that the program uses to produce change
Caprizzo, C. (2011, November 30). Prisoner Reentry Programs: Ensuring a Safe and Successful Return to the Community. Retrieved fromhttps://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/11/30/prisoner-reentry-programs-ensuring-safe-and-successful-return-community
INTEGRATED REENTRYand EMPLOYMENT. (2013). Retrieved from https://www.bja.gov/Publications/CSG-Reentry-and-Employment.pdf
· A description of the needs of the target population
· An explanation of why a process evaluation is important for the program
See attachment to answer this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation) also look at this link below
Berghuis, M. (2018, October). Reentry Programs for Adult Male Offender Recidivism and Reintegration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6139987/
· A plan for building relationships with the staff and management
STRONG PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS - Leading Teams. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.leadingteams.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Whitepaper-Strong-Professional-Relationships-Drive-High-Performance.pdf
See attachment can help you in answering this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation)
· Broad questions to be answered by the process evaluation
Rossman, S., Willison, J., Lindquist, C., Walters, J., & Lattimore, P. (2016, December). The author(s) shown below used Federal funding provided by ... Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/250469.pdf
See attachment can help you in answering this question (Workbook for Designing a Process Evaluation)
· Specific questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· A plan for gathering and analyzing the information
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213675.pdf
Make Sure All Bullets Are Answered
:
· A description of the key program elements
· A description of the strategies that the program uses to produce change
· A description of the needs of the target population
· An explanation of why a process evaluation is important for the program
· A plan for building relationships with the staff and management
· Broad questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· Specific questions to be answered by the process evaluation
· A plan for gathering and analyzing the information
Workbook
for
Designing
a Process
Evaluation
Produced for the ...
The document discusses the process of implementing educational innovations. It describes three broad phases: initiation, which involves deciding to adopt a change; implementation, involving the first experiences putting the change into practice; and continuation, whether the change becomes incorporated into the system long-term. Many factors influence implementation, including the characteristics of the innovation itself (need, clarity, complexity), local factors (district, community, principal, teachers), and external factors (state/federal policies). Successful implementation depends on relevance, readiness of the organization in terms of capacity and skills, and sufficient resources being available throughout the process.
This document outlines key concepts in health planning, including:
1. Health planning aims to improve health outcomes by linking needs and resources through strategic action. There are different types like health system and population health planning.
2. Critical success factors include defining clear questions, choosing appropriate strategic or operational planning processes, engaging stakeholders, effective project management, and commitment to monitoring and evaluation.
3. Strategic planning addresses broad issues over multiple years while operational planning focuses on specific objectives and implementation within existing frameworks.
STRATEGIES IN TEACHING KEEPING BOOK KEEPING AND ACCOUNTINGvazhichal12
This document contains an online assignment submitted by Anoop A.V. to his instructor Mrs. Mary Jain. The assignment discusses strategies for teaching bookkeeping and accounting. It begins with an introduction to accounting and then discusses various instructional strategies and methods that can be used, including direct instruction methods like lecture and didactic questioning, indirect instruction like concept formation, and experiential learning methods like simulations. The document provides details on each method and how they can be effectively implemented.
UTSA is proposing an academic restructuring that will create six colleges from the current four. This will strengthen programs, increase development, improve advising, and attract faculty. The restructuring will replace division directors with rotating department chairs to alleviate communication problems. Currently, several division director positions are vacant due to complex duties. The changes aim to benefit students and the university.
Journal of Early Intervention, 2001 Vol. 24, No. 1, 1-14 C.docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Early Intervention, 2001
Vol. 24, No. 1, 1-14
Copyright 2001 by the Division of Early Childhood, Council for Exceptional Children
FEATURE ARTICLE
Evaluating Parent Involvement and Family
Support in Early Intervention and
Preschool Programs
DONALD B. BAILEY, JR.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Early intervention and preschool programs for children with disabilities are also accountable
for providing certain types of support for families. How should these efforts be evaluated? This
article describes three potential levels of accountability: (a) providing the legally required
services for familiesf (b) providing services that are considered recommended, and (c)
achieving certain outcomes as a result of working with families. Issues and considerations
related to each level of accountability are discussed and recommendations are made for
advancing policy and practice related to the evaluation of parent involvement and family
support efforts.
A combination of legislative initiatives, fam-
ily advocacy efforts, theory, and research has
led to wide acceptance of the assumption that
early intervention exists not just to support
young children with disabilities, but also to
support their families. Exactly what is meant
by parent involvement and family support
continues to be discussed, but at least three
themes have emerged around which there is
general consensus (Bailey et al., 1986; Bailey
et al., 1998; Brewer, McPherson, Magrab, &
Hutchins, 1989; Dunst, 1985; Shelton, Jepp-
son, & Johnson, 1987). First, parent involve-
ment and family support programs need to be
individualized, given the diversity of family
resources, priorities, concerns, and cultures.
Second, parents should be given every oppor-
tunity to participate as active partners in plan-
ning services for their child and for them-
selves, requiring professionals to engage in
practices that recognize, value, and support
this type of relationship. Third, since families
are the ultimate decision makers and long-
term care providers for their children, services
should be organized in ways that enable fam-
ilies to feel and be competent in advocating
for services and otherwise meeting the needs
of their young child with a disability.
As states and local programs strive to provide
a variety of family support initiatives, a funda-
mental question remains unanswered: How
should we evaluate whether parent involvement
and family support efforts have been successful?
In this paper I place this question in the context
of accountability and propose three potential
levels of accountability. Challenges associated
with each level are presented, and I conclude
with several potential recommendations for the
field.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND
ACCOUNTABILITY
The principles and processes underlying pro-
gram evaluation have been well described over
the past few decades (Fink, 1995; Popham,
1993; Walberg & Haertel, 1990; Worthen, Sand- ...
Knowledge Transfer is a discipline of the Policy Planning field that investigates about the creation, research and dissemination of knowledge in the social and political context
Applying a Reverse Induction Process for Improved Definition of Higher Educat...Helen Farley
The document describes a reverse induction process for defining higher education technology-supported research projects. Reverse induction starts with articulating desired research outcomes and then works backwards to determine the research activities, methodology, and aims needed to achieve those outcomes. This process provides a more efficient alternative to the traditional forward approach of starting with research aims. Early trials found reverse induction reduced the time required to scope projects by an estimated 40% compared to traditional methods. The process helps researchers better align their proposals with funding criteria by maintaining a focus on desired research outcomes throughout project definition.
This document discusses process evaluation for implementation science projects. It defines process evaluation as understanding how and why interventions work by examining implementation and change processes. Key aspects of process evaluation include assessing fidelity, dose, reach, adaptations and context. Process evaluation helps explain success or failure of interventions and understand outcome heterogeneity. The document reviews guidelines for process evaluation from the UK Medical Research Council, including clarifying theories of change. It then discusses the PeriKIP project, which aims to improve perinatal health in Vietnam using participatory stakeholder groups, and outlines plans for its process evaluation.
Running head LOGIC MODELLOGIC MODEL 2Logic modelStu.docxwlynn1
Running head: LOGIC MODEL
LOGIC MODEL
2
Logic model
Student’s name
University affiliation
Date
References
Blue-Howells, J., McGuire, J., & Nakashima, J. (2008). Co-location of health care services for homeless veterans: a case study of innovation in program implementation. Social work in health care, 47(3), 219-231.
Output
Integrating patient care
Communication and collaboration between workers hence resulting to communities of practicing clinicians
Attracting new patients to GLA
Funding a two-year pilot grant
Effective process for psychiatric screening for homeless patients
Outcomes
Homeless project were integrated
The issues of homeless veterans were addressed due to institutional barriers
There was creation of coalition and linking the project to legitimate VA-wide goals
Good sustained program maintenance, process evaluation and encouraging development of communities.
Activities
Building a coalition of decision makers
Introduction of a new integrated program
Inputs
The decision to implement
Initial implementation
Sustained maintenance
Termination or transformation
Running head: PROGRAM EVALUATION 1
PROGRAM EVALUATION 2
Program Evaluation
Institutional Affiliation
Insert the student’s name
Instructor’s name
Course
Date
Introduction
Evaluation of the program is usually done to in order to determine the quality of the program, how effective the program is and how the program is performing. This can help to know if the program is making a significant difference among the targeted people. It can also assist to know if the program is functioning or not. This paper therefore seeks to evaluate the program which is assisting the homeless people within the community.
The two program evaluation questions are: what is the reach of the program? And what has been the impact of the program on the homeless people? The answers to these questions would elicit both qualitative and quantitative results. Therefore, the program evaluation will require both quantitative and qualitative data collection plan. This is because the use of mixed-method approach is convenient since the results and findings would be reliable (Creswell, 2017). After identifying the evaluation program questions, the next step will be to come up with plan of evaluating a program. The plan should consist of methods of collecting data, evidences, the person responsible and the duration.
Program Evaluation Question
Evidence
Methods and sources of collecting data
Person in charge
Duration
1. What is the reach of the program?
Number of building materials distributed
Records of the program
Robert
One month
2. What has been the impact of the program on the homeless people?
Number of people resettled
Number of people not yet re.
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The document discusses an illuminative/responsive approach to evaluating an English as a foreign language (EFL) learning support program (LSP) in Greece. It describes a 4-step evaluation process: 1) Preparing stakeholders, 2) Identifying the program setting, 3) Sharing, observing, and seeking feedback, and 4) Reviewing, reflecting, and remedying issues. The evaluation aims to foster autonomous learning and involvement of all stakeholders at each step. It is argued that this participatory, formative approach can help programs improve, build ownership among stakeholders, and make evaluation less opposed in the Greek educational system.
The document discusses knowledge translation (KT), which involves closing the gaps between research knowledge and practice. KT includes disseminating research findings to relevant audiences and facilitating their implementation. Effective KT requires understanding user needs, tailoring knowledge tools and activities, addressing barriers, and evaluating impact on outcomes. Key aspects of KT include knowledge synthesis to integrate evidence, dissemination to communicate findings, and implementation efforts to promote adoption into practice or policy.
A summary of External Validity, methods for evaluating external validity, Local Average Treatment Effects (LATE), Linear program theory model, and Mechanism Mapping
1) Research is a systematic process of investigation to discover answers to problems through objective and verifiable methods. It aims to increase knowledge and understanding.
2) Social work research plays a key role in strengthening the scientific basis of the profession by validating concepts, theories, and methods through empirical testing. It also evaluates social work programs and identifies client needs and available resources.
3) Quantitative research collects numerical data to explain phenomena through statistical analysis. It aims to quantify observations in an objective manner that can be repeated. Qualitative research seeks to understand why people behave as they do through non-numerical data.
This document discusses the complex and dynamic nature of development, management, and knowledge. It notes that development involves multiple stakeholders with diverse goals in unpredictable contexts. Management requires the ability to create conditions for understanding, relationships, and appropriate interventions through iteration. The benefits of innovative interdisciplinary initiatives are often unexpected, inexpressible in the originating discipline, and arise long after the initiative ends. Assessment of development should focus on broader learning rather than meeting plans and is challenging due to issues of causality, overlapping interests, and timeframes.
The TEACCH method focuses on structured teaching for individuals with autism. It was developed in the 1960s at the University of North Carolina and uses visual structures and organization to make environments predictable and help autistic individuals understand and function safely in their environment. TEACCH relies on physical organization, individualized schedules, structured work systems and visual supports. Research shows TEACCH can have moderate to large positive effects on social behavior and reducing maladaptive behavior, but more minor effects on other skills.
Running head PSYCHOLOGY1PSYCHOLOGY7Programmatic pur.docxtoltonkendal
Running head: PSYCHOLOGY
1
PSYCHOLOGY
7
Programmatic purposes and outcomes
Shekima Jacob
South University
Programmatic purposes and outcomes
Select and discuss three programmatic purposes and outcomes that should be evaluated. In your discussion, provide the rationale for the purposes and outcomes selected. It will be assumed the purposes and outcomes selected were influenced by the program being evaluated.
The program that I will be discussing is human service programs. In the abiding endeavor to enhance human service programs, service providers, policy makers and funders are more and more recognizing the significance of thorough program evaluations. They want to know what the programs achieve, what they spend, and how they must be operated to attain maximum cost efficiency. They want to recognize which programs function for which groups, and they need endings based on proof, as opposed to impassioned pleas and testimonials. The purposes should state the extensive, extensive range result that maintains the mission of the program, including content information areas, performance prospects, and values anticipated of program graduates. Purposes can be stated in wider and more stirring language than outcomes that have to be measurable and specific. Outcome is the reason nonprofit organizations struggle to build capacity and deliver programs. Measurement of outcomes is the systematic way of assessing the extent to which a program has attained its intended results.
The programmatic purposes and outcomes that should be evaluated include:
Programmatic purposes
· To monitor functions for the Health and Human Services department.
Without departments, the purpose or goals of human services would be very hard to fulfill. Human services is a very large sector that entails a wide range of skills, knowledge and disciplines focused on enhancing the well being of human both collectively and individually. Just like there are a lot of sectors in human services, so too there are a huge variety of functions of the human service programs that need to be evaluated so as to accomplish the purpose of the program (Connell, Kubisch, Schorr & Weiss, 1995). One of the programmatic purposes of human service programs is to monitor functions for the Health and Human Services department. Any department or even sector requires frequent checks to make sure that it is functioning well and according to the purpose. This purpose is very crucial in the execution of the human service program goals. It needs to be evaluated to make sure that the functions of the health and human service department are in line with the programmatic purposes of the program.
· Assessing internal control over compliance requirements to provide reasonable assurance.
The compliance requirements are very crucial in every program as they make sure that the program is in line with its goals and makes sure it works towards achieving its stipulated outcomes. This purpose needs to be evaluated to m ...
This study explored whether futures thinking and backcasting could help entrepreneurs consider sustainability. Through workshops, entrepreneurs envisioned their businesses in 2050 and worked backwards to identify steps to realize their visions. Most entrepreneurs focused on economic factors and had difficulty envisioning transformative futures. While backcasting provided a different perspective, entrepreneurs were not convinced of climate change's relevance to their businesses. Long-term follow up would be needed to assess impacts on entrepreneurial mindsets and sustainability.
An Introduction to Implementation Research_Emily Peca_4.22.13CORE Group
There are often challenges in ensuring all relevant stakeholders are meaningfully engaged throughout the implementation research process. Effective partnerships require ongoing communication and finding the right roles for all parties.
Assignment WK 9Assessing a Healthcare ProgramPolicy Evaluation.docxjesuslightbody
Assignment: WK 9Assessing a Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation
Program/policy evaluation is a valuable tool that can help strengthen the quality of programs/policies and improve outcomes for the populations they serve. Program/policy evaluation answers basic questions about program/policy effectiveness. It involves collecting and analyzing information about program/policy activities, characteristics, and outcomes. This information can be used to ultimately improve program services or policy initiatives.
Nurses can play a very important role assessing program/policy evaluation for the same reasons that they can be so important to program/policy design. Nurses bring expertise and patient advocacy that can add significant insight and impact. In this Assignment, you will practice applying this expertise and insight by selecting an existing healthcare program or policy evaluation and reflecting on the criteria used to measure the effectiveness of the program/policy.
To Prepare:
· Review the Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation Analysis Template provided in the Resources.
· Select an existing healthcare program or policy evaluation or choose one of interest to you.
· Review community, state, or federal policy evaluation and reflect on the criteria used to measure the effectiveness of the program or policy described.
The Assignment: (2–3 pages)
Based on the program or policy evaluation you selected, complete the Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation Analysis Template. Be sure to address the following:
· Describe the healthcare program or policy outcomes.
· How was the success of the program or policy measured?
· How many people were reached by the program or policy selected?
· How much of an impact was realized with the program or policy selected?
· At what point in program implementation was the program or policy evaluation conducted?
· What data was used to conduct the program or policy evaluation?
· What specific information on unintended consequences was identified?
· What stakeholders were identified in the evaluation of the program or policy? Who would benefit most from the results and reporting of the program or policy evaluation? Be specific and provide examples.
· Did the program or policy meet the original intent and objectives? Why or why not?
· Would you recommend implementing this program or policy in your place of work? Why or why not?
· Identify at least two ways that you, as a nurse advocate, could become involved in evaluating a program or policy after 1 year of implementation.
By Day 7 of Week 10
Submit your completed healthcare program/policy evaluation analysis.
Milstead, J. A., & Short, N. M. (2019).
Health policy and politics: A nurse's guide (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
· Chapter 7, “Health Policy and Social Program Evaluation” (pp. 116–124 only)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5409875/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029655418300617
i J LUUU^S
.
This document provides a review of various theories related to financial planning, including:
- Personal Financial Planning (PFP) theory which aims to help individuals achieve financial goals through effective use of capital.
- Family Financial Planning (FFP) theory which examines financial decision-making within the family context.
- Life Cycle Hypothesis (LCH) which proposes individuals base consumption and savings decisions on lifetime earnings rather than annual income.
- Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) which provide frameworks for optimizing investment returns based on risk levels.
- Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) which suggests stock prices already reflect all known information.
- Be
2013 wp evidence-creation-through-knowledge-integration_hoWenny Ho
This document outlines a theory-based process of knowledge integration to create robust evidence. It discusses merging two helixes - an organizational learning helix based on single and double loop learning, and an organizational change helix based on freeze, rebalance, unfreeze sequences. By intentionally sequencing phases that alternate between learning/action and reflection/theory through these helixes, a knowledge integration process can strengthen organizational practice and theory bases while connecting learning, sense-making and change for stakeholders. This approach aims to produce evidence that can withstand scrutiny from multiple perspectives.
Understanding Why, When, and What it Will Take to do Operations and/or Implem...CORE Group
Here are some issues with the objectives and research questions:
- The objectives are not specific enough and focus more on methods rather than the purpose of the research.
- The questions make assumptions that community beliefs are "wrong" rather than trying to understand perspectives.
- Questions 1.1 and 1.2 for the formative research objective are too leading and specific rather than open-ended to understand barriers.
- Objective 2 aims to "prove" effectiveness rather than objectively measure impact, and the questions only measure outcomes rather than factors influencing them.
The objectives and questions should be more open-ended, focus on understanding rather than proving assumptions, and aim to inform program improvement rather than prove effectiveness.
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file. AnastaciaShadelb
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file.
Your research proposal should include the following:
Your selected global ethical dilemma
Background/explanation of why this is a global ethical issue
Make connections to issues of cultural diversity
Research question
Two scholarly, peer-reviewed sources connected to your selected topic (cited in current APA format)
***NOTE***
RESEARCH IS ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION
...
What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to tAnastaciaShadelb
"What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to today's American family?"
Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.),
International encyclopedia of marriage and family
(2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
from
International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family
Resource management
is the process in which individuals and families use what they have to get what they want. It begins with thinking and planning and ends with the evaluation of actions taken. Three fundamental concepts in resource management are
values, goals
, and
decision making.
Values such as honesty and trust are principles that guide behavior. They are desirable or important and serve as underlying motivators. Values determine goals, which are sought-after end results. Goals can be implicit or explicit. They can be short-term, intermediate-, or long-term. Decisions are conclusions or judgments about some issue or matter.
Decision making
involves choosing between two or more alternatives and follows a series of steps from inception to evaluation.
Through choices, individuals and families define their lives and influence the lives of others. The study of resource management focuses on order, choices, and control, and how people use time, energy, money, physical space, and information. As an applied social science, it is an academic field that is fundamental to our understanding of human behavior. "The knowledge obtained through the study of management is evaluated in light of its ability to make an individual's or family's management practice more effective" (Goldsmith 2000, p. 5).
Individuals and families have characteristic ways of making decisions and acting called their
management style.
Although similar styles are exhibited within families (such as a tendency to be on time or to finish tasks to completion), there are also wide ranges of styles within families making the study of management intrinsically interesting, especially from a
socialization
point of view. Why do such differences exist and how does the individual's style mesh with that of the other members' styles in the family?
Measuring devices, techniques, or instruments that are used to make decisions and plan courses of action are called management tools. For example, time is a resource and a clock or stopwatch is a management tool.
Resources can be divided up into human and material resources, assets that people have at their disposal.
Material resources
(e.g., bridges, roads, houses) decline through use whereas
human resources
(e.g., the ability to read, ride a bicycle) improve or increase through use.
Human capital
describes the sum total of a person's abilities, knowledge, and skills. Education is one way to develop human capital. Related to this is the concept of social capital. The term
social capital
is gaining in importance in the family-relations field and management is considered ...
More Related Content
Similar to 13Financial PlanMichelle A. CannonECO101P
Journal of Early Intervention, 2001 Vol. 24, No. 1, 1-14 C.docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Early Intervention, 2001
Vol. 24, No. 1, 1-14
Copyright 2001 by the Division of Early Childhood, Council for Exceptional Children
FEATURE ARTICLE
Evaluating Parent Involvement and Family
Support in Early Intervention and
Preschool Programs
DONALD B. BAILEY, JR.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Early intervention and preschool programs for children with disabilities are also accountable
for providing certain types of support for families. How should these efforts be evaluated? This
article describes three potential levels of accountability: (a) providing the legally required
services for familiesf (b) providing services that are considered recommended, and (c)
achieving certain outcomes as a result of working with families. Issues and considerations
related to each level of accountability are discussed and recommendations are made for
advancing policy and practice related to the evaluation of parent involvement and family
support efforts.
A combination of legislative initiatives, fam-
ily advocacy efforts, theory, and research has
led to wide acceptance of the assumption that
early intervention exists not just to support
young children with disabilities, but also to
support their families. Exactly what is meant
by parent involvement and family support
continues to be discussed, but at least three
themes have emerged around which there is
general consensus (Bailey et al., 1986; Bailey
et al., 1998; Brewer, McPherson, Magrab, &
Hutchins, 1989; Dunst, 1985; Shelton, Jepp-
son, & Johnson, 1987). First, parent involve-
ment and family support programs need to be
individualized, given the diversity of family
resources, priorities, concerns, and cultures.
Second, parents should be given every oppor-
tunity to participate as active partners in plan-
ning services for their child and for them-
selves, requiring professionals to engage in
practices that recognize, value, and support
this type of relationship. Third, since families
are the ultimate decision makers and long-
term care providers for their children, services
should be organized in ways that enable fam-
ilies to feel and be competent in advocating
for services and otherwise meeting the needs
of their young child with a disability.
As states and local programs strive to provide
a variety of family support initiatives, a funda-
mental question remains unanswered: How
should we evaluate whether parent involvement
and family support efforts have been successful?
In this paper I place this question in the context
of accountability and propose three potential
levels of accountability. Challenges associated
with each level are presented, and I conclude
with several potential recommendations for the
field.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND
ACCOUNTABILITY
The principles and processes underlying pro-
gram evaluation have been well described over
the past few decades (Fink, 1995; Popham,
1993; Walberg & Haertel, 1990; Worthen, Sand- ...
Knowledge Transfer is a discipline of the Policy Planning field that investigates about the creation, research and dissemination of knowledge in the social and political context
Applying a Reverse Induction Process for Improved Definition of Higher Educat...Helen Farley
The document describes a reverse induction process for defining higher education technology-supported research projects. Reverse induction starts with articulating desired research outcomes and then works backwards to determine the research activities, methodology, and aims needed to achieve those outcomes. This process provides a more efficient alternative to the traditional forward approach of starting with research aims. Early trials found reverse induction reduced the time required to scope projects by an estimated 40% compared to traditional methods. The process helps researchers better align their proposals with funding criteria by maintaining a focus on desired research outcomes throughout project definition.
This document discusses process evaluation for implementation science projects. It defines process evaluation as understanding how and why interventions work by examining implementation and change processes. Key aspects of process evaluation include assessing fidelity, dose, reach, adaptations and context. Process evaluation helps explain success or failure of interventions and understand outcome heterogeneity. The document reviews guidelines for process evaluation from the UK Medical Research Council, including clarifying theories of change. It then discusses the PeriKIP project, which aims to improve perinatal health in Vietnam using participatory stakeholder groups, and outlines plans for its process evaluation.
Running head LOGIC MODELLOGIC MODEL 2Logic modelStu.docxwlynn1
Running head: LOGIC MODEL
LOGIC MODEL
2
Logic model
Student’s name
University affiliation
Date
References
Blue-Howells, J., McGuire, J., & Nakashima, J. (2008). Co-location of health care services for homeless veterans: a case study of innovation in program implementation. Social work in health care, 47(3), 219-231.
Output
Integrating patient care
Communication and collaboration between workers hence resulting to communities of practicing clinicians
Attracting new patients to GLA
Funding a two-year pilot grant
Effective process for psychiatric screening for homeless patients
Outcomes
Homeless project were integrated
The issues of homeless veterans were addressed due to institutional barriers
There was creation of coalition and linking the project to legitimate VA-wide goals
Good sustained program maintenance, process evaluation and encouraging development of communities.
Activities
Building a coalition of decision makers
Introduction of a new integrated program
Inputs
The decision to implement
Initial implementation
Sustained maintenance
Termination or transformation
Running head: PROGRAM EVALUATION 1
PROGRAM EVALUATION 2
Program Evaluation
Institutional Affiliation
Insert the student’s name
Instructor’s name
Course
Date
Introduction
Evaluation of the program is usually done to in order to determine the quality of the program, how effective the program is and how the program is performing. This can help to know if the program is making a significant difference among the targeted people. It can also assist to know if the program is functioning or not. This paper therefore seeks to evaluate the program which is assisting the homeless people within the community.
The two program evaluation questions are: what is the reach of the program? And what has been the impact of the program on the homeless people? The answers to these questions would elicit both qualitative and quantitative results. Therefore, the program evaluation will require both quantitative and qualitative data collection plan. This is because the use of mixed-method approach is convenient since the results and findings would be reliable (Creswell, 2017). After identifying the evaluation program questions, the next step will be to come up with plan of evaluating a program. The plan should consist of methods of collecting data, evidences, the person responsible and the duration.
Program Evaluation Question
Evidence
Methods and sources of collecting data
Person in charge
Duration
1. What is the reach of the program?
Number of building materials distributed
Records of the program
Robert
One month
2. What has been the impact of the program on the homeless people?
Number of people resettled
Number of people not yet re.
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The document discusses an illuminative/responsive approach to evaluating an English as a foreign language (EFL) learning support program (LSP) in Greece. It describes a 4-step evaluation process: 1) Preparing stakeholders, 2) Identifying the program setting, 3) Sharing, observing, and seeking feedback, and 4) Reviewing, reflecting, and remedying issues. The evaluation aims to foster autonomous learning and involvement of all stakeholders at each step. It is argued that this participatory, formative approach can help programs improve, build ownership among stakeholders, and make evaluation less opposed in the Greek educational system.
The document discusses knowledge translation (KT), which involves closing the gaps between research knowledge and practice. KT includes disseminating research findings to relevant audiences and facilitating their implementation. Effective KT requires understanding user needs, tailoring knowledge tools and activities, addressing barriers, and evaluating impact on outcomes. Key aspects of KT include knowledge synthesis to integrate evidence, dissemination to communicate findings, and implementation efforts to promote adoption into practice or policy.
A summary of External Validity, methods for evaluating external validity, Local Average Treatment Effects (LATE), Linear program theory model, and Mechanism Mapping
1) Research is a systematic process of investigation to discover answers to problems through objective and verifiable methods. It aims to increase knowledge and understanding.
2) Social work research plays a key role in strengthening the scientific basis of the profession by validating concepts, theories, and methods through empirical testing. It also evaluates social work programs and identifies client needs and available resources.
3) Quantitative research collects numerical data to explain phenomena through statistical analysis. It aims to quantify observations in an objective manner that can be repeated. Qualitative research seeks to understand why people behave as they do through non-numerical data.
This document discusses the complex and dynamic nature of development, management, and knowledge. It notes that development involves multiple stakeholders with diverse goals in unpredictable contexts. Management requires the ability to create conditions for understanding, relationships, and appropriate interventions through iteration. The benefits of innovative interdisciplinary initiatives are often unexpected, inexpressible in the originating discipline, and arise long after the initiative ends. Assessment of development should focus on broader learning rather than meeting plans and is challenging due to issues of causality, overlapping interests, and timeframes.
The TEACCH method focuses on structured teaching for individuals with autism. It was developed in the 1960s at the University of North Carolina and uses visual structures and organization to make environments predictable and help autistic individuals understand and function safely in their environment. TEACCH relies on physical organization, individualized schedules, structured work systems and visual supports. Research shows TEACCH can have moderate to large positive effects on social behavior and reducing maladaptive behavior, but more minor effects on other skills.
Running head PSYCHOLOGY1PSYCHOLOGY7Programmatic pur.docxtoltonkendal
Running head: PSYCHOLOGY
1
PSYCHOLOGY
7
Programmatic purposes and outcomes
Shekima Jacob
South University
Programmatic purposes and outcomes
Select and discuss three programmatic purposes and outcomes that should be evaluated. In your discussion, provide the rationale for the purposes and outcomes selected. It will be assumed the purposes and outcomes selected were influenced by the program being evaluated.
The program that I will be discussing is human service programs. In the abiding endeavor to enhance human service programs, service providers, policy makers and funders are more and more recognizing the significance of thorough program evaluations. They want to know what the programs achieve, what they spend, and how they must be operated to attain maximum cost efficiency. They want to recognize which programs function for which groups, and they need endings based on proof, as opposed to impassioned pleas and testimonials. The purposes should state the extensive, extensive range result that maintains the mission of the program, including content information areas, performance prospects, and values anticipated of program graduates. Purposes can be stated in wider and more stirring language than outcomes that have to be measurable and specific. Outcome is the reason nonprofit organizations struggle to build capacity and deliver programs. Measurement of outcomes is the systematic way of assessing the extent to which a program has attained its intended results.
The programmatic purposes and outcomes that should be evaluated include:
Programmatic purposes
· To monitor functions for the Health and Human Services department.
Without departments, the purpose or goals of human services would be very hard to fulfill. Human services is a very large sector that entails a wide range of skills, knowledge and disciplines focused on enhancing the well being of human both collectively and individually. Just like there are a lot of sectors in human services, so too there are a huge variety of functions of the human service programs that need to be evaluated so as to accomplish the purpose of the program (Connell, Kubisch, Schorr & Weiss, 1995). One of the programmatic purposes of human service programs is to monitor functions for the Health and Human Services department. Any department or even sector requires frequent checks to make sure that it is functioning well and according to the purpose. This purpose is very crucial in the execution of the human service program goals. It needs to be evaluated to make sure that the functions of the health and human service department are in line with the programmatic purposes of the program.
· Assessing internal control over compliance requirements to provide reasonable assurance.
The compliance requirements are very crucial in every program as they make sure that the program is in line with its goals and makes sure it works towards achieving its stipulated outcomes. This purpose needs to be evaluated to m ...
This study explored whether futures thinking and backcasting could help entrepreneurs consider sustainability. Through workshops, entrepreneurs envisioned their businesses in 2050 and worked backwards to identify steps to realize their visions. Most entrepreneurs focused on economic factors and had difficulty envisioning transformative futures. While backcasting provided a different perspective, entrepreneurs were not convinced of climate change's relevance to their businesses. Long-term follow up would be needed to assess impacts on entrepreneurial mindsets and sustainability.
An Introduction to Implementation Research_Emily Peca_4.22.13CORE Group
There are often challenges in ensuring all relevant stakeholders are meaningfully engaged throughout the implementation research process. Effective partnerships require ongoing communication and finding the right roles for all parties.
Assignment WK 9Assessing a Healthcare ProgramPolicy Evaluation.docxjesuslightbody
Assignment: WK 9Assessing a Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation
Program/policy evaluation is a valuable tool that can help strengthen the quality of programs/policies and improve outcomes for the populations they serve. Program/policy evaluation answers basic questions about program/policy effectiveness. It involves collecting and analyzing information about program/policy activities, characteristics, and outcomes. This information can be used to ultimately improve program services or policy initiatives.
Nurses can play a very important role assessing program/policy evaluation for the same reasons that they can be so important to program/policy design. Nurses bring expertise and patient advocacy that can add significant insight and impact. In this Assignment, you will practice applying this expertise and insight by selecting an existing healthcare program or policy evaluation and reflecting on the criteria used to measure the effectiveness of the program/policy.
To Prepare:
· Review the Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation Analysis Template provided in the Resources.
· Select an existing healthcare program or policy evaluation or choose one of interest to you.
· Review community, state, or federal policy evaluation and reflect on the criteria used to measure the effectiveness of the program or policy described.
The Assignment: (2–3 pages)
Based on the program or policy evaluation you selected, complete the Healthcare Program/Policy Evaluation Analysis Template. Be sure to address the following:
· Describe the healthcare program or policy outcomes.
· How was the success of the program or policy measured?
· How many people were reached by the program or policy selected?
· How much of an impact was realized with the program or policy selected?
· At what point in program implementation was the program or policy evaluation conducted?
· What data was used to conduct the program or policy evaluation?
· What specific information on unintended consequences was identified?
· What stakeholders were identified in the evaluation of the program or policy? Who would benefit most from the results and reporting of the program or policy evaluation? Be specific and provide examples.
· Did the program or policy meet the original intent and objectives? Why or why not?
· Would you recommend implementing this program or policy in your place of work? Why or why not?
· Identify at least two ways that you, as a nurse advocate, could become involved in evaluating a program or policy after 1 year of implementation.
By Day 7 of Week 10
Submit your completed healthcare program/policy evaluation analysis.
Milstead, J. A., & Short, N. M. (2019).
Health policy and politics: A nurse's guide (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
· Chapter 7, “Health Policy and Social Program Evaluation” (pp. 116–124 only)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5409875/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029655418300617
i J LUUU^S
.
This document provides a review of various theories related to financial planning, including:
- Personal Financial Planning (PFP) theory which aims to help individuals achieve financial goals through effective use of capital.
- Family Financial Planning (FFP) theory which examines financial decision-making within the family context.
- Life Cycle Hypothesis (LCH) which proposes individuals base consumption and savings decisions on lifetime earnings rather than annual income.
- Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) which provide frameworks for optimizing investment returns based on risk levels.
- Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) which suggests stock prices already reflect all known information.
- Be
2013 wp evidence-creation-through-knowledge-integration_hoWenny Ho
This document outlines a theory-based process of knowledge integration to create robust evidence. It discusses merging two helixes - an organizational learning helix based on single and double loop learning, and an organizational change helix based on freeze, rebalance, unfreeze sequences. By intentionally sequencing phases that alternate between learning/action and reflection/theory through these helixes, a knowledge integration process can strengthen organizational practice and theory bases while connecting learning, sense-making and change for stakeholders. This approach aims to produce evidence that can withstand scrutiny from multiple perspectives.
Understanding Why, When, and What it Will Take to do Operations and/or Implem...CORE Group
Here are some issues with the objectives and research questions:
- The objectives are not specific enough and focus more on methods rather than the purpose of the research.
- The questions make assumptions that community beliefs are "wrong" rather than trying to understand perspectives.
- Questions 1.1 and 1.2 for the formative research objective are too leading and specific rather than open-ended to understand barriers.
- Objective 2 aims to "prove" effectiveness rather than objectively measure impact, and the questions only measure outcomes rather than factors influencing them.
The objectives and questions should be more open-ended, focus on understanding rather than proving assumptions, and aim to inform program improvement rather than prove effectiveness.
Similar to 13Financial PlanMichelle A. CannonECO101P (20)
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file. AnastaciaShadelb
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file.
Your research proposal should include the following:
Your selected global ethical dilemma
Background/explanation of why this is a global ethical issue
Make connections to issues of cultural diversity
Research question
Two scholarly, peer-reviewed sources connected to your selected topic (cited in current APA format)
***NOTE***
RESEARCH IS ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION
...
What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to tAnastaciaShadelb
"What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to today's American family?"
Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.),
International encyclopedia of marriage and family
(2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
from
International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family
Resource management
is the process in which individuals and families use what they have to get what they want. It begins with thinking and planning and ends with the evaluation of actions taken. Three fundamental concepts in resource management are
values, goals
, and
decision making.
Values such as honesty and trust are principles that guide behavior. They are desirable or important and serve as underlying motivators. Values determine goals, which are sought-after end results. Goals can be implicit or explicit. They can be short-term, intermediate-, or long-term. Decisions are conclusions or judgments about some issue or matter.
Decision making
involves choosing between two or more alternatives and follows a series of steps from inception to evaluation.
Through choices, individuals and families define their lives and influence the lives of others. The study of resource management focuses on order, choices, and control, and how people use time, energy, money, physical space, and information. As an applied social science, it is an academic field that is fundamental to our understanding of human behavior. "The knowledge obtained through the study of management is evaluated in light of its ability to make an individual's or family's management practice more effective" (Goldsmith 2000, p. 5).
Individuals and families have characteristic ways of making decisions and acting called their
management style.
Although similar styles are exhibited within families (such as a tendency to be on time or to finish tasks to completion), there are also wide ranges of styles within families making the study of management intrinsically interesting, especially from a
socialization
point of view. Why do such differences exist and how does the individual's style mesh with that of the other members' styles in the family?
Measuring devices, techniques, or instruments that are used to make decisions and plan courses of action are called management tools. For example, time is a resource and a clock or stopwatch is a management tool.
Resources can be divided up into human and material resources, assets that people have at their disposal.
Material resources
(e.g., bridges, roads, houses) decline through use whereas
human resources
(e.g., the ability to read, ride a bicycle) improve or increase through use.
Human capital
describes the sum total of a person's abilities, knowledge, and skills. Education is one way to develop human capital. Related to this is the concept of social capital. The term
social capital
is gaining in importance in the family-relations field and management is considered ...
What can you do as a teacher to manage the dynamics of diversityAnastaciaShadelb
What can you do as a teacher to manage the dynamics of diversity in your classroom? How can you differentiate for the culturally diverse students in your classroom to ensure a safe, supportive, compassionate, and caring learning environment without compromising your personal values and spiritual beliefs?
...
Week 4 APN Professional Development Plan PaperPurpose The purAnastaciaShadelb
Week 4: APN Professional Development Plan Paper
Purpose
The purpose of this assignment is to provide the student with an opportunity to explore the nurse practitioner (NP) practice requirements in his/her state of practice, NP competencies and leadership skills to develop a plan to support professional development.
Activity Learning Outcomes
Through this assignment, the student will demonstrate the ability to:
1. Examine roles and competencies of advanced practice nurses essential to performing as leaders and advocates of holistic, safe, and quality care. (CO1)
2. Analyze essential skills needed to lead within the context of complex systems. (CO3)
3. Explore the process of scholarship engagement to improve health and healthcare outcomes in various settings. (CO4)
Due Date
Assignment should be submitted to the Week 4 Roles in APN Professional Development Plan dropbox by Sunday 11:59 p.m. MST at the end of Week 4.
When the assignment is placed in the dropbox, it will automatically be submitted to Turnitin. You may submit the assignment one additional time before the due date to lower the Turnitin score. If you choose to resubmit, the second submission will be considered final and subject to grading. Once the due date for the assignment passes, you may not resubmit to lower a Turnitin score.
This assignment will follow the late assignment policy specified in the course syllabus.
Students are expected to submit assignments by the time they are due. Assignments submitted after the due date and time will receive a deduction of 10% of the total points possible for that assignment for each day the assignment is late. Assignments will be accepted, with penalty as described, up to a maximum of three days late, after which point a zero will be recorded for the assignment.
In the event of a situation that prevents timely submission of an assignment, students may petition their instructor for a waiver of the late submission grade reduction. The instructor will review the student's rationale for the request and make a determination based on the merits of the student's appeal. Consideration of the student's total course performance to date will be a contributing factor in the determination. Students should continue to attend class, actively participate, and complete other assignments while the appeal is pending.
Total Points Possible: 200
Requirements
A
Week 4 Paper Template to be used for your assignment is required for this assignment.
1. The
APN Professional Development Plan paper is worth 200 points and will be graded on the quality of the content, use of citations, use of Standard English grammar, sentence structure, and overall organization based on the required components as summarized in the directions and grading criteria/rubric.
2. Submit the paper as a Microsoft Word Document, which is the required format at Chamberlain University. You are encouraged to use the APA Academic Writer and G ...
TopicTransitions of Care in Long- Term Care (LTC)Discuss CAnastaciaShadelb
Topic:
Transitions of Care in Long- Term Care (LTC):
Discuss Care Coordination, Subacute Care, Post-Acute care, and the impact of U.S Healthcare Policies and Regulations on transitions of care
Details:
·
2 pages
·
APA 7 th edition reference style with recent references within the last 5 years
·
3 references
Health Financial ManagementRead this article: Hirsch, J.A., Harvey, H.B., Barr, R. M., Donovan, W. D., Duszak, R., Nicola, G. N., ... & Manchikanti, L. (2016): ‘’Sustainable Growth Rate Repealed, MACRA Revealed: Historical Context and Analysis of Recent Changes in Medicare Physician Payment Methodologies’’
Once you have read the article, discuss the Medicare Sustainable Growth Rate. “The SGR target is calculated on the basis of projected changes in 4 factors:
1) fees for physicians’ services,
2) the number of Medicare beneficiaries,
3) US gross domestic product, and
4) service expenditures based on changing law or regulations (Hirsch, et al. 2016).”
How have these 4 factors been tied to fiscal performance? Find some additional sources and support your position in few paragraphs.
Details
- 2 pages
- 3 PARAGRAPHS ONLY
· Paragraph 1 – answer the question, supporting your answer by citing from the RELIABLE SOURCES using proper APA format. Terms need to be defined in order to receive as many points as possible.
· Paragraph 2 – expand your answer by including additional information and opinions
·
· Paragraph 3 – Summarize your answer, concluding with a thought or an opinion of your own.
- APA 7 th edition reference style with recent references within the last 5 years
- 3 references
...
Topic Hepatitis B infection Clinical Practice PresenAnastaciaShadelb
Topic: Hepatitis B infection
Clinical Practice Presentation . The focus of the presentation
must reflect current treatment recommendations from accepted professional organizations.
Clinical Standard of Practice Presentation
Students are expected to expand their use of resources for evidence-based practice beyond the required text and explore nursing and related literature to improve their understanding and application of advanced interventions. Each student will present a Clinical Practice Presentation. The focus of the presentation must reflect current treatment recommendations from accepted professional organizations. Presentations will be evaluated related to the criteria listed.
Presentations must be no more than twelve slides in a PowerPoint format with a Reference List in APA format which once done must be sent by email to me and/or posted on week of the due time frame. Topics will be listed, and students must sign up for presentation by the second week of the course..
image1.png
...
The Fresh Detergent CaseEnterprise Industries produces Fresh, AnastaciaShadelb
The Fresh Detergent Case
Enterprise Industries produces Fresh, a brand of liquid detergent. In order to more effectively manage its inventory, the company would like to better predict demand for Fresh. To develop a prediction model, the company has gathered data concerning demand for Fresh over the last 33 sales periods. Each sales period is defined as one month. The variables are as follows:
·
Period = Time period in month
·
Demand = Y = demand for a large size bottle of Fresh (in 100,000)
·
Price = the price of Fresh as offered by Ent. Industries
·
AIP = the Average Industry Price
·
ADV = Enterprise Industries Advertising Expenditure (in $100,000) to Promote Fresh in the sales period.
·
DIFF = AIP - Price = the "price difference" in the sales period
Only the trend of PRICE is negative. Other four variables have positive trends. However, the R2 values suggest that for ADV and DEMAND only the linear model is explained by the data points moderately (66% and 51% respectively). For all the other three variables, the R2 values are too poor to accept the models as adequates because very few percent of data points actually represents the linear model.
As expected, the Demand is negatively correlated with Price. But the regression line equation cannot be relied upon due to poor R2 value. For other three variables, there is a positive correlation. Out of these, for the ADV variable, the regression line can be adequate for the R2 value is moderately higher.
Interpretation
Strong positive correlation is found between
1. PERIOD and ADV
2. PERIOD and DEMAND
3. AIP and DIFF
4. DIFF and ADV
5. DIFF and DEMAND
6. ADV and DEMAND
Strong negative correlation exists between
1. PRICE and DIFF
2. PRICE and ADV
3. PRICE and DEMAND
PERIOD
DEMAND
Forecast
MA(3)
Forecast
MA(6)
Absotute Error - MA(3)
Absotute Error - MA(6)
1
9.4
2
10.3
3
11.5
4
11.1
10.4
0.7
5
11
11.0
0.0
6
10.5
11.2
0.7
7
10.2
10.9
10.6
0.7
0.4
8
8.9
10.6
10.8
1.7
1.9
9
8.3
9.9
10.5
1.6
2.2
10
8.12
9.1
10.0
1.0
1.9
11
8.8
8.4
9.5
0.4
0.7
12
9.8
8.4
9.1
1.4
0.7
13
10.1
8.9
9.0
1.2
1.1
14
11.3
9.6
9.0
1.7
2.3
15
12.5
10.4
9.4
2.1
3.1
16
12.4
11.3
10.1
1.1
2.3
17
12.1
12.1
10.8
0.0
1.3
18
11.8
12.3
11.4
0.5
0.4
19
11.5
12.1
11.7
0.6
0.2
20
11
11.8
11.9
0.8
0.9
21
10.2
11.4
11.9
1.2
1.7
22
10.3
10.9
11.5
0.6
1.2
23
10.9
10.5
11.2
0.4
0.2
24
11.2
10.5
11.0
0.7
0.2
25
12.5
10.8
10.9
1.7
1.7
26
13.4
11.5
11.0
1.9
2.4
27
14.7
12.4
11.4
2.3
3.3
28
14.1
13.5
12.2
0.6
1.9
29
14
14.1
12.8
0.1
1.2
30
13.5
14.3
13.3
0.8
0.2
31
13.5
13.9
13.7
0.4
0.2
32
13.1
13.7
13.9
0.6
0.8
33
12.5
13.4
13.8
0.9
1.3
34
13.0
13.5
MAD =
0.9
1.3
Since MAD of MA(3) is less than that of MA(6), we should be preferring MA(3) over MA(6). However, Moving average may not be a good choice for predicting the demand because there is a clear p ...
tables, images, research tools, mail merges, and much more. Tell us AnastaciaShadelb
tables, images, research tools, mail merges, and much more. Tell us how these features can help you collaborate and work with others? What feature surprised you the most? Do you think you can do better research documents after this week? Why are tools such as spelling and translation so important specially in the United States? Add a PowerPoint and a word document
...
TBSB NetworkThe Best Sports Broadcasting Network is home to alAnastaciaShadelb
TBSB Network
The Best Sports Broadcasting Network is home to all college football games, events, and updates. From Alabama and Clemson to Mount Union and Wheaton College, Division 1 to Division 3 top to bottom 24/7 college football. Being a college football athlete myself and having played at Clemson University and now here at University of Maryland I understand the different levels of exposure programs and athletes get even across power 5 conferences there is some exposure but different and some more than others. What my goal and plan for TBSB is that we bring the same amounts of awareness and exposure to their programs that the Clemson’s and Alabama’s receive to their programs.
After conducting many research experiments on former college athletes as well as parents, family members of student athletes, and fans I learned that they are not happy with not having the chance to always support and watch programs who aren’t top tier and do not have the same lime light as others. I also found that there is not one particular network that shows all power 5 conference football games on Saturdays, there are different networks you have to pay for monthly to keep up with all football games from different conferences. For example, you have ACC Network, Big 10 Network, and SEC Network for each of these networks you need a different subscription and or certain cable plan. With TBSB we are putting all of these networks under one station to give families, fans, and much more the best possible experience.
I feel like this network will be beneficial to many different people starting with the players. Giving all players who are not receiving a lot of exposure this prime television opportunity for family and friends to watch and cheer them on. Also giving these players opportunities to be evaluated, and scouted by the NFL for those who have that desire. This network will also be beneficial to the university itself, football programs have a chance to increase school’s revenue at any given time. Putting these different schools in the lime light will increase the chances to help up school’s revenue. Last but not least TBSB will be beneficial to families, friends, fans, and much more the people who are not able to make it to the games but would still love to support and cheer on these programs. With the click of a button all of their problems are solved with TBSB giving them the chance to watch not only the games of their loved ones but any other college football games of their choice.
Currently, I am in the process of finalizing the concept and sources of revenue, as of now my guaranteed sources of revenue will come from customers who sign up they will pay a monthly fee. My next source of revenue I want to work with television companies to have TBSB added to their channel listings and work with these different companies for another stream of revenue. These are my biggest “road blocks” at the moment. I also will have to find workers who are willing and dedica ...
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pand
ey_R.docx
by Ram Pandey
Submission date: 04-Sep-2020 06:47PM (UTC-0400)
Submission ID: 1379955415
File name: SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx (20.8K)
Word count: 685
Character count: 4114
89%
SIMILARITY INDEX
42%
INTERNET SOURCES
2%
PUBLICATIONS
89%
STUDENT PAPERS
1 89%
Exclude quotes Off
Exclude bibliography Off
Exclude matches Off
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx
ORIGINALITY REPORT
PRIMARY SOURCES
Submitted to South University
Student Paper
FINAL GRADE
/20
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx
GRADEMARK REPORT
GENERAL COMMENTS
Instructor
PAGE 1
PAGE 2
PAGE 3
PAGE 4
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxby Ram PandeySU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxORIGINALITY REPORTPRIMARY SOURCESSU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxGRADEMARK REPORTFINAL GRADEGENERAL COMMENTSInstructor
SOAP NOTE
Name: MT
Date:12/3/19
Time: 0930
Encounter 2
Age: 32
Sex: Female
SUBJECTIVE
CC:
“I need to start on birth control, I just don’t know which one to go on as there are so many to choose from.”
HPI:
30 -year-old Asian American female that presents to the clinic requesting to start birth control.
Medication: (list with reason for med)
PT is not taking any medication currently
PMH: None
Allergies: Does not have any food or drug allergies
Medication Intolerances: None
Chronic Illnesses/Major traumas:
Patient denies any medical trauma
Chronic Health Problems: No known chronic health problems
Hospitalization/Surgeries: None
Family History: Mother Healthy. Father HTN. Sister Healthy. Brother autism
Social History:
Social history is negative for ETOH and she denies past or present illicit drug use. Denies present use of tobacco. States she does exercise regularly, and is not on a specific diet. Pt is currently in school for accounting.
ROS
General:
Patient denies weight change, fatigue, fever, chills, night sweats, energy level
Cardiovascular:
Denies any episodes of chest pain, palpitations, syncope or orthopnea.
Skin:
Denies any skin lesions.
Respiratory:
Patient denies dyspnea. Denies cough
Eyes:
Patient states no changes in vision, no blurred or double vision.
Gastrointestinal:
Patient denies any change in appetite, denies nausea and vomiting. denies any bowel changes
Ears:
No recent hearing loss, tinnitus, denies any ear discharge or pressure.
Genitourinary/Gynecological:
Patient denies any itching, burning or discharge
Last PAP: 9/11/18
Mammogram: 11/2/18
Pregnancy: G4P3
Not on any contraception, is currently sex ...
Sheet1Risk Register for Project NameDateProject NameID No.RankRisAnastaciaShadelb
This document appears to be a risk register template for a project that lists risks by ID number, rank, description, category, root cause, potential triggers, responses, risk owner, probability, impact, and status. However, the document contains no further details to summarize as it appears to be an empty template.
1
2
Final Project Topic
Final Project Topic
I selected the question: Analyze differences among research, evidence-based practice, practice-based evidence, comparative effectiveness research, outcomes research, and quality improvement. How do these practices affect nursing and patient outcomes?
Selected References
Davis, K., Gorst, S. L., Harman, N., Smith, V., Gargon, E., Altman, D. G., ... & Williamson, P. R. (2018). Choosing important health outcomes for comparative effectiveness research: An updated systematic review and involvement of low and middle-income countries. PloS one, 13(2), e0190695.
Davies, C., Lyons, C., & Whyte, R. (2019). Optimizing nursing time in a daycare unit: Quality improvement using Lean Six Sigma methodology. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 31(Supplement_1), 22-28.
Eppley, K., Azano, A. P., Brenner, D. G., & Shannon, P. (2018). What counts as evidence in rural schools? Evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence for diverse settings. The Rural Educator, 39(2).
Fiset, V. J., Graham, I. D., & Davies, B. L. (2017). Evidence-based practice in clinical nursing education: A scoping review. Journal of Nursing Education, 56(9), 534-541.
Forsythe, L., Heckert, A., Margolis, M. K., Schrandt, S., & Frank, L. (2018). Methods and impact of engagement in research, from theory to practice and back again: early findings from the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute. Quality of Life Research, 27(1), 17-31.
Gargon, E., Gorst, S. L., Harman, N. L., Smith, V., Matvienko-Sikar, K., & Williamson, P. R. (2018). Choosing important health outcomes for comparative effectiveness research: 4th annual update to a systematic review of core outcome sets for research. PloS one, 13(12), e0209869.
...
12
Capstone Project
Olivia Timmons
Department of Nursing. St. Johns River State College
NUR 4949: Nursing Capstone
Dr. C. Z. Velasco
November 14, 2021
Capstone Project
There is a saying that states one can only learn through doing it, practically and physically. It is the explanation as to why it is very important to implement the skills acquired in theory into practice to ascertain one’s competence. This is even more crucial in the medical field as they have no choice but just to be perfect at what they are doing, the only secret is through practice. Practicums connect the two worlds of theory and classwork, thus breaking the monotony alongside connecting what was taught in class with what happens in the field. They are important as apart from sharpening the student’s skills, they also open a window of opportunity and build up connections that will come in handy for the student later on. They will feel the experience and the pressure that comes with it thus preparing themselves accordingly.
Statement of the Problem
Timing is essential in the nursing field and the Emergency Room is notorious for its long wait times. The goal of a clinical laboratory is to deliver medically useful results for patients on a timely basis. This goal can be hindered by the new paradigm of the modern laboratory – “do more with less" (Lopez, 2020). When implementing new care models for patients, the patient perspective is critical. The objective of this study was to describe and develop an understanding of the information needs of patients in the ED waiting room concerning ED wait time notification (Calder, 2021). As a patient arrives at the ER waiting area, it's critical to have lab results for the provider to evaluate. I can give you an example of a patient that waited in the waiting room for over 3 hours, no labs were completed because they were waiting for the patient to go back into a room. The patient was suffering from a heart attack and his troponins were elevated and no one knew until 3 hours later. If POC labs were done on all patients as soon as they arrived, mistakes like these can be avoided. Completed POC blood can cut the wait times in half and the laboratory also won't be backed up on resulting lab specimens.
PICOT Question
Question: Is there a significant decrease in Emergency Department patient length of stay (LOS) for those whose blood was analyzed using POC testing versus those whose blood was analyzed using laboratory testing?
· P-Population= emergency room patients
· I-Intervention or Exposure= POC testing of blood specimens
· C-Comparison= Laboratory blood specimens
· O-Outcome= Decrease patient stay in the emergency room
· T-Time = N/A
History of the Issue
The length of patient stay in the emergency department (ED) is an issue that not only increases the severity of illnesses but also reduces the quality of patient care. Serious health conditions including diabetes and hypertension can worsen while patients are ...
12
First Name Last Name
Plaza College
MGT1003 Section 8 – Supervisory Management
Professor Aicha Cesar
Spring 2022
1. Do you believe that Joe Trosh has the right to carry a concealed weapon in the hospitaldue to being harassed for visiting casinos?
Part IA: The Purpose of the Report and the Problem
The purpose of the report is to solve the problem of whether or not Joe Trosh has the right to carry a concealed weapon in the hospital as a reason for self-defense against discrimination and harassment from the staff of a rural hospital in Oklahoma. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, harassment is a form of employment that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Age Discrimination Employment Act of 1967, and Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ("Equal Employment Opportunity Commission," n.d.).
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission outlined that “harassment’’ based on race/color discrimination means unwelcome conduct that is based on color, religious background, sex, national origin, older age, disability, or genetic information that is based on medical history ("U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission," n.d.).
Hirsch (2018) stated that the impact of discrimination on racism often creates challenges that the human resource manager is responsible for overcoming. In a workplace, racism is evident through macroaggression, defined as indirect, subtle, and unintentional acts of discrimination against marginalized groups.
Harassment based on stereotypes can affect an organization’s decision-making process in many ways, such as making a quick judgment without looking at the consequences. It also makes people feel preconceptions about a specific group of people leading to harsh treatment.in addition, harassment of stereotypes leads to fixed beliefs about the place of women and men in society.
Managers need to know about the Second Amendment right to bear arms and U.S. Supreme Court Cases that examine this issue because it will protect the hospital from legal matters ("Cornell Law School," n.d.). The District of Columbia v. Heller case in which the supreme court held in 2008 on the second Amendment regarding firearm possession. It gives one the right to possess firearms, independent of service in state militia use the guns for self-defense.
A potential legal issue the Supervisor must consider is how to handle discipline decisions that involve employees who have experienced discrimination through harassment by co-workers. According to the Oklahoma Self-Defense Act, it is “not right for a person to identify themselves as a licensed handgun or as lawfully in possession of any other firemen if the law does not demand information."
Part 1B The Research Experience
To perform my research, I began with online research. I used Google and searched for articles rights of carrying weapons to work as a form of self-defense and discrimination and harassment in the place of work.
I have foun ...
12Epic EMR ImplementationComment by Author 2 Need a AnastaciaShadelb
1
2
Epic EMR Implementation
Comment by Author 2: Need a running head. Ex:
RUNING HEAD: Implementation of EMR
Implementation of Electronic Medical Records (EMR) Comment by Author 2: Your topic is very broad. You should have a unique identification of basically what you are trying to investigate with your research. Basically, you need to try to funnel it. For instance, The impact of the EMR on ...... Comment by Author 2: Also, the title doesn't tell the story of your research. Basically, the reader should be attracted to your topic just by reading the title. That is why is very broad and doesn't present an attractive meaning. Comment by Author 2: Example: The Implementation of EMR: Tjhe Role of Data in ... Comment by Author 2: Or, Barriers to Implementing the EMR in ....
HCIN 699-51 – B-2021/Summer
Applied Project in Healthcare Informatic
Dr. Chaza Abdul and Dr. Glenn Mitchell
Prepared by:
Name: Bolade Yusuf
Student ID: 273092
Harrisburg University
08/18/21
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Background to research problem 3
1.1.1 Electronic Medical Records (EMR) 3
1.1.2 Patient’s Data 4
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Objectives 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Significance of the Research 5
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Features of an Effective EMR 6
2.3 Barriers to adoption of EMR 8
2.4 Addressing EMR adoption barriers 9
2.5 Related Work 11
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12
3.0 Introduction 12
3.1 Research Philosophy 12
3.2 Research design 12
3.3 Study Population Sample 13
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure 13
3.5 Data Collection 14
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 15
4.1 Data Analysis 15
4.2 Findings 15
4.3 Benefits of epic EMR 16
Conclusion 17
References 18
Appendix 1: Survey Questionnaire 20
Appendix 2:Survey Questions Response Analysis 21
INTRODUCTION1.1 Background to research problem
Health care is critical in any society. Managing patient’s data goes a long way in ensuring good treatment measures are taken. Health care information therefore must be collected correctly and stored in a manner which abides by the principled of confidentiality, integrity and accessibility (Kaushal et al., 2009). Data regarding a patient should be kept confidential as much as possible and only retrieved when needed. A good health records management system should be able to confidentially store patient’s data. Each patient should have an account within the system where their data is stored. Access to this data should be given on privileges basis and only to individuals who will use it for treatment of the patient. The patient’s data in a good health information management system should be of high integrity. Data should be collected from the source (the patient) and recorded during the collection process. Having an intermediary stage where data is recorded in in a secondary avenue before being transferred to the primary system could lead to errors thus compromising its integrity. A good health information management system should also ...
12Facebook WebsiteAdriana C. HernandezRasmussen UnAnastaciaShadelb
1
2
Facebook Website
Adriana C. Hernandez
Rasmussen University
COURSE#: MA242/BSC2087C
Jenessa Gerling
05/01/2022
Thesis Statement: Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Facebook has emerged as one of the 21st century's largest companies, with a consumer base of people who understand the word internet.
Title of Paper: Facebook Website
I. Introduction
A. Attention grabbing sentence about topic
Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Skyrocketing revenues' simplified version of the term perception is a way of perceiving or viewing things and refers to how the brain knows how things are or processes things (Mosquera et al.,2020).
B. Thesis statement
Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Facebook has emerged as one of the 21st century's largest companies, with a consumer base of people who understand the word internet.
II. First paragraph main point – topic sentence
The case in this study involves deciphering the website perception elements and related responses to the same crucial points as follows:
A. Supporting details (in-text citation for outside resource used as support/evidence)
1. Details about the supporting details
Sensory response refers to the way we respond to specific website visual elements. The website contains both a design pattern and a logo which most individuals worldwide are aware of today.
2. Details about the supporting details
The image of the logo is a letter f-like. The most dominant colour in the ad on Facebook is blue and white shades used to design and highlight the tangible symbol.
B. Supporting details (in-text citation)
There are also lines and shapes in the logo, and as mentioned, the logo lines include lines and a square box forming a bold character, 'f' and highlighting the Facebook company name (Plantin et al.,2018). Contrast and balance are also incorporated. There is contrast present and light colours in the image that easily distinguish the Facebook symbol from other symbols such as WhatsApp and YouTube. The balance is indicated in the proper depiction of the 'F' symbol, highlighting everything around the same.
C. Transition sentence
On the other hand, perceptual response refers to the number of groups of persons attracted to the ad and those not attracted.
III. Second paragraph main point – topic sentence
Though perceptual response targets a potential user base involving many people from any age group, ethnicity, or age, it is more dominant among the youth, in my view.
A. Supporting details (in-text citation)
The aged have no more time in the Facebook like the youth who are in desire remain informed and have interest in sharing their feelings and information through the platform (Plantin et al.,2018).
1. Details about the supporting details
The technical response involves specific elements, including buttons and dropdowns worldwide, which technically impact the user.
2. Details about the supporting details
T ...
1
2
Experience
During my clinical placement in a neurosurgical unit, we would occasionalJy exa mine epilepsy
patients to document any seizures. These patients rarely require substantial nursing care, and
most are self-sufficient with only 1-2 prescriptions administered every six hours. I was working
an early shift, and my buddy nurse assigned me to three patients, one of whom was under
examination for a seizure. My buddy nurse handed me the drawer keys and indicated the
medication was in the side drawer when I went with my nurse to provide the patient medication.
Looking over the initial purchase, I began my safety check prior to dispensing the prescription
and discovered that it had expired in February 2019. I requested that my preceptor come over
and take a look at the package. She realized the medication was out of date when she noticed the
expiration date. She then went out of the room with the packaging. When she returned, she
indicated that she had reported the event to the NUM. I then inquired if there was anything else
we needed to do, but I was respectfully told to stay out of it. I took a set of vitals on the patient,
which were all normal, and the buddy nurse was given a new pack of medication that was still
usable. I felt accomplished at the end of my shift since I had followed the procedure for providing
the correct medication and had identified the problem. Being a part. of event reporting and alerting
the doctors, on the other hand, would have been a great experience. Overall, I followed NSHQS's
safety requirements and medication standards when performing my nursing responsibilities.
h
...
1
2
Dissertation Topic Approval
Dissertation Topic Approval
Topic
How can the fourth industrial revolution technologies be used to address the current climatic issues facing the world?
General Reasoning
I selected this research topic because climatic change has become a major concern today, with world leaders and researchers trying to develop ways to address this concern. There are several adverse impacts of climatic change on the world. One of the adverse effects is that humans and animals face new challenges for their survival due to the consequences of climatic change. Climatic change has resulted in increased temperature levels in the world, rising sea levels, shrinking glaciers, and increased ocean temperatures. It has resulted in frequent and intense droughts, storms, and heat waves threatening animals' lives. It has also resulted in biodiversity loss due to limited adaptability and the economic implications of these climatic changes. One of the ways that can be used to deal with climatic issues is through the use of technology which can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The fourth revolution technologies such as the internet of things, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing can play a vital role in addressing these climatic challenges.
Potential thesis
The fourth industrial revolution technologies such as the internet of things, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing can play a vital role in addressing these climatic challenges; therefore, it is important to determine how these technologies can be utilized to achieve the environmental objectives of the world.
Thesis map for your Literature Review
The literature review will consist of articles that have been published over the five years. It will consist of journals and articles that have researched fourth industrial revolutions that can be used to address climatic change.
The research topic I selected for my dissertation is related to the program goals and core courses by addressing the revolution of technology and its applications in addressing the world's challenges.
...
12Essay TitleThesis Statement I. This is the topicAnastaciaShadelb
The document outlines the structure for a Rogerian argument essay on school uniforms. It provides instructions for introducing opposing viewpoints in three paragraphs, then addressing the proponents' viewpoints in three more paragraphs. It instructs to then write a paragraph presenting a compromise viewpoint. Each main point should have an introductory topic sentence, a quote or paraphrase with citation, commentary, and transitional statement. The outline concludes by stating the conclusion paragraph should reiterate the compromise and benefits of accepting it.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
1. 1
3
Financial Plan
Michelle A. Cannon
ECO101
Professor Smith
February 19, 2021
1. Saving goal and Timeframe
Saving goal that has been identified is $5000 annually for eight
years to reach $40,000 down payment for buying the house.
Eight years is the selected timeframe because it is deemed
appropriate and sustainable considering annual income
($50,000) and amount saved annually. Additionally, it is
logical to make savings for 8 years to buy a house because this
is a long-term personal investment which would increase my
value and net worth.
2. Considerations for Choosing Housing Option
There are four factors that I did put into consideration when
selecting a housing option for renting a room for $9,000 per
year. First, the time frame for the saving goal was put into
2. consideration. When all housing options were analyzed, renting
a room for $9,000 was cheaper providing the money needed to
finance saving for 8 years which if other options were
considered, a set time frame could not be attained because less
money would be saved each month. Second, the familial
situation is another factor that was considered where the
dependency rate was high from others and a slight mistake to go
for higher housing option, would make desired financial goal
remain a dream. Third, the desire to have improved quality of
life is the driving force that caused me to consider renting a
room for $9,000. This created an opportunity to have adequate
finances to commit to saving to enable meet to buy a house, one
asset that I need to have improved quality of life in the future
especially at old age. Finally, trade-off decisions is another
factor that caused me to choose to rent a room for $9000 instead
of a house and apartment for $15,000 and $12,000 respectively.
For example, I choose to live in a cheaper housing option to
enable me to secure enough savings needed to meet desired
financial goal.
3. Consideration for non-rent expenditures
Non-rent expenditures are selected based on their necessity and
allocated adequate finances to ensure that no shortfall is
experienced to interfere with the saving plan. For example, food
is a basic necessity allocated 16%, transportation 17%,
healthcare 11% and family care 7% of total income. These non-
rent expenditures are given adequate allocation which helps to
ensure they are sustained throughout the year with no
interruption to established saving goals. Finally, expenditures
selected are aligned with selected financial goals because
allocations are made in such a way that ensure annual saving are
met and, also all expenditures are essential to minimize
wastages which could result to failure to meet desired saving
goal.
4. Reflection on Productive Strategies
To a higher degree, I followed the plan that I thought through
3. earlier in the instructions provided in the assignment. I
considered it important because I was able to determine the
main items that matter most in the financial plan and which if
not carefully considered could mess up with my entire financial
plan. In the preparation of the financial plan, step-by-step
played a crucial role because it created an opportunity to
establish and review items that should be considered in the
preparation of an effective and complete financial plan. Further,
an organized approach in the preparation of a financial plan
significantly helps to identify areas that need improvement and
adjustment in the quest to come up with a refined and realistic
financial plan. Finally, an approach that is deployed in
preparation of financial considers time utility, affordability,
longevity, earning increment capability, planning and step-wise
productive strategies. This helps to ensure that the prepared
financial plan is attainable and seeks to increase my value.
1977, 10, 349-367
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION'
TREVOR F. STOKES AND DONALD M. BAER
THE UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA AND THE UNIVERSITY
OF KANSAS
Traditionally, discrimination has been understood as an active
process, and a technology
of its procedures has been developed and practiced extensively.
Generalization, by con-
trast, has been considered the natural result of failing to
practice a discrimination
technology adequately, and thus has remained a passive concept
almost devoid of a
4. technology. But, generalization is equally deserving of an active
conceptualization and
technology. This review summarizes the structure of the
generalization literature and
its implicit embryonic technology, categorizing studies designed
to assess or program
generalization according to nine general headings: Trai n and
Hope; Sequential Modifi-
cation; Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contingencies; Train
Sufficient Exemplars;
Train Loosely; Use Indiscriminable Contingencies; Program
Common Stimuli; Mediate
Generalization; and Train "To Generalize".
DESCRIPTORS: generalization, treatment-gain durability,
followup measures, main-
tenance, postcheck methodology
Traditionally, many theorists have considered
generalization to be a passive phenomenon. Gen-
eralization was not seen as an operant response
that could be programmed, but as a description
of a "natural" outcome of any behavior-change
process. That is, a teaching operation repeated
over time and trials inevitably involves varying
samples of stimuli, rather than the same set
every time; in the same way, it inevitably evokes
and reinforces varying samples of behavior,
rather than the same set every time. As a conse-
quence, it is predictable that newly taught re-
sponses would be controlled not only by the
stimuli of the teaching program, but by others
somewhat resembling those stimuli (Skinner,
1953, p. 107ff.). Similarly, responses resembling
those established directly, yet not themselves ac-
tually touched by the teaching procedures, would
5. appear as a result of the teaching (Keller and
'Preparation of this paper was supported in part by
PHS Training Grant 00183, Program Project Grant
HD 00870, and Research Grant MH 11739. Reprints
may be obtained either from T. F. Stokes, Department
of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2, or D. M. Baer, Depart-
ment of Human Development, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66045.
Schoenfeld, 1950, p. 168ff.). Thus, generaliza-
tion was something that happened, not some-
thing produced by procedures specific to it.
If generalization seemed absent or insignifi-
cant, it was simply to be assumed that the teach-
ing process had managed to maintain unusually
tight control of the stimuli and responses in-
volved, allowing little sampling of their varie-
ties. This assumption was strongly supported by
the well-known techniques of discrimination: by
differential reinforcement (in general, by any
differential teaching) of certain stimuli relative
to others, and/or certain responses relative to
others, generalization could be programmatically
restricted and diminished to a very small range.
Thus, it was discrimination that was understood
as an active process, and a technology of its pro-
cedures was developed and practiced extensively.
But generalization was considered the natural
result of failing to practice discrimination's tech-
nology adequately, and thus remained a passive
concept almost devoid of a technology. Never-
theless, in educational practice, and in the devel-
opment of theories aimed at serving both practice
6. and a better understanding of human function-
ing, generalization is equally as important as dis-
349
NUMBER 2 (SUMMER) 1977JOURNAL OF APPLIED
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
crimination, and equally deserving of an active
conceptualization.
Generalization has been and doubtless will
remain a fundamental concern of applied behav-
ior analysis. A therapeutic behavioral change,
to be effective, often (not always) must occur
over time, persons, and settings, and the effects
of the change sometimes should spread to a
variety of related behaviors. Even though the
literature shows many instances of generaliza-
tion, it is still frequently observed that when a
change in behavior has been accomplished
through experimental contingencies, then that
change is manifest where and when those contin-
gencies operate, and is often seen in only transi-
tory forms in other places and at other times.
The frequent need for generalization of thera-
peutic behavior change is widely accepted, but it
is not always realized that generalization does
not automatically occur simply because a behav-
ior change is accomplished. Thus, the need ac-
tively to program generalization, rather than
7. passively to expect it as an outcome of certain
training procedures, is a point requiring both
emphasis and effective techniques (Baer, Wolf,
and Risley, 1968). That such exhortations have
often been made has not always ensured that
researchers in the field have taken serious note
of and, therefore, proceeded to analyze ade-
quately the generalization issues of vital concern
to their programs. The emphasis, refinement, and
elaboration of the principles and procedures that
are meant to explain and produce generalization
when it does not occur "naturally" is an impor-
tant area of unfinished business for applied be-
havior analysis.
The notion of generalization developed here
is an essentially pragmatic one; it does not
closely follow the traditional conceptualizations
(Keller and Schoenfeld, 1950; Skinner, 1953).
In many ways, this discussion will sidestep much
of the controversy concerning terminology. Gen-
eralization will be considered to be the occur-
rence of relevant behavior under different, non-
training conditions (i.e., across subjects, settings,
people, behaviors, and/or time) without the
scheduling of the same events in those conditions
as had been scheduled in the training conditions.
Thus, generalization may be claimed when no
extratraining manipulations are needed for extra-
training changes; or may be claimed when some
extra manipulations are necessary, but their cost
or extent is clearly less than that of the direct
intervention. Generalization will not be claimed
when similar events are necessary for similar ef-
fects across conditions.
8. A technology of generalization programming
is almost a reality, despite the fact that until re-
cently, it had hardly been recognized as a prob-
lem in its own right. Within common teaching
practice, there is an informal germ of a technol-
ogy for generalization. Furthermore, within the
practice of applied behavior analysis (especially
within the past 5 yr or so), there has appeared
a budding area of "generalization-promotion"
techniques. The purpose of this review is to sum-
marize the structure of that generalization litera-
ture and its implicit embryonic technology. Some
270 applied behavior analysis studies relevant to
generalization in that discipline were reviewed.2
A central core of that literature, consisting of
some 120 studies, contributes directly to a tech-
nology of generalization. In general, techniques
designed to assess or to program generalization
can be loosely categorized according to nine
general headings:
1. Train and Hope
2. Sequential Modification
3. Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contin-
gencies
4. Train Sufficient Exemplars
5. Train Loosely
6. Use Indiscriminable Contingencies
7. Program Common Stimuli
2Ninety per cent of the literature reviewed was
from five journals: Behaviour Research and Therapy;
Behavior Therapy; Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-
ysis; Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental
9. Psychiatry; and Journal of Experimental Child Psy-
chology. Seventy-seven per cent of the literature re-
viewed has been published since 1970.
350
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
8. Mediate Generalization
9. Train "To Generalize".
This review characterizes each category, and
describes some examples of research that illus-
trate the generalization analyses or program-
ming involved in each category. Obviously, all
the relevant references cannot be discussed in this
review.3 The nine categories listed above were
induced from the literature; they are not a priori
categories. Consequently, studies do not always
fit neatly into these categories. It should also be
noted that not all studies reviewed were thorough
experimental analyses of generalization. Often
inferences were necessary to categorize the re-
search. However, the following discussion still
may provide a useful organization and concep-
tualization of generalization and its program-
ming.
1. Train and Hope
In applied behavior analysis research, the most
frequent method of examining generalization, so
far, may be labelled Train and Hope. After a
behavior change is effected through manipula-
10. tion of some response consequences, any existent
generalization across responses, settings, experi-
menters, and time, is concurrently and/or sub-
sequently documented or noted, but not actively
pursued. It is usually hoped that some generali-
zation may occur, which will be welcomed yet
not explicitly programmed. These hopeful probes
for stimulus and response generalization char-
acterize almost half of the applied literature on
generalization. The studies have considerable
importance, for they begin to document the ex-
tent and limits of generalization of particular
operant intervention techniques. While not being
3Complete reference lists and detailed tables de-
scribing subjects, procedures, and generalization of
all studies reviewed are deposited with the National
Auxiliary Publications Service (NAPS). For copies,
order NAPS Document #02873. Order from ASIS/
NAPS Co., C/O Microfiche Publications, 305 East
46th Street, New York, New York 10017. Remit
with order for each copy $3.00 for microfiche or
$19.50 for photocopies. Make checks payable to
Microfiche Publications.
examples of the programming of generalization,
they are a sound first step in any serious analysis
of generalization. When generalization is desired,
but is shown to be absent or deficient, program-
ming procedures can then be instituted.
For example, useful generalization across set-
tings was documented by Kifer, Lewis, Green,
and Phillips (1974). In an experimental class-
room setting, parent-child pairs were taught to
negotiate in conflict situations. During simulated
11. role-playing, instructions, practice, and feedback
were used to teach the negotiation behaviors of
fully stating one's position, identifying the issues
of conflict, and suggesting options to resolve the
conflict. The data showed increased use of nego-
tiation behaviors and the reaching of agreements
in actual parent-child conflict situations at home.
An assessment of generalization across experi-
menters was described by Redd and Birnbrauer
(1969), who demonstrated that control over the
cooperative play of retarded children did not
generalize from an adult who dispensed contin-
gent edible reinforcement to five other adults
who had not participated in training.
Studies that are examples of Train and Hope
across time are those in which there was a change
from the intervention procedures, either to a less
intensive but procedurally different program, or
to no program or no specifically defined pro-
gram. Data or anecdotal observations were re-
ported concerning the maintenance of the origi-
nal behavior change over the specified time
intervening between the termination of the
formal program and the postchecks. An example
of a followup evaluation was the study by Azrin,
Sneed, and Foxx (1973). An intensive training
program involving reinforcement of correct toi-
leting and positive practice procedures promptly
decreased bedwetting by 12 retarded persons.
The reduced rate of accidents was maintained
during a three-month followup assessment.
Perhaps there are many more studies in the
Train and Hope category than would have been
12. expected (about 135, of which 65 % are across
Time). However, despite its obvious value, this
research is frequently characterized by a lack of
351
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
comprehensiveness and depth of the generaliza-
tion analysis. Even though generalized behavior
change was frequently reported, extensive, wide-
ranging, and practical generalization was not
often noted or even sought. The continued de-
velopment of behavior analysis almost surely
will demand more extensive collection of gener-
alization data than is presently the fashion. The
extent and limits of applied behavioral interven-
tions may be well documented and understood if
measurement is extended over longer periods of
time, over more than one circumscribed part of
the day, with more than one related response,
and with more than a restricted part of the social
and physical environment. It is as important for
the field to formalize the conditions of the non-
occurrence of generalization as it is to document
the conditions associated with the display of un-
programmed generalization.
Most of the Train-and-Hope research described
successful generalization-approximately 90%
of Train-and-Hope studies. By definition, there
was no further need to program generalization
in those studies where generalization had been
exhibited within the Train-and-Hope para-
13. digm-presuming, of course, that the generali-
zation exhibited was considered sufficient to meet
the therapeutic goals of the various modification
programs (not necessarily a valid presumption
in the Train-and-Hope research). This prepon-
derance of positive data may simply reflect the
tendency of some researchers not to report their
generalization data if measurement procedures
were instituted to probe for any generalized be-
havior changes, but generalization was shown to
be absent. Some researchers may view nongen-
eralization as reflecting a deficiency or ineffective-
ness of their procedures to develop a desirable
generalized performance. Behavior analysts,
nevertheless, should encourage their fellow re-
searchers to document and to analyze experimen-
tally their apparent failures, rather than allowing
them to slide into oblivion. A detailed and sys-
tematic understanding of generalization and its
programming could result. Alternatively, re-
searchers might view their generalization base-
lines as being essentially independent of the mod-
ified baseline; thus, to report nongeneralization
would serve no useful purpose, for its nonoccur-
rence would be expected. Again, any such docu-
mentation contributes to our understanding of
the extent and limits of generalization, as well as
serving as an indication of the frequent necessity
of generalization-programming techniques.
There is another reason for the predominance
of positive results in this section: if nongeneral-
ization was clearly evident, and the modification
of this state was important, then a form of lim-
ited programming was frequently instituted. Ex-
14. amples of this research will be discussed in the
next category, "Sequential Modification".
2. Sequential Modification
These studies exemplify a more systematic
approach to generalization than the Train-and-
Hope research. Again, a particular behavior
change is effected, and generalization is assessed.
But then, if generalization is absent or deficient,
procedures are initiated to accomplish the desired
changes by systematic sequential modification in
every nongeneralized condition, i.e., across re-
sponses, subjects, settings, or experimenters. The
possibility of unprogrammed generalization typi-
cally was not examined in these sequential modi-
fication studies, because after the initial demon-
stration of nongeneralization, all other baselines
were exhausted. That is, after changes had been
produced directly in all baselines, generalization
to nonrecorded responses, subjects, settings, and
experimenters may have occurred, but could not
be examined.
For example, Meichenbaum, Bowers, and Ross
(1968) reported an absence of generalization of
behavior changes from an afternoon intervention
period to the morning period in a classroom for
institutionalized female adolescent offenders.
Money dispensed contingent on on-task behav-
iors effected desired behavior changes during the
afternoon, but generalization to the morning
period required that the same manipulations be
applied there as well (sequential modification
across settings). Similarly, generalization across
15. 352
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
settings of the disruptive and oppositional behav-
ior of two children was investigated by Wahler
(1969). He demonstrated control of these behav-
iors in the home by using differential attention
and timeout operations. When generalization to
the children's school behavior was not evidenced,
similar contingency operations were employed to
accomplish changes in that setting as well.
The category of Sequential Modification char-
acterizes much of the actual practice of many
behavior analysts. Sequential modification is
merely a systematized experimental procedure
that formalizes and allows evaluation of these
typical therapeutic endeavors. The tactic of
scheduling behavior-change programs in every
condition to which generalization is desired is
frequently employed. The rationale for these
procedures is as follows. If a desired generaliza-
tion is not likely to be exhibited after changing a
behavior in a particular condition, or a number
of conditions, e.g., settings, then the researcher or
practitioner works to effect changes across con-
ditions as a matter of course, rather than as an
outcome of the display or nondisplay of general-
ization. Thus, a behavior analyst is likely to ad-
vise the scheduling of consequences in every
relevant condition in preference to the dispens-
ing of consequences in only one or a few condi-
tions, while hoping for generalizatio n, but likely
16. not seeing it.
3. Introduce to Natural Maintaining
Contingencies
Perhaps the most dependable of all general-
ization programming mechanisms is one that
hardly deserves the name: the transfer of behav-
ioral control from the teacher-experimenter to
stable, natural contingencies that can be trusted
to operate in the environment to which the sub-
ject will return, or already occupies. To a con-
siderable extent, this goal is accomplished by
choosing behaviors to teach that normally will
meet maintaining reinforcement after the teach-
ing (Ayllon and Azrin, 1968).
Baer and Wolf (1970) reported a study by
Ingram that illustrated the mechanism of "trap-
ping", where a preschool child was taught an
entry response that exposed the child to the
natural contingencies of peers in the preschool
environment. Preschool teachers modified the
low rate of skillful interaction of the child by
priming others to interact with the subject and
reinforcing appropriate interactions. The data
showed that over time the teachers lost control
of the interaction behavior, which remained
high; it was assumed that the group's natural
consequences for interaction had taken control
of the subject's behavior. Thus, to program gen-
eralization, the child perhaps needed only to be
introduced adequately to the natural reinforcers
inherent in active preschool play and interaction.
Some early analyses of preschool children's be-
17. havior have stressed that if the child can be so
introduced (through the operation of differential
attention from teachers) to a reinforcing pre-
school natural environment, then the behaviors
eventually do not need to be maintained by con-
tinued contrived modification of the environ-
ment. For example, Hall and Broden (1967)
modified the manipulative play, climbing, and
social interaction of three subjects through social
reinforcement operations. Behavior changes were
shown to be durable and successful followup
data at three months were described.
Buell, Stoddard, Harris, and Baer (1968) dem-
onstrated the collateral development of appro-
priate social behavior (e.g., touching, verbalizing,
and playing with other children) accompanying
the reinforcement of increased use of outdoor
play equipment by a 3-yr-old girl. This entry re-
sponse to the natural reinforcement community
was tactically sound because the child's motor
behavior was modified in a setting where the
resulting behavior would tend automatically to
increase social contact with other children, and
this natural social environment could maintain
the child's new skills, but indeed may also be
expected to sharpen and refine them, and add
entirely new ones as well.
Most of the research concerning natural main-
taining contingencies has involved children, per-
haps because such techniques seem particularly
353
18. TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
suitable, especially to their social behavior. Re-
search would profit by determining what natural
reinforcement communities exist for various be-
haviors and subjects, and what economical means
may be employed to ensure entry to these behav-
ioral traps.
Unfortunately, in some instances there may be
no natural reinforcement operating to develop
and maintain skills. For example, in the case of
retarded and institutionalized persons whose de-
pendency has become a stable fact in the lives of
their caretakers, some re-arrangement of the
natural environment may be necessary. A few
studies have introduced subjects to semicontrived
or redesigned "natural" reinforcement communi-
ties. A simple but meaningful example was pro-
vided by Horner (1971), who taught a 5-yr-old
institutionalized retarded boy to walk on crutches
in an experimental setting. The child was then
prompted to generalize the new walking skill
to other settings and activities to which he previ-
ously had been taken in a wheelchair by solici-
tous caretakers, by enlisting those caretakers to
refrain from offering this help. Within 15 days
after treatment was concluded, the child walked
on crutches to all those activities and settings,
eventually extending his ambulation skills to any
part of his world. Stolz and Wolf (1969) trained
a 16-yr-old, "blind" retarded male to discriminate
visual stimuli. Then, the environment was so
structured that assistance was not given in situa-
tions where it had previously been given as a
19. matter of course. When the boy was required to
use visual cues to help himself in a cafeteria line,
he soon emitted the necessary behaviors. How-
ever, these studies did not establish the function-
ality of their procedures in the maintenance of
behavior changes.
Another significant example was provided by
Seymour and Stokes (1976). In their study, insti-
tutionalized delinquent girls were taught to so-
licit reinforcement (cf. Graubard, Rosenberg,
and Miller, 1971) from their natural community,
the staff of their residential institution. In their
case, the staff had rarely displayed any systematic
attempts at reinforcing desirable behavior shown
by the girls, perhaps on the presumption that the
girls were "bad" and not reinforcible in any case.
However, the experimenters were able to teach
the girls that when their work was objectively
good, and when staff persons were nearby, a
simple skill of calling these adults' attention to
their good work would result in fairly consistent
reinforcement. Thus, this was a case in which
experimental reinforcement was used to develop
a response in the subjects that would tap and
cultivate the available but dormant natural com-
munity. In theory, this new skill should have
obviated the need for further experimental re-
inforcement, for the praise evoked should have
functioned to maintain both the girls' work and
cueing, and the cueing, in turn, should have func-
tioned to maintain staff praise. The Seymour and
Stokes' study could not be continued long enough
to establish whether this would happen, and so
it remains a logically appealing but still unex-
20. plored method of enhancing generalization:
teaching the subject a means of recruiting a nat-
ural community of reinforcement to maintain
that generalization. Perhaps an even greater ad-
vantage of such procedures is a change in the
locus of control: the subjects can become more
prominent agents of their own behavior change,
rather than being hapless pawns of more-or-less
random environmental contingencies.
Restructuring the environment thus becomes a
target of research aimed at extending the gener-
alization of newly taught skills; even though, at
a technical level, this operation may not be con-
sidered generalization, but rather transfer of
control from one reinforcement contingency to
another. In any event, it is a much neglected
topic of experimental research, although widely
recognized as a desirable, and even essential
characteristic of any rehabilitative effort.
Some natural contingencies are inevitably at
work contributing to the maintenance of inap-
propriate behavior. For example, peer-group
control of inappropriate behavior has often been
suspected and sometimes documented (Buehler,
Patterson, and Furniss, 1966; Gelfand, Gelfand,
and Dobson, 1967; Solomon and Wahler, 1973).
354
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
It would seem reasonable, then, that if the pat-
21. tern of reinforcement of inappropriate behavior
is modified, the observed outcome may errone-
ously, but happily be attributed to generalization.
For example, Bolstad and Johnson (1972) pre-
sented data that showed that both experimental
and control subjects in the same classroom were
all affected (although not to the same extent) by
experimental manipulation of the reinforcement
contingency for the experimental subjects,
whereas control subjects in a different classroom
were not so affected. The authors presented data
that may account for these differences. The con-
trol subjects in the experimental classroom, who
were also disruptive students, had fewer disrup-
tive interactions with the experimental subjects
during the treatment phases than during base-
line. This possible generalization effect may be
due to the disruption of the natural contingencies
operating in that environment. That is, other
disruptive students previously supported some of
the disruptive behavior of the control subjects,
but during treatment these experimental subjects
did not support the disruptive behavior of their
peers and, thus, a "generalized" decrease in dis-
ruptive behavior by the control subjects resulted.
4. Train Sufficient Exemplars
If the result of teaching one exemplar of a
generalizable lesson is merely the mastery of the
exemplar taught, with no generalization beyond
it, then the obvious route to generalization is to
teach another exemplar of the same generaliza-
tion lesson, and then another, and then another,
and so on until the induction is formed (i.e., until
generalization occurs sufficiently to satisfy the
22. problem posed). Examples of such programming
techniques will be described in this category of
training sufficient exemplars, perhaps one of the
most valuable areas of programming. Certainly
it is the generalization-programming area most
prominent and extensive in the present literature.
In the research discussed previously under
the categories of Train and Hope and Sequen-
tial Modification, the typical analysis of gener-
alization concerned the measurement of gener-
alization to only a few (and often only one)
extraexperimental responses, subjects, settings,
experimenters, or times. When the absence of
generalization was noted, sometimes it was ac-
complished by further direct intervention in
every nongeneralized condition (i.e., Sequential
Modification). Having completed such modifica-
tions, the possibility of more extensive general-
ized effects (i.e., beyond the two or three modified
baselines) was not examined. In the training of
sufficient exemplars, generalization to untrained
stimulus conditions and to untrained responses
is programmed by the training of sufficient ex-
emplars (rather than all) of these stimulus con-
ditions or responses.
A systematic demonstration of programmed
generalization and measurement of generalized
effects beyond intervention conditions was re-
ported by Stokes, Baer, and Jackson (1974). They
established that training and maintenance of re-
tarded childrens' greeting responses by one ex-
perimenter was not usually sufficient for the
generalization of the response across experi-
23. menters. However, high levels of generalization
to over 20 members of the institution staff (and
newcomers as well) who had not participated
in the training of the response were recorded,
after a second experimenter trained and main-
tained the response in conjunction with the first
experimenter. Thus, when generalization did not
prevail after the training of one stimulus exem-
plar, it was programmed by training a greater
diversity of stimulus (trainer) conditions. Simi-
larly, Garcia (1974) taught a conversational
speech form to two retarded children, and, upon
discovering a lack of stable generalization across
experimenters after one training input, pro-
grammed generalization across experimenters by
having a second experimenter teach the same
responses.
A sufficient-stimulus-exemplars demonstration
of programmed generalization across settings has
been described by Allen (1973). Allen modified
the bizarre verbalizations of an 8-yr-old boy by
differential attention procedures. Ignoring bi-
zarre verbalizations and praise for appropriate
355
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
interaction reduced bizarre verbalizations during
evening camp activities. However, there was no
generalization to three other camp settings. After
additional training in a second setting, some
generalization to the unmanipulated settings was
24. noted. This generalization was further enhanced
by intervention in the third setting. Unfortu-
nately, the experimental procedures did not allow
sufficient time to document the full extent of
generalization after training in two settings, but
generalization after training in two settings was
clearly evident. Griffiths and Craighead (1972)
similarly programmed generalization across set-
tings. A 30-yr-old retarded woman received
praise and tokens for correct articulation in
speech therapy. Generalization to a residential
cottage was not observed until the same proce-
dures were instituted there. Following training
in these two stimulus exemplars, generalization
to a third nontraining setting (a classroom) was
observed.
Very little research concerned with generaliza-
tion programming has dealt with the training of
sufficient stimulus exemplars. The infrequent
research that has been published is characterized
largely by programming across experimenters.
This work has been promising, for after a modest
number of training inputs, generalization appar-
ently will occur with persons not involved in
training-unquestionably a valuable and inex-
pensive outcome. However, the present implica-
tion of these studies is limited because of the
restricted nature of the type of subjects and
responses analyzed. Further work is also needed
to give direction to the optimal conditions
whereby the most extensive generalization will
be achieved with a minimal training expendi-
ture. Nevertheless, it is optimistic to note how
frequently a sufficient number of exemplars is
a small number of exemplars. Frequently, it is
25. no more than two. In particular, there may well
be reason to suspect that the use of two trainers
will yield excellent results in terms of generaliza-
tion. This possibility, obviously an economical
one, certainly merits systematic study of its po-
tential and limits.
Although very little research has been re-
ported, the analysis of generalization program-
ming by training in a number of settings is a
virtually untapped area of far-reaching value.
However, consistent optimism should follow ex-
amination of the studies showing generalization
after training in only a few settings. Unfortu-
nately, behavior analysts seem too often satisfied
with the modification of a single, well-defined
behavior in one setting, e.g., a laboratory pre-
school. Discriminated programs are often accept-
able, and sometimes even desirable. When gener-
alization is a valid concern, but researchers and
practitioners do not act as if this were so, the
discriminated behavior of researchers is most
probably inhibitory to the development of an
effective generalization technology.
Over the past 10 yr, there has developed an
extensive literature discussing the programmed
generalization of responses through the training
of sufficient response exemplars. A response class
has been operationally defined to describe the
fact that some responses are organized such that
operations applied to a subset of responses in the
class affect the other members of that class in the
same manner. For example, Baer, Peterson, and
Sherman (1967) reinforced various motor imita-
tions by retarded children. They found that as
26. long as reinforcement followed some imitative
responses, other imitations continued to be per-
formed without training or reinforcement.
A topographical analysis of generalized imita-
tion has been made by Garcia, Baer, and Fire-
stone ( 1971). Four retarded children were trained
to imitate three different topographical types of
response: small motor, large motor, and short
vocal. These subjects were also probed for their
imitation of other unreinforced responses: short
motor, long motor, short vocal, and long vocal.
Generalized imitation was observed with each
subject, but this generalization reflected the par-
ticular dimensions of the topographical response
currently being trained or having previously re-
ceived training. Thus, generalization may occur
within well-defined classes and may not gener-
alize to other classes unless some special training
356
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
(generalization programming) occurs within that
class as well. These data depict one possible limi -
tation of the generality of generalized imitation,
as well as pointing to the need to train response
exemplars that will adequately reflect the di-
versity of the generalization being programmed.
Children's grammatical development has been
another prominent area of research dealing with
generalized behavior. The concept of response
27. class is again pivotal in these studies, which
conceptualize the rules of morphological gram-
mar as equivalent to response class phenomena.
For example, Guess, Sailor, Rutherford, and
Baer (1968) developed the generative correct
use of plurals by a retarded girl. After teaching
a number of exemplars of the correct plural
response, the girl appropriately labelled new
objects in the singular or plural without further
direct training relevant to those objects. Plural
usage had become a generalized response class;
the morphological rule had been established.
Schumaker and Sherman (1970) rewarded three
retarded children for the correct production of
past- and present-tense forms of verbs. As past-
and present-tense forms of verbs within an in-
flectional class were modified, there occurred a
generalized usage of untrained verbs to similar
tense forms.
There has been considerable research to estab-
lish the importance of the training of sufficient
response exemplars. A survey of these (approxi-
mately 60) studies shows that the number of
exemplars found to be "sufficient" for a desirable
level and durability of generalization varies
widely, probably determined primarily by the
nature of the task and the subject's prior skills
relevant to it. Most of this research was con-
cerned with the development of motor and vocal
imitations, and the beginning development of
grammar and syntax. The development of ques-
tion-asking and instruction-following is also well
represented.
In conclusion, examination of the sufficient
28. exemplar research points to a significant (and
long-familiar) generalization-programming pro-
cedure: a number of stimulus and/or response
exemplars should undergo training. That is, to
program the generalized performance of certain
responses across various setting conditions or
persons, training should occur across a (suffi-
cient) number of setting conditions and/or with
various persons. In a similar manner, generaliza-
tion across responses can be programmed reliably
by the training of a number of responses. Diver-
sity of exemplars seems to be the rule to follow
in pursuit of the maximum generalization. Suffi-
cient diversity to reflect the dimensions of the
desired generalization is a useful tactic. However,
diversity may also be our greatest enemy: too
much diversity of exemplars and not enough
(sufficient) exemplars of similar responses may
make potential gains disproportional to the in-
vestment of training effort. The optimal combi-
nation of sufficient exemplars and sufficient di-
versity to yield the most valuable generalization
is critically in need of analysis. Is the best pro-
cedure to train many exemplars with little diver-
sity at the outset, and then expand the diversity
to include dimensions of the desired generaliza-
tion? Or is it a more productive endeavor to
train fewer exemplars that represent a greater
diversity, and persist in the training until gen-
eralization emerges'?
5. Train Loosely
One relatively simple technique can be con-
ceptualized as merely the negation of discrimi-
29. nation technique. That is, teaching is conducted
with relatively little control over the stimuli
presented and the correct responses allowed, so
as to maximize sampling of relevant dimensions
for transfer to other situations and other forms
of the behavior. A formal example of this most
often informal technique was provided by
Schroeder and Baer (1972), who taught vocal
imitation skills to retarded children in both of
two ways, one emphasizing tight restriction of
the vocal skills being learned at the moment
(serial training of vocal imitations), and the
other allowing much greater range of stimuli
within the current problem (concurrent training
357
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
of imitations). The latter method was charac-
terized repeatedly by greater generalization to
as-yet-untaught vocal imitation problems, thus
affirming "loose" teaching techniques as a con-
tributor to wider generalization.
It will be appreciated that the literature of the
field contains very few examples of this type.
Researchers always have attempted to maintain
thorough control and careful restriction and
standardization of their teaching procedures,
primarily to allow easy subsequent interpretation
of the nature of their (successful) teaching tech-
niques. Yet the import of this technique is that
careful management of teaching techniques to a
30. precisely repetitive handful of stimuli or formats
may, in fact, correspondingly restrict generaliza-
tion of the lessons being learned. The ultimate
force of this recommendation remains to be seen.
What seems required is programmatic research
aimed at assessing the generalization character-
istics of lessons taught under careful, restricted
conditions, relative to similar lessons taught
under looser, more variable conditions.
6. Use Indiscriminable Contingencies
Intermittent schedules of reinforcement have
been shown repeatedly to be particularly resistant
to extinction, relative to continuous schedules
(Ferster and Skinner, 1957). Resistance to extinc-
tion may be regarded as a form of generaliza-
tion-generalization across time subsequent to
learning. The essential feature of intermittent
schedules may be their unpredictability-the
impossibility of discriminating reinforcement oc-
casions from nonreinforcement occasions until
after the fact. Thus, if contingencies of reinforce-
ment or punishment, or the setting events that
mark the presence or absence of those contingen-
cies, are made indiscriminable, then generaliza-
tion may well be observed.
In generalization, behavior occurs in settings in
which it will not be reinforced, just as it does in
settings in which it will be reinforced. Then, the
analogue to an intermittent schedule, extended
to settings, is a condition in which the subject
cannot discriminate in which settings a response
will be reinforced or not reinforced. A potential
31. approximation to such a condition was presented
in a study by Schwarz and Hawkins (1970).
In that experiment, the behavior of a sixth-grade
child was videotaped during math and spelling
classes. Later, after each school day had ended,
the child was shown the tape of the math class
and awarded reinforcers according to how often
good posture, absence of face-touching, and ap-
propriate voice-loudness were evident on that
tape. Although reinforcers were awarded only
on the basis of behaviors displayed during the
math class, desirable improvements were ob-
served during the spelling class as well. In that
reinforcement was delayed, this technique must
have made it difficult for the child to discriminate
in which class the behaviors were critical for
earning reinforcement. In other words, the gen-
eralized success of the study may well be at-
tributable to the partly indiscriminable nature
of the reinforcement contingency.
In general, it may be suspected that delayed
reinforcement often will have the advantage of
making the times and places in which the con-
tingency actually operates indiscriminable to the
subject. However, this advantage is an advantage,
by hypothesis, primarily for the goal of general-
ization. Otherwise, delayed reinforcement would
often be considered an inefficient technique, most
especially so for the initial development of a new
skill. Indeed, it may be exactly in the realm of
disadvantaged persons such as retarded children
that the usual inefficiency of delayed reinforce-
ment may seem the most severe handicap to its
use. However, its potential for fostering general-
ization suggests strongly that further research be
32. invested in this procedure (and any others that
make reinforcement contingencies properly in-
discriminable), to develop methods of applying
it perhaps only after the initial development of a
new skill, in the interests of promoting gen-
eralization.
Less than a dozen studies of generalization
interpretable as cases of indiscriminable rein-
forcement contingencies can be found in the
358
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
literature. Kazdin (1973), for example, showed
that teacher attention to one retarded child was
responded to by another child as if it were rein-
forcement for on-task behavior. Indeed, the
onlooker reacted with increased on-task behavior,
even when the teacher attended to the target
child's off-task behavior. Possibly, prior experi-
ence with reinforcement contingent on the peers'
on-task behavior was sufficient to make all future
praise (contingent or not) discriminative for on-
task behavior. In other words, with sufficient
prior experience, the onlooker may have stopped
observing the contingency in which the rein-
forcement operated and responded only to the
reinforcing stimulus' presence, making the con-
tingency functionally indiscriminable.
Generalization across subjects has similarly
been reported by Broden, Bruce, Mitchell, Carter,
33. and Hall (1970) in a classroom of culturally
disadvantaged children. When positive teacher
attention was given for one child's attention to
academic work, the attending of a peer also in-
creased. This generalization was also a probable
function of the cueing properties of teacher rein-
forcement. However, the generalization observed
may also have been due to the manipulation of
natural social consequences received by the non-
target child through peer attention, or may have
been caused by a slight increase in the amount
of teacher attention to the nontarget child. These
effects deserve further systematic evaluation be-
cause of their relevance to the classroom prac-
tices of many teachers who strive to instruct
effectively but are unable to devote extensive
time to individual children.
Pendergrass (1972) showed that timeout could
be employed to decrease the destructive behavior
of two retarded children. With one subject, de-
creased rates were also observed with another
response (self-biting) which was sometimes
chained to the destructive behavior, but not
itself subjected to contingent timeout. However,
with the second subject, generalization to a sec-
ond response (autistic jerking movement) was
not observed. Analysis of the data revealed that
the two behaviors occurred simultaneously more
frequently with the subject with whom general-
ization was evidenced. Thus, with this subject,
punishment of the generalization response oc-
curred more frequently when destructive behav-
ior was punished. Unfortunately, it was not
determined how often the self-biting occurred
34. at times not simultaneous with the destructive
behavior. Therefore, the schedule of punishment
for self-biting was not established, i.e., whether
biting occurred only when destructive behavior
occurred and, therefore, always met the timeout
contingency. In this example (which was not
intended to be a careful analysis of the indis-
criminable reinforcement concept), not only was
the reinforcement contingency somewhat diffi-
cult to discriminate, but the two behaviors (de-
structive and self-destructive responses) also may
well have been only somewhat differentiated by
the subject.
Thus, preventing the ready discrimination of
contingencies is a generalization-programming
technique worthy of application and research.
Perhaps a random or haphazard delivery of re-
inforcement will (if luck or good judgement
prevails) function to modify targetted behavior
as well as behavior occurring in proximal time
or space. Even noncontingent reinforcement,
delivered at the outset of an intervention pro-
gram, may retard initial effects, but may work
to later advantage in generalization outcomes.
Finally, Kazdin and Polster (1973) showed
once again the usefulness of intermittent sched-
ules to delay subsequent extinction, relative to
continuous schedules of reinforcement. Social
interaction by two retardates was reinforced with
tokens. After establishing social interaction, one
subject received continuous reinforcement and
the other, intermittent reinforcement. During
extinction, only the subject who received inter-
mittent reinforcement continued to interact so-
35. cially with peers. However, these results may
simply reflect different extinction rates by two
subjects. The research was essentially a group
study where N 1. Adequate single-subject ex-
perimental control was lacking. Therefore, repli-
cation of these procedures would be desirable.
359
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
7. Program Common Stimuli
The passive approach to generalization de-
scribed earlier need not be a completely imprac-
tical one. If it is supposed that generalization
will occur, if only there are sufficient stimulus
components occurring in common in both the
training and generalization settings, then a rea-
sonably practical technique is to guarantee that
common and salient stimuli will be present in
both. One predictor of the salience of a stimulus
to be chosen for this role is its already established
function for other important behaviors of the
subject.
Children's peers may represent peculiarly
suitable candidates for a stimulus common to
both training and generalization settings. An
example has been provided by Stokes and Baer
(1976). In their study, two children exhibiting
serious learning disabilities were recruited to
learn several word-recognition skills. One child
was taught these skills and concurrently shown
36. how to teach them to the other child, thus acting
as a peer-tutor. It was found that both children
reliably learned the skills, but that neither gen-
eralized them reliably or stably to somewhat dif-
ferent settings in which the other child usually
was absent. However, when the peer-tutor was
brought into those settings, then each child simi-
larly showed greatly increased and stabilized
generalization, even though there were never
any consequences for generalization. Similar
demonstrations have been provided by Johnston
and Johnston (1972) for the skill of speech
articulation. In that study, peers were rewarded
for correct monitoring of the subjects' articula-
tion. Generalization of correct articulation oc-
curred only when the "monitoring" peer was
present. Unfortunately, it was not determined
clearly whether generalization was evidenced be-
cause of the discriminative properties of the
peers' presence in both settings, or whether the
peers actively continued their monitoring in the
generalization setting.
Rincover and Koegel (1975) have also incor-
porated functional training stimuli into the gen-
eralization setting. Autistic children were re-
warded for imitation and instruction-following
in a training setting. Four of their 10 subjects
then did not exhibit generalization to a different
setting. Therefore, to program for this general-
ization, various aspects of the training procedures
(e.g., hand movement by therapist) or physical
training environment (e.g., table and chairs)
were systematically introduced to the generaliza-
tion setting to control generalization. Making
37. the experimental setting more closely resemble
the regular classroom (generalization setting)
was the programming procedure employed by
Koegel and Rincover (1974). They decreased
the teacher-to-student ratio in the experimental
setting from 1-to-i to 1-to-8. After these special
programming conditions were instituted, there
was increased performance on previously learned
and new behaviors learned in the classroom.
Walker and Buckley (1972) programmed gener-
alization of the effects of remedial training of
social and academic classroom behavior by estab-
lishing common stimuli between the experimen-
tal remedial classroom and the childrens' regular
classroom by using the same academic materials
in both classrooms.
The literature of this field shows only a hand-
ful of studies deliberately making use of a com-
mon stimulus in both training and generalization
settings. Obviously, this is a technological dimen-
sion urgently in need of thorough development.
The use of peers as the common stimulus has
much to recommend it as a practical and natural
technique. To what extent peers need to partici-
pate in the training setting has not yet been
determined, although the absence of generaliza-
tion sometimes shown when peers are present
in nontraining settings, suggests that peers not
involved in a training setting will not likely
acquire sufficient discriminative function to con-
trol generalized responding. The use of common
physical stimuli is in even greater need of sys-
tematic research. A common stimulus approach
to generalization would encourage the incorpora-
tion into training settings of (naturally occur-
38. ring) physical stimuli that are frequently promi-
360
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
nent or functional in nontraining environments.
If these stimuli are well chosen, and can be made
functional and salient in the training procedures,
then generalization may thereby be programmed.
8. Mediate Generalization
Mediated generalization is well known as a
theoretical mechanism explaining generalization
of highly symbolic learnings (Cofer and Foley,
1942). In essence, it requires establishing a re-
sponse as part of the new learning that is likely
to be utilized in other problems as well, and will
constitute sufficient commonality between the
original learning and the new problem to result
in generalization. The most commonly used
mediator is language, apparently. However, the
deliberate application of language to accomplish
generalization is rare in the literature reviewed,
and correspondingly little is known about what
aspects of a language response make for best
mediation.
A sophisticated analysis of mediated general-
ization was conducted by Risley and Hart ( 1968),
who taught preschool children to report at the
end of play on their play-material choices. Men-
tion of a given choice was reinforced with snacks,
39. which produced increased mentioning of that
choice, but no change in the children's actual
use of that play-material. When reinforcement
was restricted to true reports of play-material
choices, however, the children then changed their
play behavior (the next day) so that when
queried about that play, they could truthfully
report on their use of the specified play material
and earn reinforcement. Control over any choice
of play materials proved possible with this tech-
nique, which placed teaching contingencies not
on the play, but on a potential mediator (verbal
report) of that play behavior. That the reports
were only potential mediators was apparent in
the early stages of the study, when the children
readily reported (untruly) their use of play ma-
terials with no corresponding actual behavior
with those materials; at that stage, they earned
reinforcement even so. When the reinforcement
was restricted to true reports, the reports then
became mediators of play behavior. The lesson
generalized, such that after several sequential
experiences with these procedures, the children
then used reports about play as mediators, even
without reinforcement being restricted to only
true reports. Israel and O'Leary (1973) used
essentially the same paradigm to compare the
effects of having children report first what they
would play with later, in contrast to having them
report after play what they had done (the Risley
and Hart method); they found that reinforcing
postreports (when they were true) produced more
actual behavior (the next day) than reinforcing
the actual behavior when it agreed with the
earlier promise to perform it. This technique has
40. been extended subsequently to the case of social
skills, specifically sharing and praising between
young children (Rogers-Warren and Baer, 1976).
In that case, modelling was added, such that the
young children would have a thorough chance
to learn the nature of the relatively complex
responses at issue.
Obviously, verbal mediation can easily fail,
most especially in those situations in which the
verbal mediators have little meaning (i.e., tightly
restricted discriminative value) for the subjects.
It is commonplace to find children agreeing to a
query (e.g., about whether they praised or shared)
without any knowledge of what that must entail
in actual behavior. In the case of retarded chil-
dren, it might be particularly true that the ability
to use verbal responses as mediators would lag
behind that of normal children using the same
language responses. It may be reasonable to
suggest that in the development of language-
training programs, systematic attention be given
to the training of language skills sufficiently well
elaborated to function as mediators of nonverbal
behavior. Language is a response, of course; it is
also, equally obviously, a stimulus to the speaker
as well as to the listener. Thus, it meets perfectly
the logic of a salient common stimulus, to be
carried from any training setting to any general-
ization setting that the child may ever enter.
It also perfectly exemplifies the essence of the
361
41. TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
active generalization approach recommended
earlier.
The mediation of generalization is also exem-
plified in the behavior analysis research of self-
control and self-management procedures. That
is, self-control procedures such as self-recording,
taught as part of an intervention program, may
function to promote generalization: such tech-
niques are easy to transport and may be em-
ployed readily to facilitate responding under
generalization conditions. Some research that has
employed any or all of the various tactics of self-
assessment, self-recording, self-determination of
reinforcement, and/or self-administration of re-
inforcement (Glynn, Thomas, and Shee, 1973),
has also displayed maintenance and generaliza-
tion of behavior change; however, the correla-
tion is not perfect.
Broden, Hall, and Mitts (1971) reported that
after an eighth-grade girl experienced self-
recording of study behavior and teacher praise
for improved study, her study behavior main-
tained at a high level for a recorded three weeks.
Although the individual effects of the self-record-
ing and praise were not determined, it is possible
that the self-recording procedures contributed
significantly to this generalization.
Drabman, Spitalnik, and O'Leary (1973)
taught disruptive children to match their teach-
er's evaluations of their appropriate classroom
behavior. Tokens were dispensed for appropriate
42. classroom behavior and accurate matching. Dis-
ruptive classroom behavior decreased and was
maintained at low levels during a 12-day phase
when tokens were not dispensed for self-record-
ing accuracy. Generalized behavior improvement
was also evident during a 15-min no-token
period within the experimental hour. These
changes were possibly a function of the close
temporal proximity of the token periods, which
frequently immediately preceded or followed
the generalization period.
The role of self-control procedures in medi-
ating generalization has often been proposed.
Research would do well to examine the contri-
bution of self-control tactics in generalization
and maintenance, especially when formal inter-
vention manipulations have ceased to operate.
The effects of accompanying procedures should
be experimentally separated from self-control
effects, and the role of each of the various self-
control tactics (Glynn et al., 1973) should be
individually analyzed. The potential of self-
mediated generalization is apparent, but its im-
plications and practical utility still remain to be
assessed.
9. Train "To Generalize"
If generalization is considered as a response
itself, then a reinforcement contingency may be
placed on it, the same as with any other operant.
Informally, teachers often do this when they urge
a student who has been taught one example of
a general principle to "see" another example
43. as "the same thing". (In principle, they are also
attempting to make use of language as a medi-
ator of generalization, relying on the supposed
characteristics of words like "same" to accom-
plish the generalization.) Common observation
suggests that the method often fails, and that
when it does succeed, little extrinsic reinforce-
ment is offered as a consequence. A more formal
example of the technique was seen in a study
by Goetz and Baer (1973), in which three pre-
school children were taught to generalize the
response of making block forms (in blockbuild-
ing play). Descriptive social reinforcement was
offered only for every different form the child
made, i.e., contingent on every first appearance
of any blockbuilding form within a session, but
not for any subsequent appearances of that form.
Thus, the child was rewarded for moving along
the generalization gradient underlying block-
form inventions, and never for staying at any
one point. In general, the technique succeeded, in
that the children steadily invented new block
forms while this contingency was in use. Thus,
there exists the possibility of programming rein-
forcement specifically, perhaps only, for move-
ment along the generalization gradient desired.
In largely unspecified ways, perhaps two other
studies exemplify this logic. Herbert and Baer
362
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
44. (1972), for example, taught two mothers of
deviant children to give social reinforcement
only to their children's appropriate behaviors,
but taught the mothers from the outset to judge
all behavior according to criteria they helped
to develop, rather than attack only a few speci-
fied child responses. These mothers learned a
generalized skill because they applied correct
social contingencies to categories that included
virtually all appropriate child behavior likely to
occur. Behavior changes were maintained at 20
and 24 weeks after completion of formal train-
ing. Similarly, Parsonson, Baer, and Baer (1974)
taught two teachers of retarded children to apply
generalized correct social contingencies to all
likely appropriate and inappropriate behaviors
of preschool retarded children. These effects were
also durable over several months. Apparently
generalized changes were produced in these stud-
ies by Herbert and Baer and Parsonson et al.,
but the extent and quality of that generalization
was not quantified as such.
Very few studies of this type are found in the
literature of applied behavior analysis, probably
because of the preference of behaviorists to con-
sider generalization as an outcome of behavioral
change, rather than as a behavior itself. Ulti-
mately, this behavioristic stance may well prove
durable and consistent. Meanwhile, it is worth
hypothesizing that "to generalize" may be treated
as if it were an operant response, and reinforced
as such, simply to see what useful results occur.
Consequently, one other technique deserves
discussion: the systematic use of instructions to
45. facilitate generalization. Thus, if a behavior is
taught and generalization is not displayed, the
least expensive of all techniques is to tell the
subject about the possibility of generalization
and then ask for it. If that generalization then
occurs, it may well be referred to as "instructed
generalization". If the effects of that instruction
are themselves to become generalized (yielding
a "generalized generalizer"?), then reinforcement
of the generalized behavior, on a suitable sched-
ule, might well be prudent, at least at first. Per-
haps it is simply a very elaborate version of this
technique that is being practiced when a client
is taught to relax in a somewhat anxiety-arousing
situation, and reinforced (socially) for doing so;
and then is instructed to relax in a somewhat
more powerful anxiety-arousing situation, etc.
That is, systematic desensitization to a heirarchy
of stimuli may be analyzed as reinforcing not just
relaxation, but also generalization along an al-
ready constructed generalization gradient (cf.
Yates, 1970, p. 64ff.).
CONCLUSION
The structure of the generalization literature
and its implicit embryonic technology has been
summarized. The most frequent treatments of
generalization are also the least analytical-those
described as Train and Hope and Sequential
Modification. Included in the category of Train
and Hope were those studies where the potential
for generalization had been recognized, its pres-
ence or absence noted, but no particular effort
was expended to accomplish generalization. By
46. contrast, some limited programming was imple-
mented in the Sequential Modification research.
In these studies, given an absence of reliable
generalization, procedures to effect changes were
instituted directly in every nongeneralized condi-
tion. Although contributing significantly to our
understanding of the generalization of behavior-
change programs, these studies are not examples
of the programming of generalization.
Seven categories were discussed that directly
relate to a technology of generalization. First,
the potential role of Natural Maintaining Con-
tingencies was discussed. According to this tactic,
generalization may be programmed by suitable
trapping manipulations, where responses are in-
troduced to natural reinforcement communities
that refine and maintain those skills without
further therapeutic intervention. The Training
of Sufficient Exemplars is numerically the most
extensive area of programming: generalization
to untrained stimulus conditions and to un-
trained responses is programmed by the training
of sufficient exemplars of those stimulus condi-
363
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
tions or responses. Train Loosely is a program-
ming technique in which training is conducted
with relatively little control over the stimuli and
responses involved, and generalization is thereby
enhanced. To invoke the tactic of Indiscrimi-
47. nable Contingencies, the contingencies of re-
inforcement or punishment, or the setting events
marking the presence or absence of those con-
tingencies, are deliberately made less predictable,
so that it becomes difficult to discriminate rein-
forcement occasions from nonreinforcement oc-
casions. Common Stimuli may be employed in
generalization programming by incorporating
into training settings social and physical stimuli
that are salient in generalization settings, and
that can be made to assume functional or obvious
roles in the training setting. Mediated General-
ization requires establishing a response as part
of new learning that is likely to be utilized in
other problems as well, and thus result in gener-
alization. The final technique, Train "To Gener-
alize", involves reinforcing generalization itself
as if it were an explicit behavior. These program-
ming techniques should be researched further
and usefully applied in programs in which gen-
eralization is relevant.
This list of generalized tactics conceals within
itself a much smaller list of specific tactics. These
specific tactics can be presented as a small pic-
ture of the generalization technology in its pres-
ent most pragmatic form, not only to offer a set
of what-to-do possibilities, but also to emphasize
how very small the current technology is and
how much development it requires:
1. Look for a response that enters a natural
community; in particular, teach subjects to
cue their potential natural communities to
reinforce their desirable behaviors.
48. 2. Keep training more exemplars; in particu-
lar, diversify them.
3. Loosen experimental control over the stim-
uli and responses involved in training; in
particular, train different examples concur-
rently, and vary instructions, SDs, social
reinforcers, and backup reinforcers.
4. Make unclear the limits of training contin-
gencies; in particular, conceal, when pos-
sible, the point at which those contingen-
cies stop operating, possibly by delayed
reinforcement.
5. Use stimuli that are likely to be found in
generalization settings in training settings
as well; in particular, use peers as tutors.
6. Reinforce accurate self-reports of desirable
behavior; apply self-recording and self-
reinforcement techniques whenever possi-
ble.
7. When generalizations occur, reinforce at
least some of them at least sometimes, as
if "to generalize" were an operant response
class.
There are many examples of generalization
and nongeneralization of behavior changes. The
fact that apparently unprogrammed generaliza-
tion has been demonstrated (particularly across
time) is valuable. It heralds a practicality de-
sirable in any technology of behavior: that every
one of a subjects' responses, in every setting,
49. with every experimenter, and at every conceiv-
able time does not need to meet specific treat-
ment consequences for that program to accom-
plish and maintain important behavior changes.
Alternatively, the fact that generalization is not
always observed and durability is not inevitable
means that there is hope for behavior modifica-
tion: behavior can always be modified and
changes are not necessarily irreversible. That is,
once behavior has been modified, there is still
the possibility of reconditioning if changes are
undesirable or inappropriate, or if new inappro-
priate behaviors develop. If both appropriate
and inappropriate behavior changes were to per-
sist and prove irreversible, it would presage the
demise of any technology of behavioral inter-
vention. This occurrence of nongeneralization
also underlines the need to develop a technology
of generalization, so that programming will be
a fundamental component of any procedures
when durability and generalization of behavior
changes are desirable.
364
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION 365
A most important question is prompted by an
examination of the previous research: does gen-
eralization ever occur without programming?
In the above research, generalization was not al-
ways evident. In fact, the highly discriminated
effects of some operant programs were some-
times documented. We have seen that the behav-
50. ior analysis literature describes various programs
that have shown that generalization may be pro-
moted or programmed by particular intervention
techniques. It seems reasonable to suggest, then,
that many of the successful Train-and-Hope
examples cited above may be undiagnosed in-
stances of informal or inadvertent programming
techniques, rather than an absence of program-
ming techniques. It cannot be discounted, and is
indeed possible, that these generalization exam-
ples may simply depict successful programmed
generalization, and neither the authors of those
papers, nor the present authors have recognized
or hypothesized the programming technique.
Perhaps the most pragmatic orientation for
behavior analysts is to assume that generalization
does not occur except through some form of pro-
gramming. Thus, the best course of action seems
to be that of systematic measurement and analy-
sis of variables that may have been functional in
any apparently unprogrammed generalization.
These analyses should be included as part of all
research where "unprogrammed" generalized be-
havior changes are evidenced, for discriminated
behavior changes may well be the rule if gen-
eralization is not specifically programmed. Such
analyses, if successful, will contribute to a tech-
nology of generalization by further developing
the understanding of critical variables that func-
tion to produce generalization, and would further
emphasize the need always to be concerned not
only with generalization issues, but with the vari-
ous techniques that accomplish generalization.
In other words, behavioral research and prac-
51. tice should act as if there were no such animal
as "free" generalization-as if generalization
never occurs "naturally", but always requires
programming. Then, "programmed generaliza-
tion" is essentially a redundant term, and snould
be descriptive only of the active regard of re-
searchers and practitioners.
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Received 22 December 1975.
(Final acceptance 3 June 1976.)
1977, 10, 349-367
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION'
TREVOR F. STOKES AND DONALD M. BAER
THE UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA AND THE UNIVERSITY
OF KANSAS
Traditionally, discrimination has been understood as an active
process, and a technology
of its procedures has been developed and practiced extensively.
Generalization, by con-
trast, has been considered the natural result of failing to
59. practice a discrimination
technology adequately, and thus has remained a passive concept
almost devoid of a
technology. But, generalization is equally deserving of an active
conceptualization and
technology. This review summarizes the structure of the
generalization literature and
its implicit embryonic technology, categorizing studies designed
to assess or program
generalization according to nine general headings: Train and
Hope; Sequential Modifi-
cation; Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contingencies; Train
Sufficient Exemplars;
Train Loosely; Use Indiscriminable Contingencies; Program
Common Stimuli; Mediate
Generalization; and Train "To Generalize".
DESCRIPTORS: generalization, treatment-gain durability,
followup measures, main-
tenance, postcheck methodology
Traditionally, many theorists have considered
generalization to be a passive phenomenon. Gen-
eralization was not seen as an operant response
that could be programmed, but as a description
of a "natural" outcome of any behavior-change
process. That is, a teaching operation repeated
over time and trials inevitably involves varying
samples of stimuli, rather than the same set
every time; in the same way, it inevitably evokes
and reinforces varying samples of behavior,
rather than the same set every time. As a conse-
quence, it is predictable that newly taught re-
sponses would be controlled not only by the
stimuli of the teaching program, but by others
somewhat resembling those stimuli (Skinner,
60. 1953, p. 107ff.). Similarly, responses resembling
those established directly, yet not themselves ac-
tually touched by the teaching procedures, would
appear as a result of the teaching (Keller and
'Preparation of this paper was supported in part by
PHS Training Grant 00183, Program Project Grant
HD 00870, and Research Grant MH 11739. Reprints
may be obtained either from T. F. Stokes, Department
of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2, or D. M. Baer, Depart-
ment of Human Development, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66045.
Schoenfeld, 1950, p. 168ff.). Thus, generaliza-
tion was something that happened, not some-
thing produced by procedures specific to it.
If generalization seemed absent or insignifi-
cant, it was simply to be assumed that the teach-
ing process had managed to maintain unusually
tight control of the stimuli and responses in-
volved, allowing little sampling of their varie-
ties. This assumption was strongly supported by
the well-known techniques of discrimination: by
differential reinforcement (in general, by any
differential teaching) of certain stimuli relative
to others, and/or certain responses relative to
others, generalization could be programmatically
restricted and diminished to a very small range.
Thus, it was discrimination that was understood
as an active process, and a technology of its pro-
cedures was developed and practiced extensively.
But generalization was considered the natural
result of failing to practice discrimination's tech-
nology adequately, and thus remained a passive
61. concept almost devoid of a technology. Never-
theless, in educational practice, and in the devel-
opment of theories aimed at serving both practice
and a better understanding of human function-
ing, generalization is equally as important as dis-
349
NUMBER 2 (SUMMER) 1977JOURNAL OF APPLIED
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
crimination, and equally deserving of an active
conceptualization.
Generalization has been and doubtless will
remain a fundamental concern of applied behav-
ior analysis. A therapeutic behavioral change,
to be effective, often (not always) must occur
over time, persons, and settings, and the effects
of the change sometimes should spread to a
variety of related behaviors. Even though the
literature shows many instances of generaliza-
tion, it is still frequently observed that when a
change in behavior has been accomplished
through experimental contingencies, then that
change is manifest where and when those contin-
gencies operate, and is often seen in only transi-
tory forms in other places and at other times.
The frequent need for generalization of thera-
peutic behavior change is widely accepted, but it
is not always realized that generalization does
62. not automatically occur simply because a behav-
ior change is accomplished. Thus, the need ac-
tively to program generalization, rather than
passively to expect it as an outcome of certain
training procedures, is a point requiring both
emphasis and effective techniques (Baer, Wolf,
and Risley, 1968). That such exhortations have
often been made has not always ensured that
researchers in the field have taken serious note
of and, therefore, proceeded to analyze ade-
quately the generalization issues of vital concern
to their programs. The emphasis, refinement, and
elaboration of the principles and procedures that
are meant to explain and produce generalization
when it does not occur "naturally" is an impor-
tant area of unfinished business for applied be-
havior analysis.
The notion of generalization developed here
is an essentially pragmatic one; it does not
closely follow the traditional conceptualizations
(Keller and Schoenfeld, 1950; Skinner, 1953).
In many ways, this discussion will sidestep much
of the controversy concerning terminology. Gen-
eralization will be considered to be the occur-
rence of relevant behavior under different, non-
training conditions (i.e., across subjects, settings,
people, behaviors, and/or time) without the
scheduling of the same events in those conditions
as had been scheduled in the training conditions.
Thus, generalization may be claimed when no
extratraining manipulations are needed for extra-
training changes; or may be claimed when some
extra manipulations are necessary, but their cost
or extent is clearly less than that of the direct
63. intervention. Generalization will not be claimed
when similar events are necessary for similar ef-
fects across conditions.
A technology of generalization programming
is almost a reality, despite the fact that until re-
cently, it had hardly been recognized as a prob-
lem in its own right. Within common teaching
practice, there is an informal germ of a technol-
ogy for generalization. Furthermore, within the
practice of applied behavior analysis (especially
within the past 5 yr or so), there has appeared
a budding area of "generalization-promotion"
techniques. The purpose of this review is to sum-
marize the structure of that generalization litera-
ture and its implicit embryonic technology. Some
270 applied behavior analysis studies relevant to
generalization in that discipline were reviewed.2
A central core of that literature, consisting of
some 120 studies, contributes directly to a tech-
nology of generalization. In general, techniques
designed to assess or to program generalization
can be loosely categorized according to nine
general headings:
1. Train and Hope
2. Sequential Modification
3. Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contin-
gencies
4. Train Sufficient Exemplars
5. Train Loosely
6. Use Indiscriminable Contingencies
7. Program Common Stimuli
2Ninety per cent of the literature reviewed was
64. from five journals: Behaviour Research and Therapy;
Behavior Therapy; Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-
ysis; Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental
Psychiatry; and Journal of Experimental Child Psy-
chology. Seventy-seven per cent of the literature re-
viewed has been published since 1970.
350
AN IMPLICIT TECHNOLOGY OF GENERALIZATION
8. Mediate Generalization
9. Train "To Generalize".
This review characterizes each category, and
describes some examples of research that illus-
trate the generalization analyses or program-
ming involved in each category. Obviously, all
the relevant references cannot be discussed in this
review.3 The nine categories listed above were
induced from the literature; they are not a priori
categories. Consequently, studies do not always
fit neatly into these categories. It should also be
noted that not all studies reviewed were thorough
experimental analyses of generalization. Often
inferences were necessary to categorize the re-
search. However, the following discussion still
may provide a useful organization and concep-
tualization of generalization and its program-
ming.
1. Train and Hope
In applied behavior analysis research, the most
65. frequent method of examining generalization, so
far, may be labelled Train and Hope. After a
behavior change is effected through manipula-
tion of some response consequences, any existent
generalization across responses, settings, experi-
menters, and time, is concurrently and/or sub-
sequently documented or noted, but not actively
pursued. It is usually hoped that some generali-
zation may occur, which will be welcomed yet
not explicitly programmed. These hopeful probes
for stimulus and response generalization char-
acterize almost half of the applied literature on
generalization. The studies have considerable
importance, for they begin to document the ex-
tent and limits of generalization of particular
operant intervention techniques. While not being
3Complete reference lists and detailed tables de-
scribing subjects, procedures, and generalization of
all studies reviewed are deposited with the National
Auxiliary Publications Service (NAPS). For copies,
order NAPS Document #02873. Order from ASIS/
NAPS Co., C/O Microfiche Publications, 305 East
46th Street, New York, New York 10017. Remit
with order for each copy $3.00 for microfiche or
$19.50 for photocopies. Make checks payable to
Microfiche Publications.
examples of the programming of generalization,
they are a sound first step in any serious analysis
of generalization. When generalization is desired,
but is shown to be absent or deficient, program-
ming procedures can then be instituted.
For example, useful generalization across set-
tings was documented by Kifer, Lewis, Green,
66. and Phillips (1974). In an experimental class-
room setting, parent-child pairs were taught to
negotiate in conflict situations. During simulated
role-playing, instructions, practice, and feedback
were used to teach the negotiation behaviors of
fully stating one's position, identifying the issues
of conflict, and suggesting options to resolve the
conflict. The data showed increased use of nego-
tiation behaviors and the reaching of agreements
in actual parent-child conflict situations at home.
An assessment of generalization across experi-
menters was described by Redd and Birnbrauer
(1969), who demonstrated that control over the
cooperative play of retarded children did not
generalize from an adult who dispensed contin-
gent edible reinforcement to five other adults
who had not participated in training.
Studies that are examples of Train and Hope
across time are those in which there was a change
from the intervention procedures, either to a less
intensive but procedurally different program, or
to no program or no specifically defined pro-
gram. Data or anecdotal observations were re-
ported concerning the maintenance of the origi-
nal behavior change over the specified time
intervening between the termination of the
formal program and the postchecks. An example
of a followup evaluation was the study by Azrin,
Sneed, and Foxx (1973). An intensive training
program involving reinforcement of correct toi-
leting and positive practice procedures promptly
decreased bedwetting by 12 retarded persons.
The reduced rate of accidents was maintained
during a three-month followup assessment.
67. Perhaps there are many more studies in the
Train and Hope category than would have been
expected (about 135, of which 65 % are across
Time). However, despite its obvious value, this
research is frequently characterized by a lack of
351
TREVOR F. STOKES and DONALD M. BAER
comprehensiveness and depth of the generaliza-
tion analysis. Even though generalized behavior
change was frequently reported, extensive, wide-
ranging, and practical generalization was not
often noted or even sought. The continued de-
velopment of behavior analysis almost surely
will demand more extensive collection of gener-
alization data than is presently the fashion. The
extent and limits of applied behavioral interven-
tions may be well documented and understood if
measurement is extended over longer periods of
time, over more than one circumscribed part of
the day, with more than one related response,
and with more than a restricted part of the social
and physical environment. It is as important for
the field to formalize the conditions of the non-
occurrence of generalization as it is to document
the conditions associated with the display of un-
programmed generalization.
Most of the Train-and-Hope research described
successful generalization-approximately 90%
of Train-and-Hope studies. By definition, there
68. was no further need to program generalizatio n
in those studies where generalization had been
exhibited within the Train-and-Hope para-
digm-presuming, of course, that the generali-
zation exhibited was considered sufficient to meet
the therapeutic goals of the various modification
programs (not necessarily a valid presumption
in the Train-and-Hope research). This prepon-
derance of positive data may simply reflect the
tendency of some researchers not to report their
generalization data if measurement procedures
were instituted to probe for any generalized be-
havior changes, but generalization was shown to
be absent. Some researchers may view nongen-
eralization as reflecting a deficiency or ineffective-
ness of their procedures to develop a desirable
generalized performance. Behavior analysts,
nevertheless, should encourage their fellow re-
searchers to document and to analyze experimen-
tally their apparent failures, rather than allowing
them to slide into oblivion. A detailed and sys-
tematic understanding of generalization and its
programming could result. Alternatively, re-
searchers might view their generalization base-
lines as being essentially independent of the mod-
ified baseline; thus, to report nongeneralization
would serve no useful purpose, for its nonoccur-
rence would be expected. Again, any such docu-
mentation contributes to our understanding of
the extent and limits of generalization, as well as
serving as an indication of the frequent necessity
of generalization-programming techniques.
There is another reason for the predominance
of positive results in this section: if nongeneral-
69. ization was clearly evident, and the modification
of this state was important, then a form of lim-
ited programming was frequently instituted. Ex-
amples of this research will be discussed in the
next category, "Sequential Modification".
2. Sequential Modification
These studies exemplify a more systematic
approach to generalization than the Train-and-
Hope research. Again, a particular behavior
change is effected, and generalization is assessed.
But then, if generalization is absent or deficient,
procedures are initiated to accomplish the desired
changes by systematic sequential modification in
every nongeneralized condition, i.e., across re-
sponses, subjects, settings, or experimenters. The
possibility of unprogrammed generalization typi-
cally was not examined in these sequential modi-
fication studies, because after the initial demon-
stration of nongeneralization, all other baselines
were exhausted. That is, after changes had been
produced directly in all baselines, generalization
to nonrecorded responses, subjects, settings, and
experimenters may have occurred, but could not
be examined.
For example, Meichenbaum, Bowers, and Ross
(1968) reported an absence of generalization of
behavior changes from an afternoon intervention
period to the morning period in a classroom for
institutionalized female adolescent offenders.
Money dispensed contingent on on-task behav-
iors effected desired behavior changes during the
afternoon, but generalization to the morning
period required that the same manipulations be