1 LAB MODULE 12: INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH Note: Please refer to the GETTING STARTED lab module to learn tips on how to set up and maneuver through the Google Earth ( ) component of this lab. KEY TERMS The following is a list of important words and concepts used in this lab module: Asthenosphere Extrusive igneous Metamorphic rocks Chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks Geologic time scale Organic sedimentary Cinder cone volcanoes Igneous rocks Rock cycle Clastic sedimentary Intrusive igneous Sedimentary rocks Composite Volcanoes Lithification Seismic waves Core Lithosphere Shield Volcanoes Crust Mantle LAB MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES After successfully completing this module, you should be able to:  Recognize and interpret the spatial patterns of volcanoes and volcanic activity at the global scale  Identify and characterize different rock types  Define the process of lithification  Recognize and differentiate the various internal layers of the Earth  Distinguish and describe the different types of volcanoes  Outline and explain the rock cycle  Interpret the topographic profile of a landscape 2 INTRODUCTION In this lab module, you will examine some of the fundamental concepts and principles related to the internal structure of the Earth. Topics include rock types, the rock cycle, geologic time and volcanoes. While these topics may seem disparate, you will learn how they are inherently related. The module starts with four opening topics, or vignettes, which are found in the accompanying Google Earth file. These vignettes introduce basic concepts related to Earth’s internal structure. Some of the vignettes have animations, videos, or short articles that provide another perspective or visual explanation for the topic at hand. After reading each vignette and associated links, answer the following questions. Please note that some components of this lab may take a while to download or open, especially if you have a slow internet connection. Expand INTERNAL STRUCTURE, and then expand the INTRODUCTION folder. Double-click Topic 1: The Earth’s Internal Composition. Read Topic 1: The Earth’s Internal Composition Question 1: What is the depth of the Kola borehole as a percentage of the Earth’s radius? Calculate using the following equation: A. (123km / 637km) * 100 = 19.3% B. (123km / 6370km) * 100 = 1.93% C. (12.3km / 637km) * 100 = 1.93% D. (12.3km / 6370km) * 100 = 0.193% Read Topic 2: Rock Types Question 2: What are alternative terms used in place of “extrusive” and “intrusive” igneous rock? A. Magma and granite B. Pumice and lava C. Volcanic and plutonic D. Vesicular and plutonic 3 Read Topic 3: Geologic Time Question 3: During the Devonian Period, where is North America located relative to the Equator? (Hint: Go to “Close-up: Phanerozoic Eon,” then click on Devonian in the time scale image) A. Predomi ...

1. 1
LAB MODULE 12: INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Note: Please refer to the GETTING STARTED lab module to
learn tips on how to set up and
maneuver through the Google Earth ( ) component of this lab.
KEY TERMS
The following is a list of important words and concepts used in
this lab module:
Asthenosphere Extrusive igneous Metamorphic rocks
Chemically precipitated sedimentary
rocks
Geologic time scale Organic sedimentary
Cinder cone volcanoes Igneous rocks Rock cycle
Clastic sedimentary Intrusive igneous Sedimentary rocks
Composite Volcanoes Lithification Seismic waves
Core Lithosphere Shield Volcanoes
Crust Mantle

2. LAB MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successfully completing this module, you should be able
to:
volcanic activity at the
global scale
ious internal layers of the
Earth
2
INTRODUCTION
In this lab module, you will examine some of the fundamental
concepts and principles related
to the internal structure of the Earth. Topics include rock types,

3. the rock cycle, geologic time
and volcanoes. While these topics may seem disparate, you will
learn how they are inherently
related.
The module starts with four opening topics, or vignettes, which
are found in the accompanying
Google Earth file. These vignettes introduce basic concepts
related to Earth’s internal structure.
Some of the vignettes have animations, videos, or short articles
that provide another
perspective or visual explanation for the topic at hand. After
reading each vignette and
associated links, answer the following questions. Please note
that some components of this lab
may take a while to download or open, especially if you have a
slow internet connection.
Expand INTERNAL STRUCTURE, and then expand the
INTRODUCTION folder. Double-click
Topic 1: The Earth’s Internal Composition.
Read Topic 1: The Earth’s Internal Composition
Question 1: What is the depth of the Kola borehole as a
percentage of the Earth’s
radius? Calculate using the following equation:
A. (123km / 637km) * 100 = 19.3%
B. (123km / 6370km) * 100 = 1.93%

4. C. (12.3km / 637km) * 100 = 1.93%
D. (12.3km / 6370km) * 100 = 0.193%
Read Topic 2: Rock Types
Question 2: What are alternative terms used in place of
“extrusive” and “intrusive”
igneous rock?
A. Magma and granite
B. Pumice and lava
C. Volcanic and plutonic
D. Vesicular and plutonic
3
Read Topic 3: Geologic Time
Question 3: During the Devonian Period, where is North
America located relative to the
Equator? (Hint: Go to “Close-up: Phanerozoic Eon,” then click
on Devonian in the time
scale image)

5. A. Predominately east of the equator
B. Predominately west of the equator
C. Predominately north of the equator
D. Predominately south of the equator
Read Topic 4: Volcanoes
Question 4: The Hawaiian Islands are composed of linear chains
of which of these types
of volcano?
A. Cinder cones
B. Shield volcanoes
C. Stratovolcanoes
D. Lava domes
For the rest of this module, you will identify and explain the
geographic distribution, patterns,
and processes associated with Earth’s internal structure. In
doing so, you will recognize and
appreciate the impact the interior of the Earth has on the
surface.
Collapse and uncheck the INTRODUCTION folder.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

6. Volcanoes are not randomly distributed across the globe; rather,
their locations are distinct
(commonly located on plate boundaries) and these patterns are
evident at regional to global
scales. Despite the potential dangers associated with volcanoes,
many cities are located near
areas susceptible to volcanic activity. In this section you will
describe the spatial patterns of
volcanoes and volcanic activity, and identify volcanoes located
near populous cites.
Expand the GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE folder. Double-click and
select the Mediterranean and W
Asia folder.
Question 5: Where will you find the majority of volcanoes in
Europe?
4
A. France
B. Greece
C. Italy

7. D. Germany
Uncheck the Mediterranean and W Asia folder. Double-click
and select Catania. Next, click
on the Etna symbol in the Google Earth Viewer. Read about
Mount Etna, located adjacent to
the city of Catania on the Island of Sicily. To close the
Smithsonian write-up on this volcano,
click the X in the top right corner of the window.
Question 6: What type of volcano is Mount Etna?
A. Composite
B. Cinder cone
C. Shield
D. Crater
Uncheck the Catania folder. Double-click and select the Africa
and Red Sea folder.
Question 7: Describe the general spatial pattern of volcanoes
found on the continent of
Africa (Hint: You might have to zoom in and out to view the
spatial patterns of the
volcanoes).
A. The volcanoes appear randomly distributed over most of
Africa

8. B. Many are found along the Great African Rift valley located
in eastern Africa
C. Many volcanoes form national borders of western and
southern African countries
D. The majority are found within the Sahara Desert region
located in northern Africa
Uncheck the Africa and Red Sea folder. Double-click and
select Nairobi. Next, click on the
Suswa symbol in the Google Earth Viewer. Read about Suswa,
located west of the city of
Nairobi, Kenya.
Question 8: What type of volcano is Suswa?
A. Composite
B. Cinder cone
C. Shield
D. Crater
Uncheck the Nairobi folder. Double-click and select
Philippines and SE Asia.
5

9. Question 9: Describe the general spatial pattern of volcanoes
found in this region (Hint:
You might have to zoom in and out to view the spatial patterns
of the volcanoes).
A. The volcanoes appear randomly distributed over most of SE
Asia
B. Many are found along the margins of this region
C. Many volcanoes form national borders among the island
countries
D. The majority are found on the island of Borneo and are
evenly spaced apart
Uncheck the Philippines and SE Asia folder. Double-click and
select Jakarta. Next, click on
the Pulosari, Perbakti-Gagak and Salak symbols in the Google
Earth Viewer. Read about these
volcanoes, located south of the city of Jakarta, Indonesia.
Question 10: What type of volcanoes are these?
A. Composite
B. Cinder cone
C. Shield
D. Crater

10. Uncheck the Jakarta folder. Double-click and select Hawaii
and Pacific Ocean.
Question 11: Describe the general spatial pattern of volcanoes
found in this region
(Hint: You might have to zoom in and out to best view the
spatial patterns of the
volcanoes).
A. The volcanoes appear randomly distributed over most of the
Pacific Ocean
B. Many are found along the margins of this region and near
islands or island chains
like Hawaii
C. Many volcanoes form national borders among the island
countries
D. There are few volcanoes in the Pacific; as a result, there are
no apparent trends
regarding their spatial patterns
Uncheck the Hawaii and Pacific Ocean folder. Double-click
and select Hawaii. Next, click
on the Mauna Loa symbol in the Google Earth Viewer. Read
about this volcano, located
southwest of the city of Hilo, Hawai’I, USA.
Question 12: What type of volcano is Mauna Loa?

11. A. Composite
B. Cinder Cone
C. Shield
D. Crater
6
Collapse and uncheck the GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES folder.
ROCK TYPES
As noted in the Introduction, all rocks can be classified as one
of three basic rock types:
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are further divided into extrusive igneous rock
and intrusive igneous rock.
surface.
there has been significant
erosion of surface material, intrusive igneous rock are not easily
detectable on the

12. surface (Figure 1).
Some intrusive igneous formations include:
o Dikes - vertical intrusive rock that formed from cooled magma
within fissures
that cut across older rock. Dikes frequently differ in
composition to the
surrounding bedrock.
o Sills - intrusive rocks formed in horizontal fissures. Sills are
often situated
between older layers of sedimentary rock.
o Batholith – a large pluton, or mass of rock that cooled and
solidified deep within
the Earth. Some batholiths are several hundred miles long.
Intrusive formations
(in red)
Figure 1. Igneous intrusive formation (Arbogast
2nd Ed).
Expand the ROCK TYPES and Igneous Rocks folders.

13. 7
Igneous rocks - Shiprock, NM
Double-click and expand the Shiprock, NM folder.
This feature is the remnant of a throat of a volcano, with
radiating dikes. This volcano erupted
over 27 million years ago.
Double-click the Ship Rock Tour link to view an animation.
Click Photo 1 for a different view.
Uncheck the Shiprock, NM folder.
Igneous rocks - Stone Mountain, GA
Double-click the Stone Mountain, GA folder.
This is a large pluton near Atlanta, GA that was formed during
the Devonian period in the
Paleozoic Era.
Double click the Stone Mountain Tour link to view an
animation.
Click Photo 2 for a different view.

14. Uncheck the Stone Mountain, GA folder.
Igneous rocks - Krafla, Iceland
Double-click the Krafla, Iceland folder.
The dark areas are a lava flow from the Krafla volcano in
Northern Iceland. The lava cooled
formed basalt and rhyolite, which are extrusive igneous rocks.
Double click the Krafla Tour link to view an animation.
Click Photo 3 for a different view.
Uncheck the Krafla, Iceland folder.
Question 13: What is the difference between the two types of
igneous rocks?
8
A. The ages of the rocks. Intrusive rocks are always older
B. Extrusive rocks were formed in water, intrusive rocks were
not
C. Intrusive rocks were formed in water, extrusive rocks were
not
D. Intrusive rocks were formed in the Earth, extrusive rocks

15. were not
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of sediments
(usually in a marine
environment) that under pressure slowly turn into rock.
Lithification (cementing of sediment
into rock) is an important process in the formation of this type
of rock.
There are three board types of sedimentary rock: organic,
clastic, and chemical precipitation.
eposition of
carbon based material.
Subjected to pressure, this material, over time, can form coal.
clasts or pieces of
weathered and eroded rocks. They are classified by grain size
and range from fine
grained claystone (Figure 2) to coarse grained conglomerate
(Figure 3).
Figure 2. Claystone (Wikipedia).
Figure 3. Conglomerate (Wikimedia).

16. through the precipitation of
calcium carbonate which is then deposited on the ocean floor.
Over time, enough
pressure can built such that lithification occurs creating this
type of sedimentary rock.
Limestone is a common example of a chemical precipitated
sedimentary rock.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GLMsed.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Conglom
%C3%A9rat.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5
9
Expand the Sedimentary Rocks folder.
Sedimentary rocks – West Virginia
Double-click the West Virginia folder.
This is a coal mine in West Virginia, where mountain top
removal is a common way of mining
this sedimentary rock. Coal is an economically important
sedimentary rock worldwide as nearly
40 percent of the electricity generated comes from coal power

17. plants (Worldcoal, 2006).
Click Photo 4 for a different view.
Uncheck the West Virginia folder.
Sedimentary rocks – Grand Canyon
Double-click the Grand Canyon, AZ folder.
The Grand Canyon is a showcase of clastic sedimentary rock.
Erosion by the Colorado River,
coupled with tectonic uplift, has exposed layers of different
types of largely sedimentary rock
dating back nearly 2 billion years to the Proterozoic period in
the late Precambrian Era.
Click the Grand Canyon Rock Layers folder to see an
illustration of a cross section of the
Grand Canyon.
Question 14: Why are there no rock layers younger than the
Kaibab formation?
A. All the rock layers are younger than the Kaibab formation
B. The Kaibab formation was the last layer to be deposited
C. The Colorado River eroded younger layers
D. The Great Unconformity is younger

18. Click Photo 5 to see various rock layers in the Grand Canyon.
Uncheck the Grand Canyon, AZ folder.
10
Sedimentary rocks – Rocky Mountains
Double-click the Rocky Mountains folder.
The Rocky Mountains in Canada are comprised primarily of
limestone and shale, suggesting at
one time this area was once covered by an ocean. Scientists
estimate this limestone was
created during the Paleozoic Era (350 million years ago), and
that uplift to create the mountains
began during the last half of the Mesozoic Era (180 million
years ago) (Gadd, 2008).
Click Photo 6 to see various rock layers in the Rocky
Mountains.
Question 15: Which type of sedimentary rock (organic, clastic
or chemical precipitated)
is present in this photo?

19. A. Organic
B. Clastic
C. Igneous
D. Chemically precipitated
Question 16: Describe why the process of lithification is
important in the formation of
sedimentary rocks.
A. It binds sediments into a solid mass through compaction
B. It adds a lithium which chemically binds the sediments into a
rock
C. Lithification does not play a part in the formation of
sedimentary rocks
D. Lithification only plays a roles with clastic sedimentary rock
formation
Uncheck the Rocky Mountains folder.
Metamorphic rocks
Figure 4. Gneiss, foliated (Wikimedia).
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Gneiss.jp
g

20. 11
Metamorphic rocks are formed from
igneous or sedimentary rocks that have
been subjected to heat and pressure; in
other words, the heat and pressure results
in the rearrangement or recrystallization of
minerals to form different minerals.
Metamorphic rocks formed from igneous
rocks are sometimes called meta-igneous.
Likewise, meta-sedimentary rocks are
metamorphic rocks formed from
sedimentary rocks.
Common metamorphic rocks include marble (from limestone)
and gneiss (usually from granite).
Metamorphic rocks are divided into two broad categories,
foliated and non-foliated:
minerals present align to
form bands.

21. -foliated rocks (Figure 4) lack this banding.
Metamorphoses can occur in two ways, namely contact
metamorphism and regional
metamorphism. The former happens over a small area and
entails magma coming in direct
contact with rock. The heat from the magma alters the crystal
structure of the rock. The latter
occurs over a much larger area and entails high heat and great
pressure altering rock.
Expand the Metamorphic Rocks folder.
Metamorphic rocks – Jeff Davis Peak
Double-click and select the Jeff Davis Peak folder.
This is Jeff Davis peak which is comprised primarily of
quartzite, a metamorphic rock formed
from sandstone.
Double-click the Jeff Davis Peak Tour link to view an
animation.
Click Photo 7 to see various rock layers of quartzite.
Uncheck the Jeff Davis Peak folder.
Figure 5. Marble, non-foliated (Wikimedia).

22. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Mississip
pianMarbleUT.JPG
12
Metamorphic rocks – Carrara, Italy
Double-click and select the Carrara Italy folder.
The white areas are marble quarries near Carrara, Italy, not far
from Pisa. The area is well
known for Carrara marble which is found in the surrounding
mountains. This marble is used for
statues and buildings such as the Pantheon in Rome.
Click Photo 8 to see a Carrara marble quarry.
Question 17: Why is contact metamorphism restricted to a small
area?
A. Because the body of protruding lava which causes contact
metamorphism is
relatively small in size
B. Because the body of protruding magma causes contact
metamorphism is relatively

23. small in size
C. Because only certain rocks can be metamorphosed and they
are generally found in
small quantities
D. Because all metamorphoses are restricted to small areas
Collapse and Uncheck the ROCK TYPES folder.
EARTH’S INTERIOR
By interpreting seismic waves from earthquakes, scientists have
divided the Earth’s interior into
three major sections: core, mantle, and crust.
Click Earth’s Interior and use the illustration to identify the
layers in the table below. Select
the correct answer from the list provided below.
Layer Composition Structure Depth
Q18 Iron Liquid 2250 km
Q19 Iron & Nickel Solid 1220 km
Q20 Iron, Magnesium & Silicon Solid 2230 km
Q21 Nickel Viscous 250-425 km

24. 13
A. Lower Mantle
B. Outer core
C. Inner core
D. Asthenosphere
E. Upper mantle
F. Lithosphere
Question 22: Explain how the structure of rock changes as you
go from the lithosphere
through the asthenosphere and upper mantle.
A. Solid rock, semi-solid rock, molten rock
B. Solid rock, molten rock, semi-solid rock
C. Semi-solid rock, molten rock, solid rock
D. Molten rock, solid rock, semi-solid rock
Collapse and Uncheck EARTH’S INTERIOR.
VOLCANOES

25. Volcanoes are divided into three types: cinder cone, composite,
(or stratovolcano) and shield.
These classifications are based largely on whether the eruption
is fluid or explosive in nature.
Expand the VOLCANOES folder. Double-click the Capulin
Mountain Tour link to view an
animation.
This is Capulin Mountain in New Mexico. It is a cinder cone
volcano. Cinder cone volcanoes are
the smallest of the three types of volcanoes and are
characterized by steep sides.
Double click and check the Folsom, NM box.
Double-click and select Folsom, NM.
Question 23: What is the contour interval of this map?
A. 1:24,000
B. 20 meters
C. 20 feet
D. 1929
14

26. Question 24: Based on the contour lines, what is the highest
elevation on this volcano?
A. 8,000 feet
B. 8,128 feet
C. 8,182 feet
D. 8,218 feet
Question 25: Based on the contour lines, what is the elevation
in the center of the
crater?
A. 7,800 feet
B. 7,775 feet
C. 8,125 feet
D. 7,900 feet
Uncheck Folsom, NM and then check Profile #1.
Right-click Profile #1 and then select Show Elevation Profile.
Question 26: What is the diameter of the volcano in miles?
A. 0.75 miles
B. 0.39 miles

27. C. 0.93 miles
D. 2.1 miles
Question 27: What is the average slope of the profile line?
A. 60.8%
B. 794 feet
C. 39.8%
D. 91.2%
Close the Elevation profile window and uncheck Profile #1.
Double click the Mount Baker Tour link to view an animation.
15
Double-click and select Mt. Baker, WA.
This is Mt. Baker in Washington State. It is a composite
volcano, which grows over the course of
several eruptions. They can remain inactive for hundreds of
years, but when they do erupt, they
tend to be quite explosive.
Question 28: What is the contour interval, in feet, of this map?

28. A. 1:24,000
B. 40 meters
C. 40 feet
D. 1989
Question 29: What is the highest elevation, in feet, on this
volcano?
A. 10,000 feet
B. 10,700 feet
C. 10,780 feet
D. 10, 870 feet
Uncheck Mt. Baker, WA and then check Profile #2.
Right-click Profile #2 and then select Show Elevation Profile.
Question 30: What is the approximate diameter (in miles) of the
volcano?
A. 1.5 miles
B. 7 miles
C. 5.7 miles
D. 2.6 miles
Question 31: What is the average slope of the profile line?

29. A. 89%
B. 32%
C. 92%
D. 78%
Close the Elevation profile window and uncheck Profile #2.
Double click the Kilauea Tour link to view an animation.
Double-click and select Kilauea Crater.
16
This is the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawai’i. It is a
shield volcano, whose eruptions are
characterized as being fluid and non-explosive – notice the
parking lot near the crater.
Question 32: What is the highest elevation of a benchmark (look
for “BM” on map) on
this volcano in feet?
A. 3,635 feet
B. 3,885 feet

30. C. 4,078 feet
D. 3,524 feet
Question 33: What is the elevation of the benchmark (denoted
by an “X”) in
Halema’uma’u Crater?
A. 3,421 feet
B. 4,231 feet
C. 2,431 feet
D. 3,412 feet
Uncheck Kilauea Crater and then check Profile #3.
Right-click Profile #3 and then select Show Elevation Profile.
Question 34: What is the approximate diameter of the volcano
in miles?
A. 24.5 miles
B. 16.9 miles
C. 32.8 miles
D. 18.5 miles
Question 35: What is the average slope of the profile line?
A. 63.1%

31. B. 3.3%
C. 10.8%
D. 2.9%
Collapse and uncheck the VOLCANOES folder.
17
ROCK CYCLE
Thus far, we know how each type of rock is formed. This
section addresses the rock cycle that
examines the processes and conditions in which one rock type is
changed into another.
Click ROCK CYCLE and answer the following questions:
Question 36: Which process changes igneous rock to
sedimentary rock?
A. Cooling that results in crystallization Cooling
B. Heating and pressure which leads to melting
C. Heating and pressure which leads to recrystallization

32. D. Weathering, erosion and deposition
Question 37: Which process changes sedimentary rock to
metamorphic rock?
A. Cooling that results in crystallization
B. Heating and pressure which leads to melting
C. Heating and pressure which leads to recrystallization
D. Weathering, erosion and deposition
Question 38: Which process changes igneous rock to
metamorphic rock?
A. Cooling that results in crystallization
B. Heating and pressure which leads to melting
C. Heating and pressure which leads to recrystallization
D. Weathering, erosion and deposition
Question 39: Which process changes metamorphic rock to
sedimentary rock?
A. Cooling that results in crystallization
B. Heating and pressure which leads to melting
C. Heating and pressure which leads to recrystallization
D. Weathering, erosion and deposition
Question 40: Which process changes magma to igneous rock?

33. A. Cooling that results in crystallization
B. Heating and pressure which leads to melting
C. Heating and pressure which leads to recrystallization
D. Weathering, erosion and deposition
Uncheck the ROCK CYCLE folder.
18
REFERENCES
Gadd, Ben (2008). Geology of the Rocky Mountains and
Columbias.
http://www.bengadd.com/Downloads/Geology%20of%20the%20
Rockies%20and%20Columbia
s%202008.pdf. [Date Accessed January 11, 2012]
World Coal Association. 2006.
http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-electricity/.
[Date Accessed January 11, 2012]
http://www.bengadd.com/Downloads/Geology%20of%20the%20
Rockies%20and%20Columbias%202008.pdf
http://www.bengadd.com/Downloads/Geology%20of%20the%20

34. Rockies%20and%20Columbias%202008.pdf
http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-electricity/