The study examined the vertical and horizontal distribution of roots for soybean and peanut grown with walnut trees in an intercropping system in China. Results showed that over 70% of intercropped soybean roots and over 50% of intercropped peanut roots were located in the top 10 cm of soil. Root length density decreased with increasing depth and proximity to the tree row. While crop roots tended to move deeper farther from trees, their root vertical barycenters remained shallower than sole crops. Greater competition from tree roots near the row constrained intercrop roots higher in the soil profile.
4 ijfaf feb-2018-3-effect of different growth mediaAI Publications
Cordiaafricana(Lam.)is an economically and ecologically important component tree species of the Bamenda Highlands Forest which is under threat from over-exploitation. There is a need to develop high quality planting stock for increased availability and sustainability of the species. A study was carried out at the National Forestry Development Agency (ANAFOR) in Bamenda, North West of Cameroon, to evaluate the effect ofgrowth medium on sprouting and growth of vegetatively propagated C.africana(Lam.). Hardwood cuttings from lower branches of trees were grown in sand, sawdust, and a 1:1 sand: sawdust mixture in a non-mist propagator for three months. Data on percentage sprouting, days to sprouting, number of shoots, shoot height, stem diameter, stem volume, number of leaves, leaf length, leaf width, and leaf area were subjected to analysis of variance(ANOVA) and Scheffé’s multiple means comparison test at 5% level of probability. While sawdust significantly reduced values of all the plant traits, no significant differences were detected between sand and the sand: sawdust mixture. The results show that sand and 1:1 sawdust: sand are suitable alternatives for propagation of C. africana(Lam.)from branch cuttings.
Adaptation Trial of Improved Perennial Grass Varieties/Accessions at the High...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted with an objective of adapting, see the yield, quality and recommend improved perennial grass accessions to the highland of Guji Zone, Ethiopia in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three blocks. Accessions were (Phalaris aquatica Sirossa Phalaris aquatica Sirocco, ILCA 14983, ILCA 14984 and variety X (Holeta local). Broadcasting method for Phalaris and 0.5meter between plant and 1meter between row spacing for Napier grass was applied at planting time each plot measuring 4meter x 6meter. Yield parameters were analyzed using statistical analysis software (SAS) and the means of quality parameters were compared with standards. Accordingly, Napier variety X was significant in survival rate, number of shoot, date of first harvest and harvesting frequency at (P<0.05) and highest in crude protein (CP) content. ILCA 14983 were also significant in survival rate and number of shoot and has highest in vitro dry matter digestibility (DOMD). Phalaris aquatica Sirossa was significant in green forage yield and has highest in vitro dry matter digestibility (DOMD). Generally, considering most parameters, Variety X and ILCA 14983 from Napier grass, Phalaris aquatica Sirossa from Phalaris were selected and recommended to the area and has to be evaluated under farmers’ conditions.
Continuous cover forest management system is gaining popularity to clear-felling and the rotation management system associated. Very few researches have been done to assess this management system. A harvest event was analysed in a Reinhausen forest compartment of 2ha, belonging to the state forest of Göttingen; Göttingen is situated in the state of Lower Saxony in Germany. The harvest has modified the stem number per hectare mostly in bigger class of diameter. The diameter class the most affected was between 14 and 23 cm. The harvest affected 11% of the stem in the stand and was constituted only by Fagussilvatica (7.5%) and Fraxinus excelsior (3.5%) which are the main species of this forest. The thinning removed 15% of the basal area and 16% of the volume of the forest stand. The type of thinning was thinning from above (high thinning). Apart from Fagussilvatica that the average height of trees reduces of 45cm after harvest, there was no difference on average height after harvest for other species. The harvest event has induced changes on the spatial distribution of the forest stand. The impact of this modification on environment has not been analyzed by this study.
4 ijfaf feb-2018-3-effect of different growth mediaAI Publications
Cordiaafricana(Lam.)is an economically and ecologically important component tree species of the Bamenda Highlands Forest which is under threat from over-exploitation. There is a need to develop high quality planting stock for increased availability and sustainability of the species. A study was carried out at the National Forestry Development Agency (ANAFOR) in Bamenda, North West of Cameroon, to evaluate the effect ofgrowth medium on sprouting and growth of vegetatively propagated C.africana(Lam.). Hardwood cuttings from lower branches of trees were grown in sand, sawdust, and a 1:1 sand: sawdust mixture in a non-mist propagator for three months. Data on percentage sprouting, days to sprouting, number of shoots, shoot height, stem diameter, stem volume, number of leaves, leaf length, leaf width, and leaf area were subjected to analysis of variance(ANOVA) and Scheffé’s multiple means comparison test at 5% level of probability. While sawdust significantly reduced values of all the plant traits, no significant differences were detected between sand and the sand: sawdust mixture. The results show that sand and 1:1 sawdust: sand are suitable alternatives for propagation of C. africana(Lam.)from branch cuttings.
Adaptation Trial of Improved Perennial Grass Varieties/Accessions at the High...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted with an objective of adapting, see the yield, quality and recommend improved perennial grass accessions to the highland of Guji Zone, Ethiopia in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three blocks. Accessions were (Phalaris aquatica Sirossa Phalaris aquatica Sirocco, ILCA 14983, ILCA 14984 and variety X (Holeta local). Broadcasting method for Phalaris and 0.5meter between plant and 1meter between row spacing for Napier grass was applied at planting time each plot measuring 4meter x 6meter. Yield parameters were analyzed using statistical analysis software (SAS) and the means of quality parameters were compared with standards. Accordingly, Napier variety X was significant in survival rate, number of shoot, date of first harvest and harvesting frequency at (P<0.05) and highest in crude protein (CP) content. ILCA 14983 were also significant in survival rate and number of shoot and has highest in vitro dry matter digestibility (DOMD). Phalaris aquatica Sirossa was significant in green forage yield and has highest in vitro dry matter digestibility (DOMD). Generally, considering most parameters, Variety X and ILCA 14983 from Napier grass, Phalaris aquatica Sirossa from Phalaris were selected and recommended to the area and has to be evaluated under farmers’ conditions.
Continuous cover forest management system is gaining popularity to clear-felling and the rotation management system associated. Very few researches have been done to assess this management system. A harvest event was analysed in a Reinhausen forest compartment of 2ha, belonging to the state forest of Göttingen; Göttingen is situated in the state of Lower Saxony in Germany. The harvest has modified the stem number per hectare mostly in bigger class of diameter. The diameter class the most affected was between 14 and 23 cm. The harvest affected 11% of the stem in the stand and was constituted only by Fagussilvatica (7.5%) and Fraxinus excelsior (3.5%) which are the main species of this forest. The thinning removed 15% of the basal area and 16% of the volume of the forest stand. The type of thinning was thinning from above (high thinning). Apart from Fagussilvatica that the average height of trees reduces of 45cm after harvest, there was no difference on average height after harvest for other species. The harvest event has induced changes on the spatial distribution of the forest stand. The impact of this modification on environment has not been analyzed by this study.
Selected Physical Properties of Soybean In Relation To Storage DesignIJERA Editor
Bulk density, kernel density, internal friction of Soybean were measured over a moisture content range of 7.4 to
22.22%(wb). First and second order polynomial equations are given which describe the kernel density, bulk
density as well as other properties’ dependence on moisture content. For the grain that was tested, bulk density,
kernel density and specific gravity decreased with moisture content while angle of repose, angle of internal
friction and coefficient of sliding friction increased as moisture content increased. One thousand grain weight
and average diameter increased with moisture content for the crop. Frictional coefficients of the crop was
measured on four structural surface namely: concrete, wood, galvanized sheet metal and mild steel sheet. The
values were maximum for concrete among the four surfaces. The angle of repose was found to be higher than
angle of internal friction in all cases tested. These measurements are necessary in selection of the material and in
determination of pressures and angles of the wall of storage structures.
Natural regeneration of some commercial timber tree species following selecti...Innspub Net
A critical step in sustainable forest management is to ensure the establishment and regeneration of seedlings and sapling of exploitable tree species following logging. Since selective logging is one of the main silvicultural practices in Cameroon, a detailed understanding of regeneration following selective logging is vital. This study evaluated the natural regeneration of some commercial timber species in logged and unlogged forest types in two forest management units (FMU) in the East Region of Cameroon (FMU 10052 and 10025). Two transects of 5000 x 50m each were established in logged and unlogged forest types. Eleven commercial tree species were assessed for fruit fall, the number of seedlings established and the height increment of the established seedlings. Three of these commercial tree species fruited in both forest types. Fruit fall was significantly higher (p≤0.001)in the logged forest (492 fruits/ha)than in the unlogged forest (52 fruits/ha). Comparing species that fruited in both forest types Klainedoxa gabonensis recorded the highest number of fruit fall(84 fruits/ha) and least (0.24 fruits/ha) in the logged and unlogged forest types respectively. Seedling establishment was significantly higher (p≤0.001) in the unlogged forest (404 seedlings/ha) than in the logged forest (72 seedlings /ha). Seedling performance was better in the unlogged forest compared to the logged forest (low mortality rate). Due to the low seedling establishment and performance of these species in the logged forest, seed trees should be marked and protected prior and after logging as prescribed in the sustainable forest management.
Structural diversity and nutrient recycling potentials of three selected agro...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Homegardens in Kerala mimic forest ecosystems on account of the tree components included and are agroforestry systems that integrate different agricultural crops and enterprises as per the needs and interests of the farm family. Analysis of the structural diversity and nutrient recycling potentials of three agroforestry homegardens in southern Kerala revealed multi-tier cropping patterns with cropping intensities ranging from 177.18 to 187.04%. Two of the homegardens included livestock components adding to the nutritional security of the family. Diversity indices were in the order 0.92, 1.53 and 0.86. The quantum of litter fall varied with the tree canopies and species, amounting to 473.6, 425.37 and 345.11 kg adding 7.02, 7.517 and 5.165 kg NPK annually in the three homegardens. Maximum nutrient additions were recorded for nitrogen and potassium and least for phosphorus.
Estimation of genetic parameters and selection of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L...Innspub Net
The purpose of this study was to obtain information about genetic parameters of agronomic characters of sorghum lines developed by Single Seed Descent as information for yield improvement through selection. The research was conducted from July to October 2014 in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia with an altitude of ± 240 m above sea level and a temperature of 27°C. The genetic materials used consisted of 201 RILs F5, and Numbu, Samurai-1, and Samurai-2 (national varieties), and a mutant B69 as check varieties. The experimental design used was augmented design. The results showed that the RILs F5 significantly different in the characters of seed filling period, plant height, leaf number, panicle length, circumference panicle, panicle weight, and grain weight panicle-1. High broad sense heritability values and broad genetic diversity were observed in the character of the seed filling period, plant height, leaf number, panicle length, circumference panicle, panicle weight and grain weight panicle-1. There were RILs F5 which have higher yield than the two parents and are uniform with lower within line variance. Selection was conducted based on grain weight panicle-1 increased 35.3% yield, but at the same time increased plant height by 5%. Simultaneous selection by grain weight panicle-1 and plant height increased yield by 21% and reduced plant height by -6.9%. This gives the opportunity to obtain shorter high yielding varieties.
Landscape restoration. By ICRAF-J Cornelius, L Duguma, A Widayati & Jianchu XuWorld Agroforestry (ICRAF)
The restoration agenda is not about tree-counting or “blanket reforestation”. It is about recuperating ecosystem functions needed to support specific desired land-use objectives or trajectories, the end-point of which may or may not be “nature restored”. Tree planting, nurturing, and facilitation of natural regeneration —AGROFORESTRY—have central roles to play, because of the ES associated so closely with trees and forests
Selected Physical Properties of Soybean In Relation To Storage DesignIJERA Editor
Bulk density, kernel density, internal friction of Soybean were measured over a moisture content range of 7.4 to
22.22%(wb). First and second order polynomial equations are given which describe the kernel density, bulk
density as well as other properties’ dependence on moisture content. For the grain that was tested, bulk density,
kernel density and specific gravity decreased with moisture content while angle of repose, angle of internal
friction and coefficient of sliding friction increased as moisture content increased. One thousand grain weight
and average diameter increased with moisture content for the crop. Frictional coefficients of the crop was
measured on four structural surface namely: concrete, wood, galvanized sheet metal and mild steel sheet. The
values were maximum for concrete among the four surfaces. The angle of repose was found to be higher than
angle of internal friction in all cases tested. These measurements are necessary in selection of the material and in
determination of pressures and angles of the wall of storage structures.
Natural regeneration of some commercial timber tree species following selecti...Innspub Net
A critical step in sustainable forest management is to ensure the establishment and regeneration of seedlings and sapling of exploitable tree species following logging. Since selective logging is one of the main silvicultural practices in Cameroon, a detailed understanding of regeneration following selective logging is vital. This study evaluated the natural regeneration of some commercial timber species in logged and unlogged forest types in two forest management units (FMU) in the East Region of Cameroon (FMU 10052 and 10025). Two transects of 5000 x 50m each were established in logged and unlogged forest types. Eleven commercial tree species were assessed for fruit fall, the number of seedlings established and the height increment of the established seedlings. Three of these commercial tree species fruited in both forest types. Fruit fall was significantly higher (p≤0.001)in the logged forest (492 fruits/ha)than in the unlogged forest (52 fruits/ha). Comparing species that fruited in both forest types Klainedoxa gabonensis recorded the highest number of fruit fall(84 fruits/ha) and least (0.24 fruits/ha) in the logged and unlogged forest types respectively. Seedling establishment was significantly higher (p≤0.001) in the unlogged forest (404 seedlings/ha) than in the logged forest (72 seedlings /ha). Seedling performance was better in the unlogged forest compared to the logged forest (low mortality rate). Due to the low seedling establishment and performance of these species in the logged forest, seed trees should be marked and protected prior and after logging as prescribed in the sustainable forest management.
Structural diversity and nutrient recycling potentials of three selected agro...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Homegardens in Kerala mimic forest ecosystems on account of the tree components included and are agroforestry systems that integrate different agricultural crops and enterprises as per the needs and interests of the farm family. Analysis of the structural diversity and nutrient recycling potentials of three agroforestry homegardens in southern Kerala revealed multi-tier cropping patterns with cropping intensities ranging from 177.18 to 187.04%. Two of the homegardens included livestock components adding to the nutritional security of the family. Diversity indices were in the order 0.92, 1.53 and 0.86. The quantum of litter fall varied with the tree canopies and species, amounting to 473.6, 425.37 and 345.11 kg adding 7.02, 7.517 and 5.165 kg NPK annually in the three homegardens. Maximum nutrient additions were recorded for nitrogen and potassium and least for phosphorus.
Estimation of genetic parameters and selection of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L...Innspub Net
The purpose of this study was to obtain information about genetic parameters of agronomic characters of sorghum lines developed by Single Seed Descent as information for yield improvement through selection. The research was conducted from July to October 2014 in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia with an altitude of ± 240 m above sea level and a temperature of 27°C. The genetic materials used consisted of 201 RILs F5, and Numbu, Samurai-1, and Samurai-2 (national varieties), and a mutant B69 as check varieties. The experimental design used was augmented design. The results showed that the RILs F5 significantly different in the characters of seed filling period, plant height, leaf number, panicle length, circumference panicle, panicle weight, and grain weight panicle-1. High broad sense heritability values and broad genetic diversity were observed in the character of the seed filling period, plant height, leaf number, panicle length, circumference panicle, panicle weight and grain weight panicle-1. There were RILs F5 which have higher yield than the two parents and are uniform with lower within line variance. Selection was conducted based on grain weight panicle-1 increased 35.3% yield, but at the same time increased plant height by 5%. Simultaneous selection by grain weight panicle-1 and plant height increased yield by 21% and reduced plant height by -6.9%. This gives the opportunity to obtain shorter high yielding varieties.
Landscape restoration. By ICRAF-J Cornelius, L Duguma, A Widayati & Jianchu XuWorld Agroforestry (ICRAF)
The restoration agenda is not about tree-counting or “blanket reforestation”. It is about recuperating ecosystem functions needed to support specific desired land-use objectives or trajectories, the end-point of which may or may not be “nature restored”. Tree planting, nurturing, and facilitation of natural regeneration —AGROFORESTRY—have central roles to play, because of the ES associated so closely with trees and forests
Citrus (Production Technology and diseases)Zohaib Hassan
Citrus is major fruit crop all over the world. it faces many cultural as well as disease problems. This presentation give you the knowledge about basic requirement for citrus .
Micronutrients...Importance for plant nutritionUTTAM KUMAR
micro nutrition an important tool for increasing crop yield particularly area were it is more deficient such as alkali soils and some acidic soil ( eg Mo, B )...
How to grow Citrus Fruits: Planting, Growing, and Harvesting Lemon, Orange, M...Ajjay Kumar Gupta
Citrus trees are evergreen and can have both flowers and fruit at the same time, so they are treated a bit differently than other fruit trees. They store food reserves in their leaves and must therefore be protected from stresses that will cause leaf drop. Although the cycles are not as obvious as the cycles in temperate fruit trees, citrus trees go through different stages throughout the year.
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Effect of planting density on leucaena leucocephala forage and Woody stems p...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Lack of year round supply of forage for animal feed is common in most parts of dry lands. leucaenaleucocephala is one of most widely used dry season tree legume forage. In this study, the effect of planting density on forage and woody stems production was investigated. Three different planting spacing corresponding to (40X40 cm, 60X60 cm and 80X80 cm) were applied to tests its effects on tree growth and yield. Tree height and diameter were measured before every cutting harvest. In addition to that fresh and dry matter production of both stems and forage (tons/ha), stems, and leaves dry weight ratios over time were determined. The study revealed that different planting densities were resulted in very high significant effects on forage and stem production. Tree height was affected by planning density in most of the harvests, while diameter showed significant difference among the treatments in only one harvest. Planting trees at 40 cm distance produced higher forage yield with smaller woody stems sizes, whereas 60 and 80 cm spacing resulted in lesser forage yield, but with bigger stems size. This indicates that planting trees at closer spacing produce higher wood and forage yield, but the wood with smaller sizes. There is also, observed seasonal variation in production in which hot weather lowered yield. The stems and leaves dry matter ratio revealed that leaves production is slightly higher than stem production and were not affected by planting density. The results conclude that planting leucaena in closer spacing in arid lands will supply a considerable amount of forage as supplementary feed in addition to wood that can be used for different purposes.
Genotype by environment interaction and stability of extra-early maize hybrid...IJEAB
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal crop produced in Ghana. However the change in environmental conditions, the expansion of maize to new agro-ecologies coupled with inadequate maize varieties available for the different environments affects yield improvement programmes in Ghana. Hence, the study is to investigate the influence of genotype by environment interaction on the maize hybrids and to identify stable and high yielding hybrids with superior agronomic for famers use in the country. The objectives of the study was to investigate the influence of genotype by environment interaction on the maize hybrids and to identify stable and high yielding hybrids with superior agronomic performance for famers use in Ghana. Thus, fifteen extra-early maize hybrids and three locally released checks were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with three replications in two locations in Ghana. The experiment was carried out at KNUST and Akomadan which represent the forest and forest transition zones of Ghana. Nine of the hybrids out of the fifteen hybrids evaluated produce above the average yield and the effect of genotype, location and genotype by location interaction was significant for grain yield. The GGE biplot used in this study revealed that TZEEI-1 x TZEEI-21, TZEEI-6 x TZEEI-21, TZEEI-15 x TZEEI-1 and TZEEI-29 x TZEEI-21 were high yielding and stable hybrids because they were closer to the ideal. The GGE biplot also identified Akomadan as the most ideal testing environment for these hybrids under irrigation.
Germination percentage and growing behavior of Salix tetrasperma (Willow) as ...Innspub Net
Propagation through branch cuttings is one of the best methods to produced tree nursery the yield of the tree produced from a cutting can be higher then a tree produced from seedlings, the conditions provided to them are important factor for getting good results. The aim of this study was to find the best size of cuttings for establishment of nursery and also to compare their performance in open air or in artificial conditions under plastic sheets cuttings of 2 inches, 4 and 6 of Salix tetrasperma were raised in plastic bags of size 3x7 their were three treatments with 25 bags in each and replicated 4 times. The data on sprouting percentage, plant height, root development etc was recorded after every two weeks. The data thus collected was analyzed statically using randomized complete block design. Result showed that cutting of 2 inches has high sprouting percentage and growth behavior as compared to other cuttings. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Investigation of Correlation Coefficient for Forage and Grain Yield with Rela...Premier Publishers
Oat (Avena sativa L.) is a staple worldwide in both human and animal nutrition. It is mainly grown for livestock, depending on its grain and forage yield in Turkey. This study was based on defining correlation coefficients of some oat genotypes (nine lines and three cultivars) in Konya, Turkey, among fodder and grain yields, and their components. The experimental design of this study was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The correlations were analyzed after harvesting at milk to dough period. The findings illustrated that there was a significant positive correlation between green fodder yield and leaf weights in ten stems, and grain yield and the number of panicles stems per square meter. The highest negative correlations was found between green fodder yield and the number of panicles stems per square meter, and grain yield and 50% flowering periods in addition to green fodder yield. This research suggests that the number of panicles stems per square meter and dry fodder yield would be selection criteria for grain yield. The number of leaves per stem, the number of nodes, and plant height would also be considered for green fodder yield by oat breeders in their program in Anatolia.
F. Jafari *, A. Eslami **, M. Hasani*** and S.A. Hashemi***Dheeraj Vasu
ABSTRACT: Whereas in seed origin forests and in close-to-nature silviculture, the future of forests depends on the stable establishment of saplings planted in the gaps; hence, the current study was done by selection sampling method with the aim of qualitative and quantitative investigation of natural regeneration based on the gap area in two different beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forests: pure beech forest and beech with other species, in three areas of 0.5-1, 1.5-3 and 4-6 R, totally amounting to 60 gaps for two different beech types(30 gaps per type) in Sourdar Anarestan forest management plan, Mazandaran province, North of Iran. For sampling, five plots 4×4 and five micro plots 1×1 were used per each gap and regeneration in them was counted, measured and statistically analyzed. Number of saplings in different gaps was significantly different at 0.01for both types. The number of saplings in small and medium area gaps was higher, whereas that of the larger ones was lower. Concerning the mean area of gap with beech forest types, there was significant difference at 0.01.The area of gaps created in the mixed beech stand was more than that in the pure beech forest and according to Duncan's test, maximum gap area was aspect east and then aspect eastern north and west. Also, results showed that as the gap area increased, the number of saplings and their quality decreased for each type. Therefore, maximum the best gap area of 5to6 R can be suggested to secure the future of the planted saplings.
Trees Lose Their Leaves Later in Agroforestry SystemsIJEAB
In Brazilianagroforestry systems (AFS), Cordia oncocalyx trees, a native species of Caatinga, lose their leaves late in relation to the trees of the same species occurring in secondary forest. Our hypothesis is that, due to environmental features, the trees of the AFS maintain better water status. This work aims to present environmental humidity (rainfall, soil moisture and air relative humidity) and trees (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration) data to explain the late loss of leaves in anagrosilvopastoral system (AGP) in the Brazilian semiarid region compared to a secondary forest (SF).Meteorological data were obtained from two weather stations installed in the AGP and SF areas. The physiological traits were measured using an infrared gas analyzer. There was a correlation between physiological processes (transpiration and stomatal conductance) and soil water content in plants of AGP, but not in SF, showing some independence of the plants of this system to variations in soil moisture. This indicates that AGP plants may have developed the physiological and anatomical features that enable to them to keep photosynthesis even when climatic conditions are more severe. Although the most inhospitable environmental conditions in the AGP system, the lower density of plants, and therefore less competition for water, favoring photosynthesis longer, causing the leaves to fall later.
An experiment was conducted at the Crops Research Station of the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization Alupe, Busia County. The experiment was performed to find out the most suitable mulching material and an ideal spacing for green pepper cultivation under Busia County Conditions. The experiment was laid out in a Factorial Randomized Block Design with three replications. The treatments comprised of four mulching materials viz. black plastic mulch, transparent plastic mulch, straw mulch and bare soil which was the control with three row spacings viz. 30 x 50 cm, 40 x 40 cm and 50 x 40 cm. Data collected was subjected to SAS statistical software for analysis and means separated using LSD at P≤0.05. Significant responses on plant height and number of branches per plant were observed for both seasons due to spacing and mulching treatments. The highest branches (6.97) per plant were recorded in the 40 by 40 cm spacing under the transparent mulch with the lowest (2.83) shown under the same spacing in the straw mulch of California Wonder variety. The widest spacing elicited the highest number of fruits per plant (7.37) in the black plastic mulch while only a mean of 1 fruit per plant was recorded in the mulch control during the short rain season. The highest fruit mean yield per plant of 1556 g and 1533 g was recorded in the widest spacing (50 by 40cm) during the long and short rain seasons respectively. Therefore this study recommends the use of plastic mulches at wider spacing.
Floristic composition, diversity and structure of woody vegetation in the agr...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this study is to characterize the current status of woody species in agrosystems and to identify ecologically important woody species that favor agriculture-livestock integration in the context of strong anthropic pressures in the Maradi region. The ground forest inventory method was used to characterize woody vegetation in three sites in the departments of Dakoro (north), Guidan Roumdji (center) and Madarounfa (south). A total of 187 plots were installed, each with a surface area of 2500m². Data collected included species list, total height, diameter at 1.30m from the ground and both perpendicular diameters of the crown, and natural regeneration of woody species. The results show that the southern zone has more species (17) divided into 9 families, followed by the central zone with 16 species and 12 families and finally the northern zone with 9 species and 7 families. The diversity decreases from the south (3.01 bites), center (2.27) and north (1.76 bites). As for the dendrometric parameters, the difference is significant (P ˂ 0.000) with greater values of average height, diameter at 1.30 m from the ground and basal area of the trees in the southern area. It is not significant between ecological zones the basal area of trees (P = 0.9). Faidherbia albida and Piliostigma reticulatum were the most ecologically important species distributed in all three zones. The overall diameter class and height structure imputed by the dominant species shows a negative skewed distribution of the disturbed stand in all three ecological zones. Regeneration is 747±65 (ft/ha), 2136±177 (ft/ha), and 1018±63 (ft/ha) in the north, center, and south, respectively, with a highly significant difference (P=0.000). This regeneration is an important source for re-greening the fields if maintained. This study provides important results that can be used to refine the management of agroforestry parks for various ecosystem services for the benefit of populations.
Evolution of soil fertility of two experimental plots under Lippia multiflora...AI Publications
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Similar to ROOT DISTRIBUTION VARIATION OF CROPS UNDER WALNUT-BASED INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA (20)
Influence of provenance in seed and emergence characteristics of a gigantic l...
ROOT DISTRIBUTION VARIATION OF CROPS UNDER WALNUT-BASED INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA
1. Genetic diversity in chestnuts of Kashmir valley
Efficient managing practices require an understanding of the root distribution of crop in walnut (Juglans regia)-crop
intercropping systems, a field study was conducted in the Loess Plateau of China to examined the vertical distribution and
horizontal variation of roots for soybean (Glycine max) and peanut (Arachis hypogaea) grown with walnut trees. Crop roots
were sampled to 60 cm depth at five distances from the tree row using stratified digging method. The results showed that
72.7% of total root length density (RLD) for intercropped soybean distributed in the 0-10 cm soil layer and sole soybean
roots in the first soil layer were determined to 54.3% of total RLD. The RLD of intercropped peanut primarily located in the
0-10 cm soil layer, reaching the average of 52.8 cm dm-3
for the five distances from the tree row. While the maximum RLD
of 62.1 cm dm-3
for sole peanut was achieved in the 10-20 cm soil layer. The RLDs of both intercropped soybean and peanut
increased with distance from the tree row, but the corresponding values at 1-1.5 m and 1.5-2 m from the tree row were
significantly less than those at other distances. In addition, although the depths of root vertical barycenter (RVB) for both
intercropped soybean and peanut tend to move downward with distance from the tree row, they were always shallower than
sole soybean and peanut. Greater proximity to the tree row reduced crop roots and, furthermore, compelled crop roots to
highly concentrate in the upper soil layer (0-10 cm), especially within the range of 1-2 m from the tree row.
Keywords: Soybean, peanut, stratified digging method, root length density, root vertical barycenter, spatial distribution
variation
INTRODUCTION
Crop cultivation is the traditional model of agricultural land
use and the main source of income to farmers in the Loess
Plateau of China, but it was limited badly by the water
resources shortage and the unsound management (Zhu and
Zhu, 2003). These directly resulted in farmers to replace the
crops on their farmland with economic tree because it offers
higher benefits than other farming practices and has stronger
drought resistance and high adaptability to fragmented
terrace ridge (Bi et al., 2011; Yu et al., 1979). But economic
tree plantation is naturally long-term investments and may
take several years until it generate a consumable output
(Caviglia-Harris et al., 2003), so agricultural crop was
cultivated in alleyways between tree rows during the early
years of tree production to provide the short-term
profitability for the farming systems. And this practice also
will buffer the effect of food insecurity in the region (Adisa
and Balogun, 2013). During the intercropping period, if the
income of intercrops is less than the investment, such
intercropping will result in failure of the framing systems
and not be adopted by farmers.
A drawback to combining tree with crop, however, is that
tree roots extended to the crop alley where the tree and crop
may compete for resources, in particularly where the
availability of resources are limited (Jose et al., 2006; van
Noordwijk et al., 1996). The competition between tree and
crop resulted in the reduction of crop roots and changed the
root distribution of when exploitation of a resource by the
tree (Neykova et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013), thus limiting
growth and productivity of crop due to the suppression of
the ability in resources acquirement (Yun et al., 2012).
Smith et al. (1999) found that the dominant root system of
Silkoak (Grevillea robusta) tree and the high density of their
roots at the top of the profile resulted in that maize (Zea
mays) roots exhibited growth suppression in the upper
region of the soil profile because of the low water
availability. Livesley et al. (2000) also identified that maize
root length decreased with greater proximity to the tree row,
and potentially decreasing crop’s ability to compete for soil
resources. Those studies indicated that crop roots in spatial
distribution had high plasticity to adapt to the competition
and maximize access to soil resources in agroforestry
systems (Lose et al., 2003). However, Meng et al. (2002)
found that the amount of crop roots was less in zones
influenced by trees but there is no significant difference for
vertical and temporal distribution of crop roots between the
intercropping and the monoculture. Schroth and Zech (1995)
even observed Gliricidia sepium hedgerows can improve
Pak. J. Agri. Sci., Vol. 51(4), 773-778; 2014
ISSN (Print) 0552-9034, ISSN (Online) 2076-0906
http://www.pakjas.com.pk
ROOT DISTRIBUTION VARIATION OF CROPS UNDER WALNUT-BASED
INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA
Huasen Xu1
, Huaxing Bi1,2,*
, Weimin Xi3
, Randy L. Powell3
, Lubo Gao1
and Lei Yun1,2
1
College of Water and Soil Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China; 2
Shanxi Jixian Forest
Ecosystem Research Station, Jixian, Shanxi, China; 3
Department of Biological and Health Sciences,
Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, Texas, USA.
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: bhx@bjfu.edu.cn
2. Xu, Bi, Xi, Powell, Gao & Yun
774
crop roots development through the favourable effect of
mulch.
Knowledge of the rooting pattern of crop is necessary for
better understanding the mechanisms of interspecific
competition between tree and crop to take rational
management and optimize structure configuration (Ong and
Leakey, 1999; Schenk, 2006). Although many competitive
vectors about crop roots in intercropping systems have been
identified, the competitive effects of the tree on crop roots
was inadequately quantified, specifically in quantity and
spatial distribution variation of intercrop roots compared to
sole crop. With that background, soybean (Glycine max) and
peanut (Arachis hypogaea) under walnut (Juglans regia)-
based intercropping systems were selected in this study
because they are major cash crops in the Loess Plateau of
China. Our study was carried out to analyze and quantify
spatial distribution variation of intercrops roots and to test
the hypothesis that crop roots were adversely affected by the
competition from trees.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental site: The experimental site located in Jixian
County (35°53′-36°21′ N, 110°27′-111°07′ E), Shanxi
Province, China. Jixian County is a typical fragmented and
gully area in the Loess Plateau. Climate in this area is of
temperate continental monsoon nature with four distinct
seasons, rainfall and heat in the same period, adequate
illumination. The average annual precipitation is 571 mm
and unevenly distribute throughout the year. The average
annual temperature and the average annual cumulative
temperature above 10°C is 9.9°C and 3357.9°C, respectively.
The daylight hours are 2563.8 hr., and frost free period is
172 d. During the growing season from April to October, it
has the accumulative temperature above 10°C of 3050°C,
with daylight hours of 1498 hr., and rainfall is 521 mm
accounting for more than 90% of the total annual
precipitation. The soil is loess parent material, thick soil
layer with uniform properties. The bulk density, organic C,
total N, available P and available K, pH, cation exchange
capacity, and Ca of the 0-100 cm soil layer is 1.32 g cm-3
,
12.3 g kg-1
, 0.79 g kg-1
, 19.2 mg kg-1
and 225.7 mg kg-1
, 7.92,
18.43 cmol kg-1
, 9.2 mg kg-1
respectively. The major species
of economic tree planted for agroforestry are walnut, apple
(Malus pumila), apricot (Prunus armeniaca). The major crop
species cultivated in agroforestry systems are soybean,
peanut, maize. Since no irrigation practiced in the
experimental area in the experimental area, the tree and crop
mostly depend on the rainfall received.
Plant materials: The experiment was conducted in a
provincial demonstration zone of walnut-crop intercropping
systems in August 2011. Walnut trees were planted at a
spacing of 7.0 m×7.0 m in 2006. The average tree crown
width and tree height was 2.1 m and 4.1 m respectively in
August 2011. Intercropped soybean and peanut were
cultivated at a spacing of 0.45 m×0.15 m and 100 cm away
from the tree row. Sole soybean and peanut were also
cultivated at a spacing of 0.45 m×0.15 m.
Experimental design and procedure: The area within a
distance of 1.0 m to 3.5 m from the tree row was used as
experimental area in the walnut-crop intercropping systems.
In this area, we designed a plot (2.5 m in length
perpendicular to the tree row, 0.5 m in width parallel to the
tree row) with two replications, and we divided each plot
into five equal size sections (parallel to the tree row)
according to the distance from the tree row, which were
denoted as 1-1.5 m, 1.5-2 m, 2-2.5 m, 2.5-3 m and 3-3.5 m
from the tree row respectively (Fig. 1). Three sections (0.5 m
in length and 0.5 m in width) were randomly selected as
contrast in soybean and peanut monoculture systems
respectively. Soybean and peanut roots were excavated and
collected hierarchically in vertical soil profile at four depth
Figure 1. Location of sampling plots and sections in walnut-crop intercropping systems.
3. Intercropping in walnut
775
intervals of 0-10 cm, 10-20 cm, 20-40 cm and 40-60 cm in
both intercropping and monoculture systems. This work was
conducted based on Forestry Standards “Observation
Methodology for Long-term Forest Ecosystem Research” of
People’s Republic of China (LY/T 1952-2011).
Root processing and measurement: Root samples were
individually collected and put into mesh bags (0.28 mm
pores). After being soaked in water for 24 hours, samples
were washed with tap water to remove soil particles
adhering to the roots. Dead roots with dark color, or partly
decomposed and brittle were removed with charcoal and
other extraneous materials. Cleaned root samples were
placed in 100 ml of 30% (v/v) methanol solution for storage
at 4°C.
Data were expressed as root length density (RLD, cm dm-3
).
We identified root length of soybean and peanut root
samples by WinRHIZO (Regent Instruments. Inc., Quebec,
Canada) image analysis system, then the RLD was
calculated as the ratio of the root length (L, cm) to the
sample volume (V, dm3
) (Merrill and Upchurch, 1994) and
the formula was:
V
L
RLD [1]
Calculations for root spatial distribution variation:
Varignon’s theorem can be used for solving barycenter
measuring in biomechanics for heterogeneous object (See
Zatsiorsky et al. [2000] for a detail description). Since crop
root system in whole vertical soil profile is heterogeneous
and it can be regarded as homogeneous in each soil layer,
the theorem was also applied to quantify vertical barycenter
of crop roots to explore their spatial distribution variation
(Wang et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2013). The root vertical
barycenter (RVB, cm) in each sampling section was
calculated as follows:
n
i
ii PD
1
RVB [2]
where i (i ≤5 ) represents soil layer, Di is the depth of the
middle of ith
soil layer and Pi is the proportion that the RLD
of ith
soil layer accounted for the total RLD in 0-60 cm soil
layer.
Data analysis: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was
performed using SPSS 20.0 (IBM Inc., Armonk, USA).
Two-way ANOVAs were applied to assess differences of the
RLD at different distances and depths for soybean and
peanut, and the significance of their mean values (n=3) were
compared by the least significant difference (LSD). We
examined differences of the RVB at different distances from
the tree row using two-way ANOVAs for soybean and
peanut. Paired-samples T tests were conducted on RLD of
crops to test the distribution difference between soil layers.
Statistical results were showed with error bars and
significance level (P), and differences at the P ≤ 0.05 were
considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
Vertical distribution of root length density: The vertical
distribution of RLD for both intercropped soybean and sole
soybean significantly declined (P<0.05) with decreasing soil
depth (Table 1). Moreover, the RLD of intercropped
soybean concentrated in the surface soil layer (0-10 cm),
where it accounted for 72.7% (the mean value at the five
distances from the tree row) of total RLD in 0-60 cm soil
layer. The RLD of intercropped soybean in the 10-20 cm soil
layer was significantly 67.6% less than that in the surface
soil layer (P<0.05). However, only 4.4% of total RLD
distributed in the subsoil (20–60 cm depth) for intercropped
soybean. For sole soybean, the RLD in the 0-10 cm soil
layer (RLD was 141.1 cm dm-3
) accounted for 54.3% of total
RLD and was greater than that for intercropped soybean.
Meanwhile, the RLD difference between the first two soil
layers for sole soybean was still significant (P<0.05)
although it was lower than intercropped soybean. In addition,
9.0% of total RLD located in the 20-60 cm soil layer for sole
soybean, which was also higher than intercropped soybean.
Similarly, the RLD of intercropped peanut decreased
significantly as soil depth declined (P<0.05) (Table 1). And
62.2% of total RLD distributed in the surface layer (0-10
cm), which was 49.3% higher than that in the second soil
layer. Only 6.6% of total RLD existed in the 20-60 cm soil
layer for intercropped peanut, which was similar to
intercropped soybean. Unlike those in intercropping system,
the RLD of sole peanut increased with decreasing soil depth
above 20 cm and achieved the maximum of 62.1 cm dm-3
in
the 10-20 cm soil layer. However, still 15.4% of total RLD
existed in the 20-60 cm soil layer for sole peanut, which was
significantly greater than that for intercropped peanut
(P<0.05).
Horizontal distribution of root length density: The
cumulative RLD (0-60 cm depth) for soybean and peanut
significantly increased (P<0.05) from 125.3 cm dm-3
and
56.5 cm dm-3
at 1-1.5 from the tree row to 122.3 cm dm-3
and 237.3 cm dm-3
at 3-3.5 from the tree row respectively
(Table 1). However, the multiple comparisons analyses
showed that no significant difference was found between
1-1.5 m and 1.5-2 m from the tree row (P>0.05), while they
had significant differences with the 2-2.5 m, 2.5-3 m and
3-3.5 m from the tree row respectively (P<0.05). It’s worth
noting that the RLDs at all distances from the tree row were
lower than those at the contrast.
Spatial distribution variation of crop roots: The variation of
RVB could reflect the combined differences in both
horizontal and vertical distances. Significant increases
(P<0.05) with increasing distance from the tree row for the
depths of the RVB were observed for intercropped soybean
and peanut (Fig. 2), which indicated that the amount of roots
in subsoil grew with the distance from the tree row. The
depths of the RVB at 1.-1.5 m and 1.5-2 m from the tree row
4. Xu, Bi, Xi, Powell, Gao & Yun
776
were significantly shallower than those at other distances
from the tree row (P<0.05), which was similar to the
horizontal variation of the RLD. In contrast, intercropped
soybean and peanut had significantly lower (P<0.05) depths
of the RVB than sole soybean and peanut, respectively.
Figure 2. The depths of root vertical barycenter for
soybean and peanut at five distances from the
tree row in walnut-crop intercropping systems
and crop monoculture systems. Bars represent
standard deviations.
DISCUSSION
By means of layer-wise comparison, soybean and peanut
grown with walnut trees all had intense coverage in soil
depth of the uppermost 10 cm compared to sole soybean and
peanut. Furthermore, the shallower root distribution for crop
in intercropping systems may have experienced above- and
below-ground competition because the canopy and root
system of walnut developed simultaneously with that of the
crop (Livesley et al., 2005; Moreno et al., 2005), which will
directly lead to the decrease of crop yields (Yun et al., 2012;
Gao et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the rapid decline of RLD and
the shallower depth of RVB in vertical profile are indicative
of more asymmetrical vertical distribution of intercrops roots.
These results indicate that crop roots can plastically change
their vertical distribution in response to spatial
heterogeneous soil moisture and nutrient when concurrent
growth occurs with other competitive root systems (Mou et
al., 1997; Farooq et al., 2009). However, the relatively low
fraction of RLD in the subsoil for intercrops implies their
incapacity to grow into deep soil, which is of no avail to
exploit more soil moisture and nutrient for sustainable
growth of crops.
The roots of both intercropped soybean and peanut tended to
thrive with distance from the tree row, which potentially
increased their competitive uptake advantage for soil
moisture and nutrient (Eastham and Rose, 1990) and also
was a positive response to the weaker competition from
Table 1. Spatial distribution of root length density (cm dm-3
) for crop in walnut-crop intercropping systems and
crop monocropping systems
Planting types Distances (m) Soil depth (cm)
0-10 10-20 20-40 40-60 Total
Intercropped
soybean
1-1.5 99.7±10.5 Aa 20.7±2.8 Ab 4.3±0.7 Ac 0.7±0.2 Ad 125.3±15.2 A
1.5-2 105.2±10.7 Aa 22.1±3.2 Ab 4.6±0.3 Ac 1.0±0.2 Ad 132.9±14.4 A
2-2.5 132.2±11.5 Ba 45.3±5.4 Bb 6.3±0.3 Bc 1.7±0.1 Bd 185.5±17.4 B
2.5-3 149.6±13.4 Ca 58.7±5.0 Cb 7.7±0.9 Bc 2.1±0.2 Bc 218.1±19.6 C
3-3.5 153.7±14.7 Ca 71.6±7.6 Db 8.4±1.3 Bc 3.7±0.2 Cc 237.3±23.8 C
Average 128.1±12.2 43.7±5.0 6.3±0.7 1.8±0.2 179.8±18.1
Intercropped
peanut
1-1.5 37.9±01.7 Aa 16.0±1.3 Ab 1.9±0.3 Ac 0.7±0.0 Ad 56.5±03.4 A
1.5-2 40.1±02.2 Aa 16.5±1.3 Ab 2.4±0.2 Ac 1.1±0.1 Ac 60.1±03.8 A
2-2.5 53.7±03.5 Ba 27.1±2.3 Bb 4.0±0.4 Bc 2.7±0.3 Bc 87.6±06.5 B
2.5-3 62.4±04.9 Ca 36.9±1.7 Cb 4.7±0.5 Bc 3.0±0.4 Bc 106.9±07.5 B
3-3.5 70.0±06.8 Da 42.6±3.4 Cb 5.8±0.7 Bc 3.9±0.5 Bc 122.3±11.5 B
Average 52.8±03.8 27.8±2.0 3.8±0.4 2.3±0.3 86.7±06.6
Sole soybean 141.1±13.6 a 95.5±9.2 b 17.0±2.9 c 6.3±0.3 d 259.9±26.0
Sole peanut 51.6±50.7 a 62.1±6.4 a 14.0±1.7 b 6.6±0.9 c 134.3±14.7
Meaningful Orthogonal Contrasts
Intercropped soybean vs. sole
soybean
NS * * * *
Intercropped peanut vs. sole
peanut
NS * * NS *
Values are means±SD; Means sharing similar letter in a row or in a column are statistically non- significant (P>0.05);
Small letters represent comparison among soil layers and capital letters are used for distances from the tree row. *
represents Significant, NS represents Non-significant.
5. Intercropping in walnut
777
walnut trees (Yun, 2011). The RLDs and the depths of the
RVB for soybean and peanut at five distances from the tree
row all showed an obvious boundary between significant
area (1-2 m from the tree row) and not significant area (2-3.5
m from the tree row). This phenomena illustrated that the
interspecific competition effect of walnut trees on these
crops was intense within the canopy edge than those beyond,
which can be explained by the genetic characteristics of the
walnut tree because the majority of its roots located within 1
times the canopy radius (Ma et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2013).
However, the RLDs of intercrops were still less than those of
sole crops and the depths of the RVB for intercrops
concentrated in shallower soil layer compared to sole crops,
since the influence area of walnut roots could spread
horizontally to 4 m (Liu, 2004).
Agroforestry management practices aim to optimize the
interspecific structure and improve the productivity in
agroforestry systems. The key issue of agroforestry
management is how to minimize interspecific competitions
(Thevathasan and Gordon, 2004). Crop species and walnut
trees coexist an entirely growing season of crop from April
to September when they will be grown together in the Loess
Plateau of China. So agronomic measures should be adopted
to regulate the competition and promote the growth of crop
(Ahmed et al., 2013). The average RLD at five distance
from the tree row for intercropped soybean was 30.8% lower
than that for sole peanut. And the value of intercropped
peanut reached to 35.4%. This difference between soybean
and peanut showed that soybean roots had stronger
adaptability than peanut in competitive situations under
walnut-based intercropping systems. Therefore, soybean was
suggested to be farmer’s first choice for cultivated into the
alleyways between walnut tree rows in this area. Expanding
the spacing between tree rows and setting root barrier for
trees are also rational methods to reduce the negative
influence of trees on crop roots (Jose et al., 2004; von
Kiparski and Gillespie, 2008). According to the root
distribution pattern of intercrops in our study, it was
suggested to plant the crop in the area beyond the range of
2.0 m from the tree row or set root barrier (e.g. digging
furrow along with tree row on both sides) at the 2.0 m from
the tree row to avoid intercrop suffering from underground
resources competition and light restrain resulted from walnut
trees. In addition, more fertilizer should be applied in surface
soil layer (0-10 cm) for the updated intercropping systems to
ensure maximum contact of the fertilizer with crop roots and
reduce the negative effect of walnut trees competing for
nutrient. In a way, these agronomic measures could improve
productivity and returns of the intercropping systems, and
ultimately promote the high efficiency and sustainable
utilization of natural resources.
Conclusions: Under the walnut-based intercropping systems,
intercropped soybean and peanut had relatively lower RLD
at all distances from the tree row than sole soybean and
peanut respectively. This provides direct evidence for the
hypothesis that the presence of walnut trees repaired the
intercrop roots in the intercropping systems. The roots of
intercropped soybean trended to have more shallow
distribution in the soil profile than sole soybean. And the
maximum RLD of intercropped peanut existed in the 0-10
cm soil layer whereas the vertical concentration area of the
roots for sole peanut was in 10-20 cm depth. Additionally,
the RVBs for intercropped soybean and peanut were all apt
to move downward to deep soil as distance from tree row
increased. All of those indicate that the competition from
walnut trees reshaped the spatial distribution of crop roots in
the intercropping systems, i.e., that tree forced crop roots to
concentrate in the shallower soil layer. But this phenomenon
would be relieved as the distance from the tree row
increased. Further research is needed to determine the
dynamic processes of interspecies interactions in tree–crop
intercropping systems with crop of different growth stages
and tree of different ages.
Acknowledgement: We acknowledge the financial supports
from National Natural Science Funds (No. 31470638). This
paper was supported by CFERN & GENE Award Funds on
Ecological Paper. We thank the editor and two anonymous
reviewers for valuable suggestions.
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