The document discusses the types and design of oil and gas pipelines. It describes liquid pipelines that transport crude oil and refined products, as well as gas pipelines that transport dry natural gas or condensate gas. The key considerations for pipeline design include pipe size, thickness, material properties, fluid characteristics, and hydraulic calculations to determine pressure drop and flow rates. Formulas are provided for calculating the maximum allowable operating pressure while ensuring safety factors are met.
This document provides information on various types of pumps and piping systems. It describes the main types of pumps as centrifugal, rotary, reciprocating, and deep well pumps. It also discusses the classification and basic operating principles of centrifugal and reciprocating pumps. Additionally, it covers topics such as pipe sizes, fittings, valves, head losses, cavitation, affinity laws, and equations for calculating pump parameters.
The document provides an overview of compressors and compressed air systems. It discusses the different types of compressors, including reciprocating, rotary, screw, and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating compressors use pistons to compress air in single or multiple stages. They are suitable for applications requiring low flow rates and high pressure. The document also discusses compressed air ratings like SCFM and ACFM, and how to properly size compressed air systems based on conditions like pressure, temperature, and humidity.
IRJET- CFD Analysis of Flow through Integral Orifice Plate Assemblies Under D...IRJET Journal
- The document analyzes the performance characteristics of various types of integral orifice plates (square edge, conical entrance, quarter circle) for diverse working conditions using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software ANSYS Fluent.
- Flow through a standard orifice plate is first analyzed according to standards and validated with computational results. Experimental results from other studies are also validated.
- The same methodology is then used to study variations in coefficients of discharge and permanent pressure loss with parameters like Reynolds number, diameter ratio, and absence of upstream/downstream piping for non-standard conditions.
- Compressible flow through a standard orifice plate is also validated and the methodology is used to predict
Studies on impact of inlet viscosity ratio, decay rate & length scales in a c...QuEST Global
This document summarizes computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies on the impact of inlet turbulence parameters on the aerodynamic performance of a cooled turbine stage. The parameters studied include turbulence intensity, length scale, viscosity ratio, and decay rate. The key findings are:
1) Increasing the inlet length scale and turbulence intensity decreases stage efficiency, with higher drops at higher intensities and scales. Efficiency drops more sharply with logarithmic increases in these parameters.
2) Increasing the viscosity ratio and decay rate also decreases efficiency, with impacts becoming more significant at higher ratios and rates. Efficiency drops more sharply with logarithmic increases in viscosity ratio.
3) Higher turbulence parameters result in more uniform total pressure profiles
This document summarizes the design optimization and analysis of an impeller for a centrifugal compressor. It begins with background on centrifugal compressors and their applications. The aim is then stated as developing a methodology to design a centrifugal compressor impeller accounting for real fluid effects. A computer program is developed based on jet-wake theory to estimate impeller dimensions. The methodology is validated by comparing results to an existing impeller design, showing encouraging accuracy. The method is then applied to design an impeller for an air conditioning system using R-12 as the refrigerant at 18,000 rpm. Key design parameters are examined at varying speeds to select optimal values.
This document discusses pneumatic and electro-pneumatic systems. It covers the objectives of studying these topics which are to provide knowledge of fluid power applications in industry and an understanding of pneumatic components. The document then describes various pneumatic system elements like compressors, filters, regulators, lubricators and valves. It also explains the properties of air and perfect gas laws. Finally, it discusses pneumatic circuits and the cascade method for designing circuits.
One of the most popular methods of moving solids in the chemical industry is pneumatic conveying. Pneumatic conveying refers to the moving of solids suspended in or forced by a gas stream through horizontal and/or vertical pipes. Pneumatic conveying can be used for particles ranging from fine powders to pellets and bulk densities of 16 to 3200 kg/m3 (1 to 200 lb/ft3).
This document provides information on various types of pumps and piping systems. It describes the main types of pumps as centrifugal, rotary, reciprocating, and deep well pumps. It also discusses the classification and basic operating principles of centrifugal and reciprocating pumps. Additionally, it covers topics such as pipe sizes, fittings, valves, head losses, cavitation, affinity laws, and equations for calculating pump parameters.
The document provides an overview of compressors and compressed air systems. It discusses the different types of compressors, including reciprocating, rotary, screw, and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating compressors use pistons to compress air in single or multiple stages. They are suitable for applications requiring low flow rates and high pressure. The document also discusses compressed air ratings like SCFM and ACFM, and how to properly size compressed air systems based on conditions like pressure, temperature, and humidity.
IRJET- CFD Analysis of Flow through Integral Orifice Plate Assemblies Under D...IRJET Journal
- The document analyzes the performance characteristics of various types of integral orifice plates (square edge, conical entrance, quarter circle) for diverse working conditions using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software ANSYS Fluent.
- Flow through a standard orifice plate is first analyzed according to standards and validated with computational results. Experimental results from other studies are also validated.
- The same methodology is then used to study variations in coefficients of discharge and permanent pressure loss with parameters like Reynolds number, diameter ratio, and absence of upstream/downstream piping for non-standard conditions.
- Compressible flow through a standard orifice plate is also validated and the methodology is used to predict
Studies on impact of inlet viscosity ratio, decay rate & length scales in a c...QuEST Global
This document summarizes computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies on the impact of inlet turbulence parameters on the aerodynamic performance of a cooled turbine stage. The parameters studied include turbulence intensity, length scale, viscosity ratio, and decay rate. The key findings are:
1) Increasing the inlet length scale and turbulence intensity decreases stage efficiency, with higher drops at higher intensities and scales. Efficiency drops more sharply with logarithmic increases in these parameters.
2) Increasing the viscosity ratio and decay rate also decreases efficiency, with impacts becoming more significant at higher ratios and rates. Efficiency drops more sharply with logarithmic increases in viscosity ratio.
3) Higher turbulence parameters result in more uniform total pressure profiles
This document summarizes the design optimization and analysis of an impeller for a centrifugal compressor. It begins with background on centrifugal compressors and their applications. The aim is then stated as developing a methodology to design a centrifugal compressor impeller accounting for real fluid effects. A computer program is developed based on jet-wake theory to estimate impeller dimensions. The methodology is validated by comparing results to an existing impeller design, showing encouraging accuracy. The method is then applied to design an impeller for an air conditioning system using R-12 as the refrigerant at 18,000 rpm. Key design parameters are examined at varying speeds to select optimal values.
This document discusses pneumatic and electro-pneumatic systems. It covers the objectives of studying these topics which are to provide knowledge of fluid power applications in industry and an understanding of pneumatic components. The document then describes various pneumatic system elements like compressors, filters, regulators, lubricators and valves. It also explains the properties of air and perfect gas laws. Finally, it discusses pneumatic circuits and the cascade method for designing circuits.
One of the most popular methods of moving solids in the chemical industry is pneumatic conveying. Pneumatic conveying refers to the moving of solids suspended in or forced by a gas stream through horizontal and/or vertical pipes. Pneumatic conveying can be used for particles ranging from fine powders to pellets and bulk densities of 16 to 3200 kg/m3 (1 to 200 lb/ft3).
Turbine meters measure natural gas flow by counting the revolutions of a rotor within the meter. The document discusses turbine meter operating conditions, performance requirements, calibration, installation specifications, and environmental considerations. Turbine meters should be installed and calibrated according to manufacturer specifications to ensure accurate measurement of natural gas flow.
This document discusses valve sizing selection criteria and nomenclature. It provides definitions for key terms used in sizing valves, such as upstream and downstream pressures, pressure drop, flow capacity, choked and actual pressure drops, cavitation, flashing, pressure recovery factors, and velocity. It also discusses factors that affect sizing of liquid and gas valves, such as specific gravity, temperature, and pipe geometry. An example problem demonstrates how to size a liquid valve given specific service conditions.
This document discusses various methods for measuring pressure and volume flow rate in heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. It describes fundamental pressure measurement principles and defines terms like static pressure, total pressure and velocity pressure. It then provides details on several instruments that can be used to measure pressure, including U-tube manometers, single limb manometers, dial gauges, and pressure transducers. The document also discusses methods for measuring volume flow rate, such as in-line flowmeters, pitot-static tube traverses, anemometer traverses, thermal anemometers, and Wilson flow grids. Conversion factors between common pressure and flow units are also provided.
Getting in the Zone, Oilfield Technology, December 2018tmtallant
Matt Meiners, Enventure Global Technology, USA, explores how advancements in expandable liners are helping to improve zonal isolations when refracturing.
The document provides details about the Refinery Modernisation Project (RMP) at Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. Refinery in Mahul, Mumbai. Key points:
- RMP helped integrate new facilities with existing operations, increasing operational flexibility.
- RMP included utilities like power generation, steam production, cooling water systems, and a centralized flushing oil system.
- Process details are described for various units like crude preheat trains, desalter, pre-flash drum, furnace, and measurement of pressure and temperature.
- Pressure is measured using instruments like bourdon tubes, manometers, McLeod gauges, diaphragms, bellows, and differential pressure transmitters
This document discusses refrigeration equipment and its applications in air conditioning systems. It covers common components like compressors, condensers, evaporators and expansion devices. It then discusses applications for food preservation, cold storage, freezers and ice plants. The document focuses on analyzing air flow through ducts. It explains that Bernoulli's equation can be used to analyze steady, incompressible flow. It also covers topics like fan total pressure, methods to estimate pressure losses in ducts due to friction and changes in flow direction, and common duct design methods like the velocity method and equal friction method. An example compares applying these two duct design methods to a sample system layout.
Key Process Considerations for Pipeline Design BasisVijay Sarathy
Prior to venturing into an oil & gas pipeline project, the project team would require a design basis, based on which the project is to proceed. Oil & Gas Pipeline design begins with a route survey including engineering & environmental assessments. The following document provides a few key considerations for process engineers to keep in mind, the factors that matter when preparing a pipeline design basis from a process standpoint.
Surge Pressure Prediction for Running Linerspvisoftware
This white paper will review the engineering analysis behind trip operations for different pipe end conditions. The author will discuss the controlling parameters affecting surge pressure using SurgeMOD. There are 2 aspects of the surge and swab pressure analysis: one is to predict surge and swab pressure for a given running speed (analysis mode), while the other one is to calculate optimal trip speeds at different string depths without breaking down formations or causing a kick at weak zone (design mode). This article will address both issues. Examples of running liners in tight tolerance wellbore will be analyzed.
An air preheater is a heat exchanger that heats incoming combustion air by transferring heat from the flue gases before they are exhausted to the atmosphere. This improves boiler efficiency. There are two main types: recuperative, which uses stationary heat transfer surfaces, and regenerative, which uses rotating heat transfer surfaces. Proper operation and maintenance is important to minimize issues like air leakage, erosion, corrosion, plugging, and fouling that can reduce the air preheater's effectiveness over time. Regular inspection and cleaning helps maintain high performance.
Importance and Practical application of Fluid Mechanics sessionalEmranHossainEmon1
This document provides information about fluid mechanics experiments conducted by Group 1 of CEN 262. It lists the members of the group and then describes several key fluid mechanics concepts and experiments, including the importance of the center of pressure, Bernoulli's theorem, flow through a venturi meter and orifice, flow over a V-notch and rectangular weir, and the components used in experiments measuring flow through an orifice and mouthpiece. Diagrams and equations are provided to explain fluid mechanics principles and how the experiments are conducted.
This document discusses compressors and reciprocating compressors specifically. It provides details on:
- How compressors work to compress gases from lower to higher pressures using mechanical energy.
- The main types of positive displacement compressors, including rotary and reciprocating compressors.
- The basic operating cycle of a reciprocating compressor, involving intake, compression, discharge, and expansion stages.
- Key components of a reciprocating compressor like valves, cylinders, coolers, and how compressed air is delivered.
Experimental investigation of air flow characteristics in rectangular channel...eSAT Journals
Abstract This experimental study is to investigate the effect or influence of pedestal vortex generator on one wall of rectangular duct on the flow performance. The effects of geometrical parameters of pedestal vortex generator and aspect ratio of duct on friction factor ratio have resulted in Reynolds number which is based on hydraulic diameter of the rectangular channel in the range 8000 to 24000. The factors which are varied for vortex generator were pitch to height ratio of vortex generator (p/h) and aspect ratios of vortex generators (Δ). Vortex generator numbers were also varied on wall at axial locations. Experimental results reported for aspect ratio 2.8, 5.5, 7.3 and 1.6 of pedestal vortex generator and pitch to height ratio (P/h) 4,8,12, 16. And 8000 to 24000 is the range of Reynolds number. Experimentally investigated that the friction factor ratio increases with increase in Reynolds number and friction factor ratio increases with decrease in pitch to height ratio. For pedestal vortex generator with aspect ratio 2.8 and height 8mm the results were, For pitch to height ratio (P/h)=16 friction factor ratio for 8000 Reynolds number is 27.12% less than the friction factor ratio for the Reynolds number 24000. So it is clear that friction factor ratio increases with increase in Reynolds number. And for Reynolds number 20000, pitch to height ratio (P/h) =4 friction factor ratio is 21.14% greater than pitch to height ratio (P/h)=16 so we can say that friction factor ratio increases with decrease in pitch to height ratio. Keywords: Pitch to height ratio, Aspect ratio, Pressure drop, Hydraulic diameter, Pedestals
The document discusses the design of a piping system to transport a 15% sodium hydroxide solution from a storage tank to a digester. It identifies the key parts of the system as pipe, elbows, a gate valve, and a centrifugal pump. It then provides sample calculations to determine the pipe diameter, thickness, flow velocity, friction factor, and head losses based on the flow rate of 11,179.8726 kg over 10 minutes. The calculations specify a 10-inch schedule 40 stainless steel pipe based on the fluid properties and system requirements.
Improvement of ventilation system in a mining sitesaadamatola
The document discusses improving the ventilation system at the Blue Reef Gold Mine in Tanzania. It is experiencing production stoppages twice a week due to insufficient ventilation. The objectives are to calculate airflow needs, design the primary ventilation system, and identify hindering factors. Data on the mine dimensions, worker numbers, gas levels, temperatures, dust levels and airflow rates at stations is collected and analyzed. The primary ventilation circuit is analyzed using Kirchoff's law to calculate airflow quantities at junctions. Improving the system is expected to enhance worker safety, health and productivity to meet production goals.
1. This document presents a functional approach to flow assurance analysis for deepwater field developments.
2. The approach involves systematically reviewing all operating conditions, including steady state, start-up, shut down, and non-producing periods to ensure fluid properties remain within allowable pressure and temperature ranges throughout.
3. Multiphase flow simulations and thermal analysis are used to model critical conditions like hydrate formation, wax deposition, and assess insulation needs under different scenarios.
The document summarizes information about orifice plates used for flow measurement. It describes the basic principles of how orifice plates work using Bernoulli's principle to create a pressure drop for measurement. It provides details on different types of orifice plates as well as factors to consider in design. Orifice plates offer benefits of being cheap and reliable but have limitations for clean fluids only and require maintenance. The company discussed provides custom orifice plate solutions and has supplied plates to major oil and gas companies in India.
Pressure reducing stations (PRS) is the arrangement of certain valves which is used to provide desired steam pressure at user’s end. Steam coming from the Boiler, through the steam line, enters the PRS at a higher pressure and leaves the PRS at reduced (specified) pressure, in this the flow of the steam remains constant. Like Steam Boiler, PRS is also pressure equipment.
The document summarizes the principles and operation of a Venturi tube flow meter. It works by measuring the pressure difference between the upstream inlet and throat of a constricted venturi section. Fluid flowing through the converging cone experiences a drop in pressure and increase in velocity at the throat. Factors like pipe diameter, materials, pressure ratings, and installation styles are considered in the design. Advantages include handling large flows with low pressure drops, while limitations include bulkiness and high installation/usage costs. The document provides details on standards, sizes, materials, and mounting options that Chemtrols Industries offers for venturi tube flow meters and their targeted industrial clients.
This document was produced as part of my final year project of training to obtain a petroleum engineering diploma.
The aim of this project is to make a comparative study between continuous and intermittent gas lift systems based on real data from an oil well in Algeria, and to choose the system best suited to increase the production of the well.
This study was carried out by a manual design using the method of “fixed pressure drop” for the continuous gas lift system and “fallback gradient” method for intermittent gas lift system.
We were able to determine at the end of this study that the system best suited to the current conditions of our well would be the intermittent gas lift system and we also proposed that it should be combine with the "plunger lift " system in order to increase the efficiency of the intermittent gas lift system by eliminating problems linked to the phenomenon of" fallback " thus increase the production of our wells.
Gas Lift Design: Comparative Study of Continuous and Intermittent Gas Lift (C...Nicodeme Feuwo
This document was produced as part of my final year project of training to obtain a petroleum engineering diploma.
The aim of this project is to make a comparative study between continuous and intermittent gas lift systems based on real data from an oil well in Algeria, and to choose the system best suited to increase the production of the well.
This study was carried out by a manual design using the method of “fixed pressure drop” for the continuous gas lift system and “fallback gradient” method for intermittent gas lift system.
We were able to determine at the end of this study that the system best suited to the current conditions of our well would be the intermittent gas lift system and we also proposed that it should be combine with the "plunger lift " system in order to increase the efficiency of the intermittent gas lift system by eliminating problems linked to the phenomenon of" fallback " thus increase the production of our wells.
Infrastructure Challenges in Scaling RAG with Custom AI modelsZilliz
Building Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems with open-source and custom AI models is a complex task. This talk explores the challenges in productionizing RAG systems, including retrieval performance, response synthesis, and evaluation. We’ll discuss how to leverage open-source models like text embeddings, language models, and custom fine-tuned models to enhance RAG performance. Additionally, we’ll cover how BentoML can help orchestrate and scale these AI components efficiently, ensuring seamless deployment and management of RAG systems in the cloud.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
Join us as we explore breakthrough innovations enabled by interconnected data and AI. Discover firsthand how organizations use relationships in data to uncover contextual insights and solve our most pressing challenges – from optimizing supply chains, detecting fraud, and improving customer experiences to accelerating drug discoveries.
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This document discusses valve sizing selection criteria and nomenclature. It provides definitions for key terms used in sizing valves, such as upstream and downstream pressures, pressure drop, flow capacity, choked and actual pressure drops, cavitation, flashing, pressure recovery factors, and velocity. It also discusses factors that affect sizing of liquid and gas valves, such as specific gravity, temperature, and pipe geometry. An example problem demonstrates how to size a liquid valve given specific service conditions.
This document discusses various methods for measuring pressure and volume flow rate in heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. It describes fundamental pressure measurement principles and defines terms like static pressure, total pressure and velocity pressure. It then provides details on several instruments that can be used to measure pressure, including U-tube manometers, single limb manometers, dial gauges, and pressure transducers. The document also discusses methods for measuring volume flow rate, such as in-line flowmeters, pitot-static tube traverses, anemometer traverses, thermal anemometers, and Wilson flow grids. Conversion factors between common pressure and flow units are also provided.
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Matt Meiners, Enventure Global Technology, USA, explores how advancements in expandable liners are helping to improve zonal isolations when refracturing.
The document provides details about the Refinery Modernisation Project (RMP) at Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. Refinery in Mahul, Mumbai. Key points:
- RMP helped integrate new facilities with existing operations, increasing operational flexibility.
- RMP included utilities like power generation, steam production, cooling water systems, and a centralized flushing oil system.
- Process details are described for various units like crude preheat trains, desalter, pre-flash drum, furnace, and measurement of pressure and temperature.
- Pressure is measured using instruments like bourdon tubes, manometers, McLeod gauges, diaphragms, bellows, and differential pressure transmitters
This document discusses refrigeration equipment and its applications in air conditioning systems. It covers common components like compressors, condensers, evaporators and expansion devices. It then discusses applications for food preservation, cold storage, freezers and ice plants. The document focuses on analyzing air flow through ducts. It explains that Bernoulli's equation can be used to analyze steady, incompressible flow. It also covers topics like fan total pressure, methods to estimate pressure losses in ducts due to friction and changes in flow direction, and common duct design methods like the velocity method and equal friction method. An example compares applying these two duct design methods to a sample system layout.
Key Process Considerations for Pipeline Design BasisVijay Sarathy
Prior to venturing into an oil & gas pipeline project, the project team would require a design basis, based on which the project is to proceed. Oil & Gas Pipeline design begins with a route survey including engineering & environmental assessments. The following document provides a few key considerations for process engineers to keep in mind, the factors that matter when preparing a pipeline design basis from a process standpoint.
Surge Pressure Prediction for Running Linerspvisoftware
This white paper will review the engineering analysis behind trip operations for different pipe end conditions. The author will discuss the controlling parameters affecting surge pressure using SurgeMOD. There are 2 aspects of the surge and swab pressure analysis: one is to predict surge and swab pressure for a given running speed (analysis mode), while the other one is to calculate optimal trip speeds at different string depths without breaking down formations or causing a kick at weak zone (design mode). This article will address both issues. Examples of running liners in tight tolerance wellbore will be analyzed.
An air preheater is a heat exchanger that heats incoming combustion air by transferring heat from the flue gases before they are exhausted to the atmosphere. This improves boiler efficiency. There are two main types: recuperative, which uses stationary heat transfer surfaces, and regenerative, which uses rotating heat transfer surfaces. Proper operation and maintenance is important to minimize issues like air leakage, erosion, corrosion, plugging, and fouling that can reduce the air preheater's effectiveness over time. Regular inspection and cleaning helps maintain high performance.
Importance and Practical application of Fluid Mechanics sessionalEmranHossainEmon1
This document provides information about fluid mechanics experiments conducted by Group 1 of CEN 262. It lists the members of the group and then describes several key fluid mechanics concepts and experiments, including the importance of the center of pressure, Bernoulli's theorem, flow through a venturi meter and orifice, flow over a V-notch and rectangular weir, and the components used in experiments measuring flow through an orifice and mouthpiece. Diagrams and equations are provided to explain fluid mechanics principles and how the experiments are conducted.
This document discusses compressors and reciprocating compressors specifically. It provides details on:
- How compressors work to compress gases from lower to higher pressures using mechanical energy.
- The main types of positive displacement compressors, including rotary and reciprocating compressors.
- The basic operating cycle of a reciprocating compressor, involving intake, compression, discharge, and expansion stages.
- Key components of a reciprocating compressor like valves, cylinders, coolers, and how compressed air is delivered.
Experimental investigation of air flow characteristics in rectangular channel...eSAT Journals
Abstract This experimental study is to investigate the effect or influence of pedestal vortex generator on one wall of rectangular duct on the flow performance. The effects of geometrical parameters of pedestal vortex generator and aspect ratio of duct on friction factor ratio have resulted in Reynolds number which is based on hydraulic diameter of the rectangular channel in the range 8000 to 24000. The factors which are varied for vortex generator were pitch to height ratio of vortex generator (p/h) and aspect ratios of vortex generators (Δ). Vortex generator numbers were also varied on wall at axial locations. Experimental results reported for aspect ratio 2.8, 5.5, 7.3 and 1.6 of pedestal vortex generator and pitch to height ratio (P/h) 4,8,12, 16. And 8000 to 24000 is the range of Reynolds number. Experimentally investigated that the friction factor ratio increases with increase in Reynolds number and friction factor ratio increases with decrease in pitch to height ratio. For pedestal vortex generator with aspect ratio 2.8 and height 8mm the results were, For pitch to height ratio (P/h)=16 friction factor ratio for 8000 Reynolds number is 27.12% less than the friction factor ratio for the Reynolds number 24000. So it is clear that friction factor ratio increases with increase in Reynolds number. And for Reynolds number 20000, pitch to height ratio (P/h) =4 friction factor ratio is 21.14% greater than pitch to height ratio (P/h)=16 so we can say that friction factor ratio increases with decrease in pitch to height ratio. Keywords: Pitch to height ratio, Aspect ratio, Pressure drop, Hydraulic diameter, Pedestals
The document discusses the design of a piping system to transport a 15% sodium hydroxide solution from a storage tank to a digester. It identifies the key parts of the system as pipe, elbows, a gate valve, and a centrifugal pump. It then provides sample calculations to determine the pipe diameter, thickness, flow velocity, friction factor, and head losses based on the flow rate of 11,179.8726 kg over 10 minutes. The calculations specify a 10-inch schedule 40 stainless steel pipe based on the fluid properties and system requirements.
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The document discusses improving the ventilation system at the Blue Reef Gold Mine in Tanzania. It is experiencing production stoppages twice a week due to insufficient ventilation. The objectives are to calculate airflow needs, design the primary ventilation system, and identify hindering factors. Data on the mine dimensions, worker numbers, gas levels, temperatures, dust levels and airflow rates at stations is collected and analyzed. The primary ventilation circuit is analyzed using Kirchoff's law to calculate airflow quantities at junctions. Improving the system is expected to enhance worker safety, health and productivity to meet production goals.
1. This document presents a functional approach to flow assurance analysis for deepwater field developments.
2. The approach involves systematically reviewing all operating conditions, including steady state, start-up, shut down, and non-producing periods to ensure fluid properties remain within allowable pressure and temperature ranges throughout.
3. Multiphase flow simulations and thermal analysis are used to model critical conditions like hydrate formation, wax deposition, and assess insulation needs under different scenarios.
The document summarizes information about orifice plates used for flow measurement. It describes the basic principles of how orifice plates work using Bernoulli's principle to create a pressure drop for measurement. It provides details on different types of orifice plates as well as factors to consider in design. Orifice plates offer benefits of being cheap and reliable but have limitations for clean fluids only and require maintenance. The company discussed provides custom orifice plate solutions and has supplied plates to major oil and gas companies in India.
Pressure reducing stations (PRS) is the arrangement of certain valves which is used to provide desired steam pressure at user’s end. Steam coming from the Boiler, through the steam line, enters the PRS at a higher pressure and leaves the PRS at reduced (specified) pressure, in this the flow of the steam remains constant. Like Steam Boiler, PRS is also pressure equipment.
The document summarizes the principles and operation of a Venturi tube flow meter. It works by measuring the pressure difference between the upstream inlet and throat of a constricted venturi section. Fluid flowing through the converging cone experiences a drop in pressure and increase in velocity at the throat. Factors like pipe diameter, materials, pressure ratings, and installation styles are considered in the design. Advantages include handling large flows with low pressure drops, while limitations include bulkiness and high installation/usage costs. The document provides details on standards, sizes, materials, and mounting options that Chemtrols Industries offers for venturi tube flow meters and their targeted industrial clients.
This document was produced as part of my final year project of training to obtain a petroleum engineering diploma.
The aim of this project is to make a comparative study between continuous and intermittent gas lift systems based on real data from an oil well in Algeria, and to choose the system best suited to increase the production of the well.
This study was carried out by a manual design using the method of “fixed pressure drop” for the continuous gas lift system and “fallback gradient” method for intermittent gas lift system.
We were able to determine at the end of this study that the system best suited to the current conditions of our well would be the intermittent gas lift system and we also proposed that it should be combine with the "plunger lift " system in order to increase the efficiency of the intermittent gas lift system by eliminating problems linked to the phenomenon of" fallback " thus increase the production of our wells.
Gas Lift Design: Comparative Study of Continuous and Intermittent Gas Lift (C...Nicodeme Feuwo
This document was produced as part of my final year project of training to obtain a petroleum engineering diploma.
The aim of this project is to make a comparative study between continuous and intermittent gas lift systems based on real data from an oil well in Algeria, and to choose the system best suited to increase the production of the well.
This study was carried out by a manual design using the method of “fixed pressure drop” for the continuous gas lift system and “fallback gradient” method for intermittent gas lift system.
We were able to determine at the end of this study that the system best suited to the current conditions of our well would be the intermittent gas lift system and we also proposed that it should be combine with the "plunger lift " system in order to increase the efficiency of the intermittent gas lift system by eliminating problems linked to the phenomenon of" fallback " thus increase the production of our wells.
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Building Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems with open-source and custom AI models is a complex task. This talk explores the challenges in productionizing RAG systems, including retrieval performance, response synthesis, and evaluation. We’ll discuss how to leverage open-source models like text embeddings, language models, and custom fine-tuned models to enhance RAG performance. Additionally, we’ll cover how BentoML can help orchestrate and scale these AI components efficiently, ensuring seamless deployment and management of RAG systems in the cloud.
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Join us as we explore breakthrough innovations enabled by interconnected data and AI. Discover firsthand how organizations use relationships in data to uncover contextual insights and solve our most pressing challenges – from optimizing supply chains, detecting fraud, and improving customer experiences to accelerating drug discoveries.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of technologies, XML continues to play a vital role in structuring, storing, and transporting data across diverse systems. The recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present new methodologies for enhancing XML development workflows, introducing efficiency, automation, and intelligent capabilities. This presentation will outline the scope and perspective of utilizing AI in XML development. The potential benefits and the possible pitfalls will be highlighted, providing a balanced view of the subject.
We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
Further emphasis will be placed on the role of AI in developing XSLT, or schemas such as XSD and Schematron. We will address the techniques and strategies adopted to create prompts for generating code, explaining code, or refactoring the code, and the results achieved.
The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
The presentation aims to deliver a comprehensive overview of AI usage in XML development, providing attendees with the necessary knowledge to make informed decisions. Whether you’re at the early stages of adopting AI or considering integrating it in advanced XML development, this presentation will cover all levels of expertise.
By highlighting the potential advantages and challenges of integrating AI with XML development tools and languages, the presentation seeks to inspire thoughtful conversation around the future of XML development. We’ll not only delve into the technical aspects of AI-powered XML development but also discuss practical implications and possible future directions.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/building-and-scaling-ai-applications-with-the-nx-ai-manager-a-presentation-from-network-optix/
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11.0 TRANSPORTATION OF LIQ GAS SIZING PRESSURE LOSS.pptx
1. PIPE SIZE (DIAMETER & THICKNESS)
TYPES OF PIPELINE SYSTEM
OIL SYSTEMS(LIQUID SYSTEM)
ARE COMMONLY DIVIDED INTO CRUDE OIL AND REFINED PRODUCT
SYSTEMS.
BOTH SYSTEMS COLLECT AND DELIVER HYDROCARBON MIXTURE THAT
NORMALLY EXIST AS LIQUID AT AMBIENT CONDITIONS.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) IS CONSIDERED ALSO A REFINED
PRODUCT THOUGH IT IS STORED AND HANDLED UNDER PRESSURE OR AT
REDUCED TEMPERATURE.
GAS SYSTEMS
CAN BE DIVIDED INTO DRY GAS SYSTEMS AND CONDENSATE GAS SYSTEM.
DRY GAS P/LINE SYSTEMS GATHER AND TRANSPORT IN GASEOUS STATE.
DRY GAS IS COMPRISED MAINLY OF METHANE AND ETHANE WITH A SMALL
PERCENTAGE OF HEAVIER COMPONENTS. DRY GAS OFTEN CONTAINS
SMALL QUANTITIES OF NON-HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS LIKE N2, CO2 AND
H2S.
CONDENSATE GAS NORMALLY COMPRISED OF METHANE AND ETHANE
ALONGWITH HEAVIER HYDROCARBON LIKE PROPANE, BUTANE, PENTANE,
HEXANE ETC.
2. GAS CONDENSATE MAY BE IN THE GASEOUS STATE AT THE
DISPATCH POINT BUT IT TENDS TO LIQUIFY AS A RESULT OF
CONDENSATION OF HEAVIER HYDROCARBON DURING
TRANSPORTATION DUE TO FALL IN TEMPERATURE OR PRESSURE
(RETROGRADE CONDENSATION).
THE SYSTEM BECOMES AS MULTIPHASE FLUID FLOW SYSTEM.
SPECIAL CARE HAS TO BE TAKEN IN COURSE OF
TRANSPORTATION OF SUCH TYPE OF GAS.
FLOW OF FLUIDS – HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS
SEVERAL GENERALLY ACCEPTED FORMULAS FOR THE
CALCULATION OF PRESSURE DROP AND FLOW RATE FOR
PIPELINES.
SOME CO-RELATIONS TAKEN FROM RULES OF THUMB HAND
BOOK.
DIFFERENT FLOW EQUATIONS FOR LAMINAR & TURBULENT FLOW
OF COMPRESSIBLE AND NON- COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
(NEWTONIAN)
3. LIQUID PIPELINES:
DELIVERY PRESSURE AND THE VOLUMES ARE KNOWN.
THE ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE CAN BE DETERMINED
USING THE PIPE SIZE , TYPE AND SPECIFIED SAFETY FACTORS.
INITIALLY, LINE SIZE MAY BE ASSUMED IN ORDER TO DETERMINE
MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSURE AND THE PRESSURE DROP IN A
GIVEN LENGTH OF PIPELINE FOR A GIVEN FLOW VOLUME.
IF THE SUM OF DELIVERY PRESSURE AND PRESSURE DROP
EXCEEDS THE ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE, A LARGER SIZE
PIPE MUST BE CHOSEN.
IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO CHANGE THE BOOSTER RATING AND THE
DISTANCE IBETWEEN STATIONS TO LOWER THE PRESSURE
REQUIREMENT AND ADJUST THE EVALUATED PIPE SIZE.
HOWEVER ALL DEPENDS UPON THE ECONOMY OF THE
OPERATION ON LONG TERM PERSPECTIVE.
4. PRESSURE DROP:
BERNOULLI THEOREM DESCRIBES THE FLOW OF FLUIDS IN A
PIPE.
TO DETERMINE THE PRESSURE DROP, THE FOLLOWING
EQUATION IS USED:
ΔP= ρ* F*L*V2/ 144D2 *G
WHERE
ΔP= PRESSURE DROP OVER LENGTH L (PSIG)
ρ = DENSITY OF THE FLUID (LB PER FT3)
F = FRICTION FACTOR DIMENSIONLESS
L = LENGTH OF PIPE FT
V = VELOCITY OF FLOW, FT PER SEC
D = INSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE, FT
G = ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY= 32 FT PER SEC2
5. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING PRESSURE (MOAP) (P)
CAN USUALLY BE CALCULATED USING THE FORMULA:
P = 2ST/D * F * E*T
WHERE;
P = DESIGN PRESSURE, PSIG
S = MIN. YIELD STRENGTH STIPULATED IN THE SPECIFICATION UNDER
WHICH THE PIPE WAS MANUFACTURED.
D = NOMINAL OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF THE PIPE, INCHES
T = NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS OF THE PIPE, INCHES
F = CONSTRUCTION PIPE DESIGN FACTOR
E = LONGITUDINAL FACTOR
T = TEMPERATURE DERATING FACTOR
6. IN ALL LIQUID AS WELL AS GAS TRANSPORTING PIPELINES
LENGTH, DELIVERY PRESSURE AND THE VOLUMES ARE KNOWN.
ACCORDINGLY, BASED ON THIS INFORMATION, PIPE SIZE
(DIAMETER) AND THE PUMPING/ COMPRESSION PRESSURES MAY
BE CALCULATED AND THE FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS CAN BE
WORKED OUT.
HIGHER PUMPING PRESSURE AND LARGER DIAMETERS
INCREASE THE CAPITAL AS WELL AS THE OPERATING &
MAINTENANCE COST.
TO IMPROVE UPON THE ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT, VARIOUS
SET OF PIPE SIZE, THEIR THICKNESS, THE ALLOWABLE WORKING
PRESSURE AND LENGTH OF THE PIPE CAN BE DETERMINED
USING THE PIPE SIZE AND TYPE AND ALSO CONSIDERING ALL THE
PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE PIPELINE DESIGN INCLUDING
NECESSARY & WELL SPECIFIED SAFETY FACTORS.
INITIALLY, A LINE SIZE MAY BE ASSUMED IN ORDER TO DETERMINE
MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSURE AND THE PRESSURE DROP IN A
GIVEN LENGTH OF PIPELINE FOR A GIVEN FLOW VOLUME.
7. IF THE SUM OF DELIVERY PRESSURE AND PRESSURE DROP EXCEEDS
THE ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE, A LARGER SIZE PIPE MUST BE
CHOSEN.
IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO CHANGE THE BOOSTER RATING AND THE
DISTANCE IN STATIONS TO LOWER THE PRESSURE REQUIREMENT AND
ADJUST THE EVALUATED PIPE SIZE. HOWEVER ALL DEPENDS UPON
THE ECONOMY OF THE OPERATION ON LONG TERM PERSPECTIVE.
AN INDICATIVE LOCATION OF BOOSTER STATION, BASED ON THE
DELIVERY PRESSURE AND THE FRICTION LOSSES WILL DICTATE THE
BOOSTER RATING AND DISTANCES AMONG THEM.
A PARALLEL LINE CONCEPT MAY BE ONE OF THE EXAMPLES TO
ECONOMIZE THE OPERATION IF THE DEMAND AND SUPPLY AS WELL AS
DELIVERY PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS ARE NOT CONSTANT/ UNIFORM
OR VARY VERY FREQUENTLY.
8. REYNOLDS’S NUMBER:
NUMBER EXHIBITS THE TYPE OF FLOW AND MAINLY DEPENDS UPON
THE DIAMETER OF PIPE AND VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE OF THE
FLOWING FLUID.
THESE TWO PARAMETERS ARE RELATED TO PIPELINE GEOMETRY
THE DENSITY AND VISCOSITY OF THE FLUID ARE THE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF FLUID.
THE FLOW PATTERN CULMINATES INTO THE REYNOLDS’S NO. WHICH
FURTHER CO RELATES TO FRICTION FACTOR/ FRICTION LOSSES IN
PIPE LINE.
THIS TYPE OF FLOW INCLUDES LAMINAR FLOW & TURBULENT FLOW.
THESE TERMINOLOGIES ARE REDEFINED WITHIN SPECIFIC VALUE
LIMITS I.E. LAMINAR FLOW.
WHEN REYNOLDS’S NUMBER IS BELOW 1000, IT IS CALLED AS
STREAMLINED FLOW, BETWEEN 1000 AND 2000 AS UNSTABLE FLOW
AND TURBULENT FLOW IF IT IS GREATER THAN 2000.
THIS FACTOR GENERALLY DENOTES THE EFFECT ON PRESSURE DROP.
01.08.12
9. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PIPELINES:
ROUGHNESS OF PIPELINE:
THESE FACTORS ARE DETERMINED EMPIRICALLY AND ARE RELATED TO
THE ROUGHNESS OF THE INSIDE PIPE WALL. THIS FACTOR IS DRAWN
BASED ON ACTUAL PRESSURE DROP IN THE SIMULATED CONDITIONS AND
ASSUMED VARIABLES. BASED ON THE SET OF SUCH FACTORS, MOST
APPROPRIATE VALUE IS FIXED FOR SIMILAR CONDITIONS.
VALVES AND FITTINGS:
VALVES AND FITTINGS PLAY VITAL ROLE IN ADDING TO PRESSURE LOSS.
THE VALUES OF SUCH LOSS CAN BE DETERMINED BASED ON
EXPERIMENTAL DATA.
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH & DUCTILITY:
ARE THE KEY PROPERTIES OF STEEL FOR PIPELINE DESIGN. THE MINIMUM
YIELD STRENGTH IS THE KEY PROPERTY OF STEEL USED IN DESIGN. THE
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH IS DEFINED AS THE TENSILE STRESS
REQUIRED PRODUCING A TOTAL ELONGATION OF 0.5 %.
10.
11. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING PRESSURE
THE KEY PARAMETER IN PIPELINE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS IS THE
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING PRESSURE (MAOP).
THIS IS DEFINED AS THE MAXIMUM PRESSURE UNDER ROUTINE
OPERATING CONDITIONS. THESE PRESSURE ARE EVALUATED BASED ON
THE FLUID CHARACTERISTICS AND THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATES BUT
THE OVERALL LIMIT OF THE MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PRESSURE ALSO
DEPENDS UPON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES NAMELY TENSILE STRENGTH
AND THE DUCTILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF MATERIAL OF PIPELINE.
PIPELINE CODES TYPICALLY PERMIT THE MAOP TO BE SET EQUAL TO THE
DESIGN PRESSURE (DP).
THE CODES ALLOW A PRESSURE INCREASE ABOVE THE DESIGN
PRESSURE OF 10 % TO ACCOMMODATE FOR PRESSURE SURGES, WHICH
ARE INCIDENTAL IN NATURE AND OF SHORT DURATION. THIS IS KNOWN AS
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE INCIDENTAL PRESSURE (MAIP).
THE MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSURE (MOP) AND PRESSURE
RECORDER/ALARM (PRA) ARE USUALLY SET AT 5% BELOW THE MAOP.
THIS IS TO ALLOW OPERATOR SUFFICIENT TIME TO TAKE REMEDIAL
ACTION BEFORE PIPELINE TRIPS/RELIEF VALVES START TO LIFT.
12.
13. DETERMINATION OF WALL THICKNESS:
THE DETERMINATION OF PIPELINE WALL THICKNESS IS MOST
IMPORTANT IN PIPELINE MECHANICAL DESIGN.
WALL THICKNESS IS A FUNCTION OF THE PIPELINE’S MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE OPERATING PRESSURE AND THE YIELD STRENGTH OF THE
STEEL PIPE USED.
OPERATING PRESSURE AND WALL THICKNESS DETERMINE THE NUMBER
AND LOCATIONS OF PUMP OR COMPRESSOR STATIONS ALONG THE
PIPELINE.
IF A HIGHER PIPELINE OPERATING PRESSURE IS CHOSEN, THE POWER
AT EACH STATION CAN BE GREATER, AND THE STATIONS CAN BE
FARTHER APART. THIS BENEFIT CAN BE OFFSET BY ADDITIONAL
EXPENSE OF THICKER WALL PIPE.
THE INTERNAL PRESSURE OF THE TRANSPORT FLUID INDUCES A
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS IN THE PIPE WALL, WHICH IS COMMONLY
KNOWN AS HOOP STRESS
14.
15. HOOP STRESS CAN BE CALCULATED BY USING A SIMPLIFIED FORMULA,
USUALLY KNOWN AS BARLOW’S
BARLOW’S FORMULA IS NOT THE MOST ACCURATE FORMULA TO
CALCULATE PIPELINE WALL STRESS. IT OVERESTIMATES THE MAXIMUM
HOOP STRESS. BUT MOST PIPELINE CODES SPECIFY THAT BARLOW’S
FORMULA BE USED IN PIPELINE DESIGN.
16. THIS FORMULA TAKES INTO ACCOUNT AN ADDITIONAL PARAMETER, CALLED A
DESIGN FACTOR, F. THE PURPOSE OF USING A DESIGN FACTOR IS TO KEEP
THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS OF THE PIPE AT A FRACTION OF THE YIELD
STRESS, AS A SAFETY PRECAUTION.
17.
18.
19. Design of liquid pipeline
The introduction to the pipeline network is given as under:
Overview of Oil and gas field production:
For oil and gas field production, various types of facilities exist, including
surface and subsea production systems. The surface production system
typically is made up of a fixed offshore platform generally in shallow water
depths (up to 200m). Oil, gas, or both are transported to shore via submarine
pipeline.
Types of Onshore /Offshore - Subsea pipelines
There are four general classifications of pipelines, depending on the line
function. Certain pipe sizes and operating pressure may also be associated
with each line classification. These classifications are flow lines, collector /
gathering lines or inter-field lines, trunk lines and loading (Unloading) lines.
20. Flow lines (Intra field lines)
A flow line connects a wells to a GGS/ platform or subsea manifold. Usually the line has a
small diameter. Flow inside of it may be at high pressure. Flow lines include well fluid;
water injection and gas lift lines. A well fluid line carries reservoir fluids before separation.
Water injection lines are used for injecting treated water in the reservoir for reservoir
pressure (secondary recovery) maintenance. Gas lift lines are used to inject gas in the
tubing string for lifting of well fluid on decline of reservoir pressure.
Increasing the length of well fluid flow lines increases wellhead back pressure on wells.
However, development of multiphase pumping and metering is a major milestone in
achieving long distance well fluid transportation.
21. The design of well fluid transportation and gathering system
should take into consideration the following:
1. The wellhead pressure should be as low as possible to
enhance self flow and recovery of fluid.
2. Minimum pressure loss in pipeline.
3. Easy to monitor and control the wells.
4. Minimum loss of hydrocarbons.
5. Accurate metering of well fluid.
6. Flexibility for future expansion.
7. Operational safety.
8. Optimum production cost.
22. Different types of gathering systems;
•Wellhead separation system
•Group gathering system
•Centralized gathering system.
Wellhead separation system:
•Main gathering lines are laid in the form of a loop around. the field. Individual wells have their
own separation and testing facility and the oil and gas lines are connected to the main collector
lines.
•Highest recovery from the field, by maintaining lowest wellhead pressure, is possible in this
system.
•This system is generally adopted in isolated small pools alongwith tanker based transportation,
Group gathering system:
•Main collector lines are laid from a central processing facility to group gathering facility or
process platform facility.
•This type of system is generally applicable when moderate to large amounts of liquid is
produced. Two phase flow of liquid and gas causes more pressure drop in the individual flow
lines and consequently high back pressure on the wells. However this is an economical and
flexible system for most of the fields.
23. Centralised gathering system
•Main gathering multiphase lines run through the field and wells are produced
directly into the main line from either side. A test line is run parallel to the mainline to
carry out periodic testing of wells.
•The system is generally used in oil and gas fields where getting ROU is normally
difficult and the wells are densely located in the field.
•Use of clustered well location system, in both offshore and onshore, necessitated
well platforms with separation and test facility in offshore or underwater manifold
centre (UMC) in subsea locations and group and test gathering lines in onshore
locations.
•A header in a gathering or distribution system provides a means of joining several
flow lines into a single gathering line. Valves are provided on each pipeline entering or
leaving the header so that lines can be isolated during operation and maintenance.
Collector / Gathering lines (Inter-field lines)
A collector line connects from one (multi-well) platform/GGS to another Central
Processing platform/Facility and is usually a small to medium-diameter line but can be
large diameter too. They generally carry process fluids. The range of operating
pressure is usually 1,000 – 1,400 psi. Flow in the line is done by booster pumps or
compressors, which are often installed on the Central Processing Platform/ Facility.
24. Loading (Unloading lines)
These lines are used in offshore operations and usually connect a production
platform or a subsea manifold to a loading facility (Single Buoy Mooring,
SBM). The lines can be small or large diameter and carry liquid only i.e. Oil can
be loaded to tankers at SBM.
Trunk lines/ Cross-country lines
Trunk/ Cross country lines transport oil and gas from one or many platforms to
shore terminal for quality maintenance in case of offshore operation whereas
to refining/ process plant in case of onshore operations..
Trunk line System
Transportation of crude oil by trunk pipeline makes it economically feasible to
produce oil in areas remote from processing points and markets.
Great advances have been and continue to be made in trunk line
transportation of crude oil. These include improvements in materials and
methods of pipe manufacture and better design and construction methods for
both pipelines and stations.
25. Hydraulic Analysis and Line Sizing
Economic Pipe Diameter
For a given flow rate of a given fluid, piping cost increases with diameter. But,
pressure loss decreases, which reduces potential pumping or compressing
costs. An economical balance between material costs and pumping costs is
important for designing the pipelines.
•The optimum pipe size is found by calculating the smallest
capitalization/operating cost; or using the entire pressure drop available; or
increasing velocity to highest allowable.
•The economic diameter will be the one which makes the sum of amortized
capital cost plus operating cost minimum. The total cost can be per unit time
or per unit of production.
•An approximate correlation for estimation of economic diameter is as
below:
Am0.45 0.027
D e = ------------------
0.31
Where
de = Economic diameter, inch
m = Mass flow rate lb/hr
= Fluid density, lb/ft3
A = Constant = 1.7
= Viscosity, cp
26. However, in order to work out the overall economics of the
system on long term operation of the pipeline, other relevant
factors can not be ignored. The purpose of pipeline hydraulics
analysis is to optimize pipeline size and to determine pumping or
compressor requirements.
1. Relevant Pipeline Parameters,
2. Liquid Pipeline Sizing,
3. Waxy Crude,
4. Gas Pipeline Sizing,
5. Two-phase Flow.
27. RELEVANT PIPELINE PARAMETERS
•FLUID VOLUME,
•DISTANCE,
•PRESSURE LOSSES
FLUID VOLUME
THE ANTICIPATED VOLUME OF THE FLUID TO BE TRANSPORTED IS
THE MAIN PARAMETER IN PIPELINE SIZING.
USUALLY THE AMOUNT OF GAS, CRUDE OIL OR PRODUCT THAT IS
DELIVERED TO THE MARKET VARIES FROM SEASON TO SEASON AND
EVEN DURING THE SAME DAY.
DESIGNERS MUST DESIGN TO DELIVER FUTURE PEAK VOLUME
PROJECTION AND ONE SATISFYING THE CURRENT PEAK MARKET
REQUIREMENT ONLY.
EXCESS CAPACITY WILL REDUCE THE PIPELINE PROFITABILITY,
WHEREAS TOO SMALL A LINE MIGHT NEED TO BE EXPANDED IN THE
FUTURE.
28. DISTANCE
THE P/LINE LENGTH BETWEEN THE SOURCE AND DELIVERY POINTS MUST
BE KNOWN.
NEEDS TO KNOW THE TYPE OF TERRAIN THE PIPELINE IS GOING TO
TRAVERSE AND THE ELEVATION PROFILE ALONG THE RIGHT-OF-WAY AS
IT AFFECTS PRESSURE LOSS AND POWER REQUIREMENTS.
DESIGNERS MUST ALSO CONSIDER ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS,
ECOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES AS IT MIGHT
IMPACT PIPELINE ROUTING THUS INCREASING PIPELINE LENGTH.
PRESSURE LOSS
KEY PARAMETER IN PIPELINE DESIGN. ACCURATE PRESSURE LOSS
PROJECTIONS ARE CRITICAL AS DIRECTLY IMPACTS THE ABILITY OF THE
PIPELINE TO MEET DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS.
AVAILABLE PIPELINE INLET PRESSURE AND OUTLET PRESSURE
REQUIREMENT AT THE DELIVERY POINT MUST BE KNOWN TO DETERMINE
THE PRESSURE LOSS / PUMPING HORSE POWER REQUIREMENT AS WELL
AS TO DESIGN PIPELINE SIZING
29. KEY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID
PLAY IMPORTANT ROLE IN DETERMINING THE PIPELINE
DIAMETER, SELECTING THE PIPE MATERIAL AND THE ASSOCIATED
EQUIPMENT AND THE POWER REQUIRED TO TRANSPORT THE
FLUID.
THE MOST IMPORTANT FLUID PROPERTIES THAT AFFECT
PIPELINE DESIGN ARE:
WATER, CO2, AND H2S CONTENT.
COMPRESSIBILITY
POUR POINT:
TEMPERATURE
SPECIFIC HEAT OF LIQUIDS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY & DENSITY
VISCOSITY,
VAPOR PRESSURE,
30. 1. WATER, CO2, AND H2S CONTENT
WATER CONTENT, AND CO2 AND H2S LEVEL IN THE TRANSPORT FLUID
WILL CAUSE INTERNAL CORROSION IN PIPELINES. THESE ARE
REQUIRED TO SELECT THE RIGHT PIPELINE MATERIAL (OR PROPER
COATING) TO PREVENT THE PIPELINE FROM INTERNAL CORROSION.
2. COMPRESSIBILITY:
NOT SIGNIFICANT WHILE DESIGNING PRESSURE DROPS IN LIQUID
PIPELINES. BUT SIGNIFICANT IN CASE OF GAS PIPELINE DESIGN.
MOST GASES DEVIATE FROM THE IDEAL GAS LAW.
THE TERM, SUPER COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR IS MORE SIGNIFICANT
AT HIGH PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS.
3. POUR POINT:
USUALLY DIFFICULT TO PUMP OILS BUT CAN BE PUMPED BELOW
THEIR POUR POINT UNDER SPECIAL CONDITIONS WHICH NEED TO BE
GENERATED DURING PUMPING HENCE IMPORTANT AT DESIGNING
STAGE
31. 4. TEMPERATURE:
AFFECTS PIPELINE CAPACITY BOTH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY. IN CASE OF GAS,
LOWER THE OPERATING TEMPERATURE, GREATER THE CAPACITY. TEMPERATURE
ALSO AFFECTS THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE LINE PIPE WHICH MAY AFFECT
THE STRENGTH OF THE PIPE BODY AS WELL AS THE ULTIMATE UPSTREAM
PRESSURE LIMIT. LIQUIDS OF LOWER POUR POINT MAY STOP FLOWING ON
REDUCTION OF THE TEMPERATURE, REQUIRE HIGHER PRESSURE TO FLOW THE
OIL.
5. SPECIFIC HEAT OF LIQUIDS:
PLAYS IMPORTANT ROLE IN MAINTAINING THE FLOW ASSURANCE IN THE
PIPELINE. HIGHER THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE FLUID HIGHER THE CAPACITY TO
RETAIN HEAT ENERGY AND LESSER THE HEAT LOSS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
DURING FLUID TRANSPORTATION.
ALSO, EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES VARY WITH EFFECT OF TEMP.
CHANGE. THE TEMPERATURE CHANGES ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
SPECIFIC HEATS OF THE FLUID SUBJECT TO NO CHANGE IN HEAT ENERGY OF THE
SYSTEM.
6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITY:
THESE ARE THE SYNONYMOUS OF THE WEIGHT OF THE FLUID AND DIRECTLY
AFFECT THE DESIGN PARAMETER/ RESULTS. HIGHER THE DENSITY MORE IS
THE PRESSURE DROP.
32. 7. VISCOSITY
IS A MEASURE OF A FLUIDS INTERNAL RESISTANCE TO FLOW.
IT IS DETERMINED EITHER BY MEASURING THE SHEAR FORCE REQUIRED
TO PRODUCE A GIVEN SHEAR GRADIENT
OR
BY OBSERVING THE TIME REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN VOLUME OF LIQUID TO
FLOW THROUGH A CAPILLARY OR RESTRICTION.
FLUID VISCOSITY VARIES WITH TEMPERATURE.
FOR LIQUIDS, VISCOSITY DECREASES WITH INCREASING TEMPERATURE.
GAS VISCOSITY DEPENDS ON TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE DENSITY, AND
PRESSURE.
8. VAPOR PRESSURE
IS THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY THE VAPOR IN THE LIQUID PHASE IN A
CONFINED CONTAINER AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE. VAPOR PRESSURE
INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE.
VAPOR PRESSURE DETERMINES THE OPERATING CONDITIONS AT WHICH A
FLUID MOVES FROM SINGLE-PHASE FLOW (LIQUID PHASE) INTO TWO-
PHASE FLOW, A MIXTURE OF GAS AND LIQUID.
33. PRESSURE LOSSES
IS THE SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT PARAMETER IN PIPELINE DESIGN.
AN ACCURATE PRESSURE LOSS PROJECTION DETERMINES THE DIA
METER AND THICKNESS OF A PIPELINE FOR A SPECIFIC THROUGHPUT
REQUIREMENT.
PRESSURE LOSS DURING FLOW IN A PIPELINE OCCURS FOR THE
FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. FRICTION LOSS,
2. ELEVATION LOSS,
3. ACCELERATION LOSS, AND
4. SPECIAL LOSS
34. THE TOTAL PRESSURE LOSS ACROSS A PIPELINE SYSTEM IS THE SUMMATION OF
THESE INDIVIDUAL LOSSES
35. FRICTION LOSS
MAJOR COMPONENT OF THE PRESSURE LOSS THAT OCCURS DURING
FLOW THROUGH A PIPELINE.
CAUSED BY THE RESISTANCE TO FLOW DUE TO FLUID VISCOSITY.
FRICTIONAL PRESSURE LOSS DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING:
•VISCOSITY OF THE FLUID,
•FLUID VELOCITY,
•DENSITY OF THE FLUID,
•INTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE PIPE,
•INTERNAL ROUGHNESS OF THE PIPE.
FRICTION LOSS INCREASES WITH DENSITY, WHILE IT DECREASES
DRAMATICALLY WITH THE INCREASE IN PIPE DIAMETER.
FRICTION LOSSES INCREASE WITH THE INCREASING INTERNAL PIPE
ROUGHNESS.
TURBULENT FLOW PRODUCES A HIGHER-PRESSURE DROP THAN LAMINAR
FLOW.
36. FRICTIONAL PRESSURE LOSS IS USUALLY DETERMINED USING WHAT IS COMMONLY
KNOWN AS DARCY’S FORMULA, NAMED AFTER THE NINETEENTH CENTURY FRENCH
ENGINEER, HENRY DARCY, WHO EXPERIMENTED WITH FLUID HYDRAULICS
37. FRICTION FACTOR, F, LARGELY DEPENDS ON
1. THE REYNOLDS NUMBER OF THE FLUID FLOW
2. RELATIVE ROUGHNESS OF THE PIPE SURFACE
REYNOLDS NUMBER IS A DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER RELATING
VELOCITY AND VISCOSITY INDICATING WHETHER FLUID IS IN
LAMINAR OR TURBULENT FLOW CONDITIONS. MOST FLUID
FLOWS ENCOUNTERED ARE USUALLY IN THE TURBULENT
FLOW REGION, WITH THE ONLY EXCEPTION OF VERY HEAVY
VISCOUS CRUDES, WHICH MAY EXHIBIT LAMINAR FLOW.
THE RELATIVE ROUGHNESS IS THE ROUGHNESS OF THE
INTERNAL SURFACE OF THE PIPE WALL DIVIDED BY THE
INTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE PIPE. IT IS DIMENSIONLESS.
38.
39. ELEVATION LOSS
IT IS ESSENTIAL TO KNOW THE ELEVATION PROFILE OF THE TERRAIN TO
BE TRAVERSED BY THE PIPELINE.
PRESSURE DIFFERENCES CORRESPONDING TO THE DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION OR "HEAD" BETWEEN THE PUMPING STATION AND THE
DELIVERY POINT MUST BE CONSIDERED.
THIS DIFFERENCE IN PIPELINE ELEVATION CAUSES WHAT IS KNOWN AS,
THE ELEVATION PRESSURE LOSS OR GAIN DEPENDING ON WHETHER THE
ELEVATION IS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE. IT IS GIVEN BY THE EQUATION .
40. ACCELERATION LOSS
ACCELERATION LOSS IS THE PRESSURE LOSS ASSOCIATED WITH
ACCELERATION OF THE FLUID IN THE PIPELINE.
WHENEVER THERE IS A CHANGE IN PIPELINE DIAMETER, FLUID VELOCITY
CHANGES CAUSING EITHER ACCELERATION OR DECELERATION. ACCELERATION
LOSS IS GIVEN BY THE FOLLOWING EQUATION .
COMPARED TO THE OTHER LOSSES, ACCELERATION LOSSES IN A PIPELINE ARE
VERY SMALL AND ARE USUALLY IGNORED IN PIPELINE DESIGN.
41. SPECIAL LOSS
VARIOUS DEVICES INSTALLED IN A PIPELINE, SUCH AS, VALVES,
FITTING, ELBOWS, METERS, AND PRESSURE REGULATORS, ALSO
CONTRIBUTE TO PRESSURE LOSS IN PIPELINES.
THESE LOSSES ARE NORMALLY DETERMINED EXPERIMENTALLY
AND ARE EXPRESSED EITHER BY THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT
OR AS AN EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH.
THESE LOSSES ARE COMPARATIVELY SMALL AND ARE OFTEN
NEGLECTED.
HOWEVER, IN PLANT PIPING WITH MANY FITTINGS, VALVES AND
PUMPS, THESE LOSSES CAN BECOME SIGNIFICANT.
42. DIAMETER SIZING
PIPELINE DIAMETER IS NORMALLY DETERMINED BY A TRIAL AND ERROR
ITERATIVE PROCESS.
FIRST, A TENTATIVE PIPE DIAMETER IS SELECTED FOR THE DESIGN THROUGHPUT
RATE.
THEN, USING THE EQUATIONS GIVEN IN FIGURE 1 AND IGNORING ACCELERATION
LOSS, THE TOTAL PRESSURE DROP IS CALCULATED.
OUTLET PRESSURE IS THE DELIVERY PRESSURE, AND IS USUALLY DETERMINED
BY THE CUSTOMER’S REQUIREMENTS, SALES OR CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS.
IF THE CALCULATED PRESSURE LOSS FOR THE CHOSEN DIAMETER IS TOO HIGH,
THE INLET PRESSURE MAY EXCEED THE ALLOWABLE DESIGN PRESSURE.
IF THIS IS THE CASE, A LARGER PIPE DIAMETER IS SELECTED AND THE PROCESS
IS REPEATED. THE AIM IS TO SELECT AN OPTIMUM PIPE DIAMETER THAT CAN BE
SAFELY USED WITHIN THE PIPELINE OPERATING PRESSURE.
THE SAFE OPERATING PRESSURE IS DETERMINED BY DIVIDING THE YIELD
STRESS OF THE PIPE BY THE REQUIRED SAFETY FACTOR AS SPECIFIED BY THE
APPLICABLE REGULATIONS.
43. PUMPING POWER
IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSIDER THE WHOLE SYSTEM, INCLUDING THE AVAILABLE
INLET PRESSURE, REQUIRED OUTLET PRESSURE AND ANY PUMPING
REQUIREMENTS.
IF NOT ENOUGH PRESSURE AVAILABLE IN THE SYSTEM, PUMPS MAY BE
NECESSARY TO MOVE THE FLUID.
PUMPING POWER REQUIRED TO TRANSPORT A LIQUID CAN BE CALCULATED BY
EQUATION SHOWN AS UNDER.
THIS IS A SIMPLIFIED EQUATION, WHICH IGNORES THE EFFECT OF FLUID
TEMPERATURE AND VISCOSITY. HOWEVER, THIS FORMULA IS WELL ACCEPTED IN
THE INDUSTRY AND IS WIDELY USED.
44. DESIGN OF GAS PIPELINES: -
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PIPELINE DESIGN
GAS DENSITY
COMPRESSIBILITY
UNLIKE LIQUID, WHICH IS INCOMPRESSIBLE, GAS IS COMPRESSIBLE.
GAS DENSITY IS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND
MOLECULAR WEIGHT. THE EQUATION FOR GAS DENSITY IS SHOWN
HEREUNDER:
45. DUE TO THE NON-IDEAL BEHAVIOR OF NATURAL GAS, AN EXTRA
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z IS USED IN THE EQUATION .
THIS EXTRA COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR, Z IS AN EMPIRICAL NUMBER,
AND IS DEPENDENT UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL
GAS. FOR PERFECT GAS, IT IS EQUAL TO 1. FOR A NON-IDEAL GAS, IT IS
GREATER OR LESS THAN ONE DEPENDING UPON THE TEMPERATURE,
PRESSURE AND COMPOSITION AND IS DETERMINED BY EXPERIMENT.
46.
47. GAS FLOW PRESSURE LOSS
THE AGA EQUATION IS USED TO CALCULATE PRESSURE LOSSES IN
GAS PIPELINES.
48. LIKE THE DARCY EQUATION, IT ALSO REQUIRES A FRICTION FACTOR, F,
WHICH IS CALCULATED FROM THE MOODY EQUATION .
49. THERE ARE SEVERAL OTHER EQUATIONS AVAILABLE, SUCH AS
WEYMOUTH, PANHANDLE AND MODIFIED PANHANDLE FORMULA, BUT AGA
EQUATION IS WIDELY ACCEPTED AND USED.
THESE EQUATIONS ARE EXPRESSED BOTH IN METRIC UNIT AND BRITISH
UNIT.
•Panhandle - A :
q =K (Ts/Ps) 1.0788 X [(P1
2 – P2
2)/ (T f L Z a)] 0.5394 X (1/G) 0.4606 X (d) 2.6182 X (E)
Where,
fM = 0.085/ (NRe)
0.147
q = 435.87 [d2.6182/ γ g
0.0460] [Tb /P b] 1.07881 [(P1
2 – P2
2 /T z L)] 0.5394
Metric English
K = 3290 K = 435.87
1/f = 101(QG/d)0.1461 1/f = 52(QG/d)0.1461
50. Metric English
K = 3973 K = 737
(1/f)0.5 = 18.26(QG/d)0.1961 1/f = 16.7(QG/d)0.1961
•(Modified) Panhandle (Panhandle – B) :
q =K (Ts/Ps) 1.02 X [(P1
2 – P2
2)/ (TfLZaG0.961)] 0.510 X (d) 2.530 X (E)
Where,
f M = 0.015/ (NRe ) 0.392
q = 737 d2.530] [Tb /P b] 1.02 [(P1
2 – P2
2 /T z L γ g
0.961)] 0.510
51. Metric English
K = 1740 K = 433.49
f = 0.0109/d0.33 1/f = 0.008/d0.33
•Weymouth ( Equation for horizontal flow)
q =K (Ts/Ps) 1.02 X [(P1
2 – P2
2)/ (GTf L Za)] 0.5 X (d) 8/3 X (E) --------------1
Where,
f M = 0.015/ ( NRe ) 0.392 --------------------------------------------------------------2
qh = [18.062Tb / P b] [ (P1
2 – P2
2) D 16/3/ T Z L γ g ] 0.5 -------------------------3
52. GAS COMPRESSION – POWER REQUIREMENT
COMPRESSOR POWER REQUIRED TO TRANSPORT GAS THROUGH A
PIPELINE IS DETERMINED BY USING AN EQUATION, WHICH REQUIRES
SEVERAL PARAMETERS.
THESE PARAMETERS INCLUDE
FLOW RATE,
TEMPERATURE,
SUCTION PRESSURE,
DISCHARGE PRESSURE,
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
AND SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE FLUID