JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
REDUCING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS THROUGH FUNCTIONAL
COMMUNICATION TRAINING
EDWARD G. CARR AND V. MARK DURAND
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT STONY BROOK, STATE UNIVERSITY OF
NEW YORK AT ALBANY, AND SUFFOLK CHILD DEVELOPMENT CENTER
It is generally agreed that serious misbehavior in children should be replaced with socially appro-
priate behaviors, but few guidelines exist with respect to choosing replacement behaviors. We
address this issue in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we developed an assessment method for
identifying situations in which behavior problems, induding aggression, tantrums, and self-injury,
were most likely to occur. Results demonstrated that both low level of adult attention and high
level of task difficulty were discriminative for misbehavior. In Experiment 2, the assessment data
were used to select replacements for misbehavior. Specifically, children were taught to solicit atten-
tion or assistance or both verbally from adults. This treatment, which involved the differential
reinforcement of functional communication, produced replicable suppression of behavior problems
across four developmentally disabled children. The results were consistent with an hypothesis stating
that some child behavior problems may be viewed as a nonverbal means of communication.
According to this hypothesis, behavior problems and verbal communicative acts, though differing
in form, may be equivalent in function. Therefore, strengthening the latter should weaken the
former.
DESCRIPTORS: disruptive behavior, assessment, classroom behavior, communication, devel-
opmentally disabled children
A major portion of child behavior therapy is
justifiably concerned with the treatment of behav-
ior problems, given that such problems can seri-
ously disrupt the educational process (O'Leary &
O'Leary, 1977; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1977)
and in some cases may lead to institutionalization
This investigation was supported in part by U.S.P.H.S.
Biomedical Research Support Grant 2 S07 RR-07067-18
to the State University of New York at Stony Brook to the
first author and a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research to the
second author. Portions of this paper were presented at the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association,
Washington, D.C., August 1982, and Anaheim, California,
August 1983. This research was based on a master's thesis
conducted by the second author under the direction of the
first author.
We thank Martin Hamburg, Executive Director, Suffolk
Child Development Center, for his generous support, and
Roseann D'Evanzo, JoAnn Giles, Terry Leykis, Cathy Sher-
edos, and Doug Walters for assistance with data collection.
Finally, we thank Alan 0. Ross, Susan G. O'Leary, K. Dan-
iel O'Leary, Crighton Newsom, Paul A. Dores, and Daniel
B. Crimmins for their helpful comments.
Requests for reprints or individual data should be sent to
Edward Carr, Department of Psychology, State University
of New York, Stony Brook, New ...
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILL.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLkarenahmanny4c
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look.docxLynellBull52
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look for the data, but only identify them, name them and establish how you are going to use them and why.
· In the methodology there is a lack of explanation about what method is going to be used for the research and development (objective 2, hip n°1 and 3).
· Furthermore you don ‘t explain how you are going to study and analyze the economic growth and its relation with the ethanol and which data are going to be used for the research .
· If you mention an interview, you need to insert a copy of the list of question that will be ask and how you will use them in you investigation.
38 ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 31 NUMBER 4 2007
The Hope Connection A therapeutic summer day
camp for adopted and at-risk children with special
socio-emotional needs
Large numbers of North American and Western
European families are adopting children with serious
socio-emotional needs. Other children experience
similar deficits as a result of neglect and abuse by
carers. Often these children are diagnosed with
psychopathology and receive drug treatments that
can be ineffective and even detrimental. Karyn B
Purvis, David R Cross, Ron Federici, Dana
Johnson and L Brooks McKenzie report on The
Hope Connection, a project designed to meet the
needs of these at-risk children and their families. The
core of this project is a theoretically integrated
summer day camp offering activities that are attach-
ment rich, sensory stimulating and behaviourally
structured. Pre-test and post-test data indicate that
summer camp had a significant impact on the
children’s behaviour (n = 19), as indicated by parent-
report measures of child behaviour problems and
attachment. These findings are discussed with
regard to possible future directions of programme
implementation and evaluation.
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to explore a
camp structure that was developed to
address the enduring effects of early
deprivation upon the development of
adopted and other at-risk children.
Originally, internationally adopted child-
ren with histories of severe deprivation
and commensurate behavioural diff icul-
ties were the target population for this
intervention. However, a small number of
domestically adopted children were
included due to the urgent needs of these
families and the background similarities
of deprivation (Purvis, Cross and
Sunshine, 2007).
Although most adopted children do
not present serious problems in these
areas, many children from deprived
backgrounds do, and there is an undeter-
mined number of families who need
support addressing them. As noted in two
recent meta-analyses by Juffer and van
IJzendoorn (2005) and Meese (2005),
there is a scarcity of research on interven-
tions in these areas.
Specifically, three areas of psycholo-
gical development are likely to be
affected when inadequate care is pro-
vided: attachment, pro-social behaviour
and sensory processing. By integrating
these three as.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILL.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLkarenahmanny4c
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look.docxLynellBull52
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look for the data, but only identify them, name them and establish how you are going to use them and why.
· In the methodology there is a lack of explanation about what method is going to be used for the research and development (objective 2, hip n°1 and 3).
· Furthermore you don ‘t explain how you are going to study and analyze the economic growth and its relation with the ethanol and which data are going to be used for the research .
· If you mention an interview, you need to insert a copy of the list of question that will be ask and how you will use them in you investigation.
38 ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 31 NUMBER 4 2007
The Hope Connection A therapeutic summer day
camp for adopted and at-risk children with special
socio-emotional needs
Large numbers of North American and Western
European families are adopting children with serious
socio-emotional needs. Other children experience
similar deficits as a result of neglect and abuse by
carers. Often these children are diagnosed with
psychopathology and receive drug treatments that
can be ineffective and even detrimental. Karyn B
Purvis, David R Cross, Ron Federici, Dana
Johnson and L Brooks McKenzie report on The
Hope Connection, a project designed to meet the
needs of these at-risk children and their families. The
core of this project is a theoretically integrated
summer day camp offering activities that are attach-
ment rich, sensory stimulating and behaviourally
structured. Pre-test and post-test data indicate that
summer camp had a significant impact on the
children’s behaviour (n = 19), as indicated by parent-
report measures of child behaviour problems and
attachment. These findings are discussed with
regard to possible future directions of programme
implementation and evaluation.
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to explore a
camp structure that was developed to
address the enduring effects of early
deprivation upon the development of
adopted and other at-risk children.
Originally, internationally adopted child-
ren with histories of severe deprivation
and commensurate behavioural diff icul-
ties were the target population for this
intervention. However, a small number of
domestically adopted children were
included due to the urgent needs of these
families and the background similarities
of deprivation (Purvis, Cross and
Sunshine, 2007).
Although most adopted children do
not present serious problems in these
areas, many children from deprived
backgrounds do, and there is an undeter-
mined number of families who need
support addressing them. As noted in two
recent meta-analyses by Juffer and van
IJzendoorn (2005) and Meese (2005),
there is a scarcity of research on interven-
tions in these areas.
Specifically, three areas of psycholo-
gical development are likely to be
affected when inadequate care is pro-
vided: attachment, pro-social behaviour
and sensory processing. By integrating
these three as.
Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
Directions For each classmate post below reply with 200 words, de.docxmariona83
Directions: For each classmate post below reply with 200 words, demonstrate course-related knowledge, and contain a minimum of 1 citation in current APA format to support assertions.
Post 1: Specific learning disability (SLD) is a disability category included in the federal definition of educational disabilities. A learning disability is a disorder that generally includes the inability to use or understand language sufficiently enough to learn core academic subjects like reading, writing, or mathematics. The best practices for the identification, classification, and support of students in need of SLD services have been the focus of considerable research over the past century. The evidence-based practices schools have chosen to assess students who are at risk and identify SLD have ranged from the evaluation and comparison of test scores to more subject interventions and psychological assessments. As research uncovers more data regarding learning, each generation tries to improve how students are identified and classified (Fletcher, Stuebing, Morris, & Lyon, 2013). Currently, Multitiered system of supports (MTSS) is widely used in K-12 schools in the United States to identify and support students receiving SLD services. MTSS was intended to help all students by using a multifaceted approach to identifying students at risk or simply in need of additional support to be successful in a specific subject. MTSS includes evidence-based response to intervention (RTI) procedures (Barrett & Newman, 2018).
Barrett & Newman (2018) evaluated the effectiveness of MTSS for the identification and classification of students in special education departments serviced under the SLD label as well as the level of achievement attained over a period of ten years. Examining MTSS Implementation Across Systems for SLD Identification: A Case Study describes the effect of MTSS implementation on the identification and achievement of students in a midwestern regional educational service agency (RESA). The authors found that a significant body of research conducted in local schools showed improvement in academic achievement and student behavior when MTSS or RTI frameworks were implemented. Decreases in special education placements and less misclassification of learning disabilities were also significant (Barrett & Newman, 2018). However, these positive findings were shown to be incomplete or inaccurate by a recent nationwide study conducted across 13 states by the Department of Education (2015). This study revealed either a negative or neutral effect of MTSS on students. Referencing this seemingly contradictory data, Barrett and Newman (2018) recognize that one evidence-based approach is insufficient to meet the multifaceted and individual needs of students. The authors suggest that the reliance on IQ test and achievement test discrepancies, or an attempt to identify an SLD through a series of interventions are inadequate. There are a multitude of factors .
2022 Undergraduate Research Symposium: Dylan Wollschlager, Edlira Sako, Paris Simpson, Fatima Naeem, Dina Abbas
Graduate co-authors: Alana Keller, Bridget Murphy, Mareena Atalla
Role models include the person(s) one looks up to or wants to be like. Prior research is focused on role models' impact on children's health behaviors such as diet and exercise. Evidence suggests that children with a healthy role model tend to be healthier themselves. (Coto et al. 2019)
There is little inquiry into how role models influence children’s psychological health (e.g., general emotional wellbeing, prosocial behavior), furthermore, there is no research looking at how the accessibility (e.g., family member v. celebrity) of role models impacts psychological health. The purpose of this study was to explore the statistical relationship between the accessibility of role models and children’s well-being and prosocial behavior.
The sample includes 51 school-aged children (40 % girls) (M = 12.08 years, SD = 2.14) from the Downtown Boxing Gym afterschool program in Detroit. Data was collected as part of a needs assessment, using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (Goodman, 1997) along with measures designed by the family and child study group.
The results of an independent-samples t-test showed that there was no significant difference in emotion measure scores between the accessible (M = 8.87, SD = 3.01) and inaccessible groups (M = 8.83, SD = 2.37), t(52) = .053, p = .96. The results of an independent-samples t-test showed that there was no significant difference in prosocial behavior scores between the accessible group (M = 15.23, SD = 2.36) and the inaccessible group (M = 14.57, SD = 1.88), t(52) = 1.114, p = .27.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Celeste Kidd, a doctoral candidate in brain and cognitive sciences at the University of Rochester and lead author of the new study, suspected there might be a common misconception about the classic marshmallow study—namely, that waiting is always the right choice. While volunteering years ago at a homeless shelter for families in Santa Ana, Calif., she realized that all the kids around her would eat their marshmallows straight away, living as they did in an environment where anything they had could be taken away at any time. “Delaying gratification is only the rational choice if the child believes a second marshmallow is likely to be delivered,”.
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
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Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
Directions For each classmate post below reply with 200 words, de.docxmariona83
Directions: For each classmate post below reply with 200 words, demonstrate course-related knowledge, and contain a minimum of 1 citation in current APA format to support assertions.
Post 1: Specific learning disability (SLD) is a disability category included in the federal definition of educational disabilities. A learning disability is a disorder that generally includes the inability to use or understand language sufficiently enough to learn core academic subjects like reading, writing, or mathematics. The best practices for the identification, classification, and support of students in need of SLD services have been the focus of considerable research over the past century. The evidence-based practices schools have chosen to assess students who are at risk and identify SLD have ranged from the evaluation and comparison of test scores to more subject interventions and psychological assessments. As research uncovers more data regarding learning, each generation tries to improve how students are identified and classified (Fletcher, Stuebing, Morris, & Lyon, 2013). Currently, Multitiered system of supports (MTSS) is widely used in K-12 schools in the United States to identify and support students receiving SLD services. MTSS was intended to help all students by using a multifaceted approach to identifying students at risk or simply in need of additional support to be successful in a specific subject. MTSS includes evidence-based response to intervention (RTI) procedures (Barrett & Newman, 2018).
Barrett & Newman (2018) evaluated the effectiveness of MTSS for the identification and classification of students in special education departments serviced under the SLD label as well as the level of achievement attained over a period of ten years. Examining MTSS Implementation Across Systems for SLD Identification: A Case Study describes the effect of MTSS implementation on the identification and achievement of students in a midwestern regional educational service agency (RESA). The authors found that a significant body of research conducted in local schools showed improvement in academic achievement and student behavior when MTSS or RTI frameworks were implemented. Decreases in special education placements and less misclassification of learning disabilities were also significant (Barrett & Newman, 2018). However, these positive findings were shown to be incomplete or inaccurate by a recent nationwide study conducted across 13 states by the Department of Education (2015). This study revealed either a negative or neutral effect of MTSS on students. Referencing this seemingly contradictory data, Barrett and Newman (2018) recognize that one evidence-based approach is insufficient to meet the multifaceted and individual needs of students. The authors suggest that the reliance on IQ test and achievement test discrepancies, or an attempt to identify an SLD through a series of interventions are inadequate. There are a multitude of factors .
2022 Undergraduate Research Symposium: Dylan Wollschlager, Edlira Sako, Paris Simpson, Fatima Naeem, Dina Abbas
Graduate co-authors: Alana Keller, Bridget Murphy, Mareena Atalla
Role models include the person(s) one looks up to or wants to be like. Prior research is focused on role models' impact on children's health behaviors such as diet and exercise. Evidence suggests that children with a healthy role model tend to be healthier themselves. (Coto et al. 2019)
There is little inquiry into how role models influence children’s psychological health (e.g., general emotional wellbeing, prosocial behavior), furthermore, there is no research looking at how the accessibility (e.g., family member v. celebrity) of role models impacts psychological health. The purpose of this study was to explore the statistical relationship between the accessibility of role models and children’s well-being and prosocial behavior.
The sample includes 51 school-aged children (40 % girls) (M = 12.08 years, SD = 2.14) from the Downtown Boxing Gym afterschool program in Detroit. Data was collected as part of a needs assessment, using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (Goodman, 1997) along with measures designed by the family and child study group.
The results of an independent-samples t-test showed that there was no significant difference in emotion measure scores between the accessible (M = 8.87, SD = 3.01) and inaccessible groups (M = 8.83, SD = 2.37), t(52) = .053, p = .96. The results of an independent-samples t-test showed that there was no significant difference in prosocial behavior scores between the accessible group (M = 15.23, SD = 2.36) and the inaccessible group (M = 14.57, SD = 1.88), t(52) = 1.114, p = .27.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Celeste Kidd, a doctoral candidate in brain and cognitive sciences at the University of Rochester and lead author of the new study, suspected there might be a common misconception about the classic marshmallow study—namely, that waiting is always the right choice. While volunteering years ago at a homeless shelter for families in Santa Ana, Calif., she realized that all the kids around her would eat their marshmallows straight away, living as they did in an environment where anything they had could be taken away at any time. “Delaying gratification is only the rational choice if the child believes a second marshmallow is likely to be delivered,”.
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
1.Purpose the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness .docxcroysierkathey
1.
Purpose: the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness around stereotyping and how it can be very hurtful to some people.
2.
Audience: Anyone that uses stereotypical jokes or saying around people that are different than them even without realizing that they are making a stereotypical joke or statement.
3.
Genre: the genre that I will be trying to reach out to in this essay will be informational, reason being is that I mainly look at informational online documentaries and stories.
4.
Stance and tone: I’m just a young man who grew up around a lot of people from different places and have different cultures and never paid attention in my younger years to what was happening from stereotyping others that they are different till recently.
5.
Graphic design
: My essay will be a strict academic essay
.
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.2. Talk about the .docxcroysierkathey
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.
2. Talk about the interconnection between the aesthetic and the technical aspects of the film. This should include at least seven of the following: Editing, Film Structure, Cinematography, Lighting, Colors, Screenwriting, Special effects, Sound and Music.
3. After this course, will you see you favorite film in a different light? Why or why not?
.
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan Harlow?
Fargo and Town Manager Harlow are on a slippery slope to corruption. I think that Harlow is handling her position the correct way by trying to remain neutral and sticking to a code of ethics so the problem really comes down to the political actors in the town. It is good that Harlow declined the invite to the dinner party, and cracked down on employees playing politics at work, that is a step in the right direction to removing the possibility of political corruption.
2.What is the basis for your answer to question #1?
At the end of the article Harlow remembers another city manager saying “you never have more authority than the day you walk into your office” What I get from that, and what I think Harlow got from that is that when you come into a position as a public manager everyone is going to want something from you. Political actors are going to want political favors, quid pro quos, you have something that everyone else wants and they are going to try and get that from you.
3.What are your recommended solutions to the problems you identified?
I think the best thing to do would be to continue to try to remain neutral. It will always be impossible to please absolutely everybody so the best thing to do is try to avoid doing everything everyone asks and stick to some sort of code of ethics.
4.What points do you agree, disagree or want further discussion from your fellow classmates and why? (tell them not me)
I think the overarching theme of this article is that people are going to want things from the government. I agree with Harlow's steps to avoid political corruption in her administration by cracking down on political favors with the snow plows and referring to the ICMA code of ethics.
.
1.Writing Practice in Reading a PhotographAttached Files.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Writing: Practice in Reading a Photograph
Attached Files:
Bachman, Ieshia Evans, Baton Rouge (2016).jpg
(277.283 KB)
For this assignment, you will practice analyzing how various rhetorical elements contribute to the overall meaning of a visual image--in this case, a photograph. To begin, click on the attached image.
By way of some context, this photo was taken in 2016 at a protest rally in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The woman in the photo is named Ieshia Evans. The photographer is named Jonathan Bachman. Bachman's photo, which was first published by Reuters, was a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize in 2017. You can use this information to do more research on the image, if you like.
Now, review once again the Elements and Methods of Visual Rhetoric document and select from it
three
elements that you wish to discuss in relation to this photo. Please note that this is not a formal essay assignment, so do not treat it as such. For example, you do not need to create a formal introduction.
Begin by simply providing an
interpretive claim
--i.e., stating what you believe is the meaning or message of Bachman's photo. Ideally, this should be just
one
sentence (tho you can write two if necessary). After that, your document simply needs to contain
three paragraphs
, one for each rhetorical element you have selected. In each paragraph, you need to explain fully how the particular element contributes to the overall meaning or message of the image.
Note: Your assignment must be submitted as an attached .doc or .docx file. Name your file correctly, using your last name and brief description of assignment (e.g., Martinez, Photograph.docx).
2.
DB: Interpreting Political Ads
In this discussion board, you will be discussing and interpreting a recent political ad entitled "Mourning in America," which was produced by The Lincoln Project, a political action committee (PAC). If you are not familiar with the group, take a moment to research it, as that context will add to your understanding and interpretation. You can
click here
to view the ad.
As you watch "Mourning in America", think carefully about how this political advertisement compares and contrasts with Ronald Reagan's "Morning in America" ad, in terms of its rhetorical methods as well as its overall message. You will be asked to comment on
three
specific rhetorical elements, so decide which ones stand out most to you and take careful notes on those to prepare for the discussion.
When you are ready, click the link above to enter the Discussion Board, and then follow the instructions in the first thread posted in this forum for responding to this material.
Questions:-
Mourning in America
COLLAPSE
Your task here is to share with your peers your ideas on how
three
specific rhetorical elements or your choosing are used in this ad to make its appeal to an audience and to convey a message.
1. Identity the three rhetorical elements that you have selected and then
explain
how each .
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activitie.docxcroysierkathey
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activities, and others say they do not. Discuss arguments for both points of view.
2.What are some of the major privacy concerns in employing intelligent systems on mobile data?
3. Identify some cases of violations of user privacy from current literature and their impact on data science as a profession.
4.Search the Internet to find examples of how intelligent systems can facilitate activities such as empowerment, mass customization, and teamwork.
Note: Each question must be answered in 5 lines and refrences must be APA cited.
.
1.What is the psychological term for the symptoms James experiences .docxcroysierkathey
1.What is the psychological term for the symptoms James experiences after abstaining from consuming
alcohol? How do changes in the functioning of neurotransmitter systems produce these symptoms?
2.With reference to associative learning principles/models/theories, why does James consume alcohol
to alleviate these symptoms? What motivates his drinking behaviour given that he no longer enjoys this
activity (most of the time)?
3.How do these factors prevent James from quitting his drinking, and lead to a cycle of relapse when he
attempts to do so? Why are these processes important for our understanding of addiction and
substance use disorders.
1 Page
at least 3 sources
APA
.
1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with H.docxcroysierkathey
1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with Hadoop. Use APA format and Include at least 3 quotes from your sources enclosed in quotation marks.
2.Write at least 500 words discussing how insurance companies use text mining to reduce fraud. Use APA format and Include at least 3 quotes from your sources enclosed in quotation marks.
.
1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010 Why might focusin.docxcroysierkathey
1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010? Why might focusing specifically on ROA be misleading when assessing asset management (aka management efficiency)?
2.Why is ROE considered the most useful metric in measuring the overall ability of a business strategy to generate returns for shareholders?
3. How do the financial statements reveal company strategy (i.e., what story do the numbers tell and does that story align with the strategy of Starbucks?)?
.
1. Discuss the cultural development of the Japanese and the Jewis.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the cultural development of the Japanese and the Jewish heritage.
2. What are the cultural beliefs of the Japanese and Jewish heritage related to health care and how they influence the delivery of evidence-based healthcare?
A minimum of 2 evidence-based references
no older than 5 years is required.
A minimum of 600 words
(excluding the first and references page) is required.
.
1. Discuss at least 2 contextual factors(family, peers, school,.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Discuss at least 2 contextual factors(family, peers, school, community, work, etc.) that might make young people more or less likely to experience adolescence as a period of storm and stress.
2. How might the dramatic physical changes that adolescents undergo—and the accompanying reactions from others—influence other aspects of development, such as social or emotional development?
3. Describe some ways in which adolescent decision making is a product of interactions among puberty, brain development, cognitive growth, and contextual influences such as parents, peers, and community.
.
1.Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use senti.docxcroysierkathey
1.Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use sentiment analysis how political speech affects voters. Use at least 3 references in APA format.
2.Read the below article(link below) on statistics for categorical variables. Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use these statistics to help understand big data.
Link: https://uc-r.github.io/descriptives_categorical
.
1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Actthe S.docxcroysierkathey
1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Act:
“the Secretary [of the Food and Drug Administration] shall not approve for use in food any chemical additive found to induce cancer in man, or, after tests, found to induce cancer in animals.”
After this clause was adopted, no new additives could be approved for use in food if they caused cancer in people or animals.
The public loved this and industry hated it.
What do you think of this clause? Do you support it or do you oppose it?
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT or OPPOSE and then give your rationale. Then after you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
2.There was a law that individuals who were indigent and who wished to litigate could apply to the courts for a total waiver of the normal filing fee. In the legislative session, however, a statute was enacted which limits the courts' authority to waive filing fees in lawsuits brought by prisoners against the state government.
Under this new law, a court has to require the prisoner to pay a filing fee "equal to 20 percent ... of the average monthly deposits made to the prisoner's [prison] account ... or the average balance in that account", whichever is greater (unless this calculation yields a figure larger than the normal filing fee).
A prisoner (who was indigent) wanted to appeal his case and was to be charged this fee. He filed suit claiming it was unconstitutional to charge this fee to prisoners.
Choose the side of the prisoner or the side of the state and tell why you would rule for the side you chose.
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT PRISONER or OPPOSE PRISONER and then give your rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
3.A defendant pleaded guilty to receiving and possessing child pornography and was sentenced to 108 months in prison. The sentencing judge raised the defendant’s base offense level….by two levels because "a computer was used for the transmission" of the illegal material.
The appeal filed challenged the punishment enhancement (not his guilt of the base punishment.)
The defendant argued the law did not apply to him because he did not use a computer to transmit the material. (ie He was the receiver, not the sender, of the child pornography.)
Do you believe that the sentence enhancement should be upheld? Give an economic analysis and rational for your choice.
At the top of your post, please indicate SENTENCE UPHELD or SENTENCE REVERSED and then give your economic analysis/rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
4.The ordinance was enacted that gives tenants more legal rights including:
the payment of interest on security deposits;
requires that those deposits be held in Illinois banks;
allows (with some limitations) a tenant to withhold rent in an amount reflecting the cost to him of the landlord's v.
1.What are social determinants of health Explain how social determ.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are social determinants of health? Explain how social determinants of health contribute to the development of disease. Describe the fundamental idea that the communicable disease chain model is designed to represent. Give an example of the steps a nurse can take to break the link within the communicable disease chain.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
2. Select a global health issue affecting the international health community. Briefly describe the global health issue and its impact on the larger public health care systems (i.e., continents, regions, countries, states, and health departments). Discuss how health care delivery systems work collaboratively to address global health concerns and some of the stakeholders that work on these issues.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
.
1.This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have ta.docxcroysierkathey
1.
This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have taken some time to consider the role of the humanities in establishing socio-cultural values, including how the humanities differ from the sciences in terms of offering unique lenses on the world and our reality. Since one of the greatest rewards of being a human is engaging with different forms of art, we’ve taken some time this week to learn about what it means to identify and respond to a work of art. We’ve learned about the difference between abstract ideas and concrete images and concepts like structure and artistic form. To help you deepen your understanding of these foundational ideas, your Unit 1 assignment will consist of writing an essay addressing using the following criteria:
Essay Requirements:
• 1,000 words or roughly four double-spaced pages.
• Make use of at least three scholarly sources to support and develop your ideas. Our course text may serve as one of these three sources.
• Your essay should demonstrate a thorough understanding of the READ and ATTEND sections.
• Be sure to cite your sources using proper APA format (7th edition).
Essay Prompt:
• In this essay, you will consider the meaning of art and artistic form by responding to these questions:
o To what extent does Kevin Carter’s Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph (figure 2-5) have artistic form?
o Using what you’ve learned in Chapters 1, 2 and 14 explain if you consider Carter’s photograph a work of art? Be sure to point to specific qualities of the photograph to support/develop your response.
o How do you measure the intensity of your experience in response to Carter’s photograph? What does it make you see/feel/imagine and how does your response/reaction support Carter’s image as a work of art?
.
1.What are barriers to listening2.Communicators identif.docxcroysierkathey
1.
What are barriers to listening?
2.
Communicators identified the following as major listening poor habits. Search what each poor habit means and try to set an example using your own experience.
Poor listening habit:
Pseudo-listening, Stage hogging, Filling in gaps, Selective listening, Ambushing (
Definition & Example)
.
1.Timeline description and details There are multiple way.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Timeline description and details
: There are multiple ways to construct a timeline. Find one that fits you and your information.
Include 10-15 events, each including the following descriptors:
- titles of books or writings or some sort of identifier
- your age or some time reference
- and whether it was a positive or negative experience
.
1.The PresidentArticle II of the Constitution establishe.docxcroysierkathey
1.
The President
Article II of the Constitution established the institution of the presidency. Select any TWO Presidents prior to 1933 and any TWO Presidents since 1933 and for EACH one:
a.
Discuss
any
expressed
power used by each president and the
impact
that decision had on American society at the time of its use
b.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the presidential action taken and
WHY
c.
Describe
one
legislative initiative
promoted by each president and the
impact
on America at the
time of its passage
as well as what the impact of that legislation is
TODAY
d.
Discuss
one
executive order
issued by each president and whether you
agree/disagree
with the order and
WHY
1.
Select any FOUR United States Supreme court decisions related to Civil Rights/Civil Liberties and for
each one
:
a.
Describe
the facts of the case
b.
Discuss
the arguments of each side as it pertains to the
Constitutional issue
being addressed
c.
Explain
the decision citing
Constitutional rationale
of the court including any dissenting opinion if not a unanimous verdict
d.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the court’s decision and
WHY
.
1.What other potential root causes might influence patient fal.docxcroysierkathey
1.
What other potential root causes might influence patient falls?
2.
Equipped with the data, what would you do about the hypotheses that proved to be unsupported?
3.
Based on the correctly identified hypothesis in the case scenario, what would be your course of action if you were the CEO/president of St. Xavier Memorial Hospital?
4.
What do you think of the CNO’s (Sara Mullins) position of “waiting and seeing what the data tells us” instead of immediately jumping to conclusions?
.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISREDUCING BEHAVIOR PROB.docx
1. JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
REDUCING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS THROUGH
FUNCTIONAL
COMMUNICATION TRAINING
EDWARD G. CARR AND V. MARK DURAND
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT STONY BROOK,
STATE UNIVERSITY OF
NEW YORK AT ALBANY, AND SUFFOLK CHILD
DEVELOPMENT CENTER
It is generally agreed that serious misbehavior in children
should be replaced with socially appro-
priate behaviors, but few guidelines exist with respect to
choosing replacement behaviors. We
address this issue in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we
developed an assessment method for
identifying situations in which behavior problems, induding
aggression, tantrums, and self-injury,
were most likely to occur. Results demonstrated that both low
level of adult attention and high
level of task difficulty were discriminative for misbehavior. In
Experiment 2, the assessment data
were used to select replacements for misbehavior. Specifically,
children were taught to solicit atten-
tion or assistance or both verbally from adults. This treatment,
which involved the differential
reinforcement of functional communication, produced replicable
suppression of behavior problems
across four developmentally disabled children. The results were
2. consistent with an hypothesis stating
that some child behavior problems may be viewed as a
nonverbal means of communication.
According to this hypothesis, behavior problems and verbal
communicative acts, though differing
in form, may be equivalent in function. Therefore, strengthening
the latter should weaken the
former.
DESCRIPTORS: disruptive behavior, assessment, classroom
behavior, communication, devel-
opmentally disabled children
A major portion of child behavior therapy is
justifiably concerned with the treatment of behav-
ior problems, given that such problems can seri-
ously disrupt the educational process (O'Leary &
O'Leary, 1977; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1977)
and in some cases may lead to institutionalization
This investigation was supported in part by U.S.P.H.S.
Biomedical Research Support Grant 2 S07 RR-07067-18
to the State University of New York at Stony Brook to the
first author and a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research to the
second author. Portions of this paper were presented at the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association,
Washington, D.C., August 1982, and Anaheim, California,
August 1983. This research was based on a master's thesis
conducted by the second author under the direction of the
first author.
We thank Martin Hamburg, Executive Director, Suffolk
Child Development Center, for his generous support, and
Roseann D'Evanzo, JoAnn Giles, Terry Leykis, Cathy Sher-
edos, and Doug Walters for assistance with data collection.
Finally, we thank Alan 0. Ross, Susan G. O'Leary, K. Dan-
3. iel O'Leary, Crighton Newsom, Paul A. Dores, and Daniel
B. Crimmins for their helpful comments.
Requests for reprints or individual data should be sent to
Edward Carr, Department of Psychology, State University
of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794-2500.
(Quay, 1979). Behaviorists have developed treat-
ment strategies designed to decelerate problem be-
haviors, which indude procedures involving ex-
tinction (Lovaas, Freitag, Gold, & Kassorla, 1965),
time-out (Zeilberger, Sampen, & Sloane, 1968),
response cost (Iwata & Bailey, 1974), overcorrec-
tion (Foxx & Bechtel, 1983), contingent electric
shock (Carr & Lovaas, 1983; Lovaas & Simmons,
1969), and ecological interventions (Durand,
1983). The focus has been on eliminating behavior
problems, particularly those such as self-injury,
aggression, and tantrums, that are serious enough
to jeopardize the safety and effective functioning
of the target children and their peers.
There is consensus among researchers and cli-
nicians that the elimination of behavior problems
is an important first step in remediation. Ulti-
mately, however, the problematic responses must
be replaced with socially usefuil behaviors (Goldia-
mond, 1974). Because there are few guidelines
available to suggest what these replacement be-
haviors should be (Donnellan, Mirenda, Mesaros,
& Fassbender, 1983; Voeltz, Evans, Derer, &
111
1985, 189 111-126 NumBER 2 (summER 1985)
4. EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
Hanashiro, 1983), we sought to develop a method
for identifying and assessing those educational sit-
uations in which behavior problems reliably occur
(Experiment 1) and, second, we sought to use the
assessment information in order to select replace-
ment behaviors (Experiment 2).
Research on the functional analysis of behavior
problems provides a good basis on which to build
identification and assessment methods. This liter-
ature indicates that the factors responsible for the
maintenance of behavior problems fall into two
broad dasses: escape behavior, controlled by neg-
ative reinforcement processes, and attention-seek-
ing behavior, controlled by positive reinforcement
processes (Carr & Durand, 1985).
There is ample evidence to suggest that many
children learn to emit behavior problems in the
presence of aversive stimuli. The display of such
problems frequently results in the removal of these
stimuli, a dear example of a negative reinforce-
ment process (Patterson, 1982). In the dassroom
setting, instructional demands may frequently
function as aversive stimuli and a variety of be-
havior problems induding aggression, self-injury,
and tantrums may serve as escape behaviors that
effectively allow the child to avoid further partic-
ipation in instructional tasks (Carr, 1977; Carr &
Newsom, in press; Carr, Newsom, & Binkoff,
1976, 1980; Durand, 1982; Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer,
Bauman, & Richman, 1982; Romanczyk, Colletti,
5. & Plotkin, 1980; Weeks & Gaylord-Ross, 1981).
The literature also indicates that the display of
behavior problems often results in the child's re-
ceiving attention, a dear example of a positive
reinforcement process (Patterson, 1982; Wahler,
1976). Many investigators have presented data
congruent with the notion that behavior problems
may be a form of attention-seeking (Carr &
McDowell, 1980; Iwata et al., 1982; Lovaas et
al., 1965; Patterson, 1980; Wahler, 1969). These
studies also imply that children may learn to emit
behavior problems in response to low levels of adult
attention.
Given the results of the empirical investigations
to date, it is dear that any method used to assess
behavior problems should indude an analysis of
the effects of level of attention (to identify possible
attention-seeking functions) as well as an analysis
of the effects of task difficulty (to identify possible
escape functions). This rationale formed the basis
for the assessment procedures used in Experi-
ment 1.
Once it has been determined that a behavior
problem likely serves a specific social function (e.g.,
escape or attention seeking), one is in a position to
consider appropriate replacement behaviors. One
behavioral alternative to escape would be some
form of assistance seeking. For example, it may be
possible to teach the child a response that is effec-
tive in evoking teacher assistance with a difficult
task. Once assistance is provided, the task should
no longer be as aversive and therefore escape be-
6. haviors should decrease. Likewise, in the case of
behavior problems that are attention seeking, one
could teach the child an appropriate alternative
response that is effective in securing adult atten-
tion.
An important question concerns the form of the
response alternatives to be taught. Several studies
suggest that children can be taught to solicit at-
tention and assistance verbally (Seymour & Stokes,
1976; Stokes, Fowler, & Baer, 1978). Verbal
communication training is not typically used as a
method for controlling behavior problems. None-
theless, the analysis just presented suggests that if
communicative phrases are carefully chosen so that
they serve the same presumptive social functions
as the behavior problems they are to replace, then
deceleration of these problems should be possible.
This training strategy was explored in Experi-
ment 2.
EXPERIMENT 1
METHOD
Children and Setting
Teachers in a day school program for develop-
mentally disabled children were interviewed, and
the first four children who met both the following
criteria were selected for indusion in this study:
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
7. They displayed at least one problem behavior per
hour in the classroom and had expressive language
skill consisting, at a minimum, of single word ut-
terances. Based on these criteria, two males and
two females were chosen. Jim and Sue were 13
years old; Eve, 14; and Tom, 7. The medical staff
had diagnosed Jim as autistic; Sue and Eve as brain
damaged; and Tom as developmentally delayed
and severely hearing impaired. Tom wore a hear-
ing aid. On the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test,
the children's mental age scores were: Jim, 3 years;
Sue, 5 years, 10 months; Eve, 2 years, 5 months;
and Tom, 5 years. They displayed a variety of
aggressive, self-destructive, and disruptive behav-
iors that are defined in detail later. Jim and Tom
spoke spontaneously in complete sentences. Sue
spoke spontaneously in phrases of 2-3 words. Eve
was limited to using single noun labels, primarily
when prompted.
Sessions were conducted in a 5 x 10-m auxil-
iary dassroom located next to the regular dass-
room. The experimenter sat between two of the
children at a table on which various task materials
were placed. All materials were placed 0.3 m from
the child so that he or she could readily reach
them. If more than one set of materials was used
at a time, they were evenly spaced in front of the
child, also at 0.3 m distance. Small-group (two
children) instruction was used to approximate the
regular dassroom practice.
Experimental Design and Overview
In a given session, a child received either an easy
8. task or a difficult task; in addition, a child received
adult attention during either 100% or 33% of the
time intervals into which the session was divided.
The two levels of task difficulty and the two levels
of adult attention were combined to produce three
conditions: easy 100, easy 33, and difficult 100.
Comparison of easy 100 with easy 33 permitted
assessment of the effects of attention level (i.e.,
100% versus 33%) while task difficulty was held
constant. Comparison of easy 100 with difficult
100 permitted assessment of the effects of task
difficulty while attention level was held constant.
Easy 100 was designated as the baseline condition
with which the other two conditions were com-
pared. This designation was based on teacher re-
ports and our own informal dassroom observations
which suggested that a combination of easy tasks
and high levels of teacher attention generally re-
sulted in a low frequency of behavior problems.
The easy 33 and difficult 100 conditions alter-
nated with the baseline easy 100 condition in a
reversal design. The sequence of conditions was
counterbalanced across children to control for order
effects. Session length was always 10 min and 1-
3 sessions were run per day. When multiple ses-
sions were run on the same day, there was a 5-min
break between sessions.
Procedure
Easy 100. In easy 100, a child worked on
receptive labeling and match-to-sample and re-
ceived some form of adult attention for doing so
in 100% of the intervals in each session as deter-
9. mined by a time sampling procedure described
later. In the receptive labeling task, the child was
presented with several cards from the Peabody Pic-
ture Vocabulary Test, a measure of receptive la-
beling skill that is based on a series of picture cards
graded in difficulty. Each card on this test is di-
vided into quadrants, one picture per quadrant. A
card was placed on the table in front of the child
and the child was asked to point to the relevant
picture named by the adult (e.g., "Point to the
ball"). To ensure that this task was indeed easy,
an additional assessment was conducted prior to
the start of this condition. The child was twice
presented with the Peabody cards, and 20 cards
were selected on which the child always responded
correctly. These cards constituted the materials for
the receptive task.
For the match-to-sample task, 3 cards were se-
lected at random from the group of 20 cards de-
scribed above. One picture from each of the 3
cards was randomly chosen and 11 copies were
made of each picture. The three different pictures
were placed in a row in front of the child. These
pictures constituted the samples. The remaining 30
pictures (i.e., 10 copies of each picture) were mixed
together and placed in a pile 0.1 m behind the
113
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
samples. The adult pointed to the card at the top
of the pile of copies and said to the child "Match
10. this" or an equivalent statement. The child was
then expected to place the card on top of the cor-
rect sample. The children had considerable expe-
rience on matching tasks and therefore did not
require any prompts to match each card correctly.
Typically, they would match several cards from
the pile following a single command from the adult.
Whenever they finished matching all the cards, the
adult would gather up the copies, mix them to-
gether, and again place them behind the samples.
The procedure was then recyded.
On those rare occasions on which a child made
an error on either the match-to-sample or receptive
labeling tasks, the adult would say "No!" or
"That's not correct!" and go on to the next trial.
Correct responding produced verbal praise (defined
later). The two tasks were alternated, 5 min each,
within each 10-min session. The task sequence was
randomized across sessions.
In each session, the adult would deliver atten-
tion in the form of mands, praise, and comments.
A mand (e.g., "Point to the " on the recep-
tive labeling task, and "Match this" on the match-
to-sample task) was presented in every third re-
cording interval. Praise was given in a different
third of the intervals, either contingent on correct
responding (e.g., "That's right!") or contingent on
general task-related behavior (e.g., "You're work-
ing very nicely!"). While giving verbal approval,
the adult made eye contact with the child, smiled
or nodded or both, and delivered physical approval
in the form of pats on the shoulder, mussing the
child's hair, tickling, and related actions. Finally,
comments were made in yet a different third of
11. the intervals and consisted of a variety of descrip-
tive statements (e.g., "It's sunny today.").
The adult was cued by a bug-in-the-ear device
as to when to deliver attention (i.e., a beep oc-
curred every 10 s). In addition, the adult kept a
written tally of the various forms of attention de-
livered, which helped ensure that the three forms
of attention were given equally throughout the ses-
sion. Some form of adult attention (i.e., mands,
praise, or comments) was given in every interval
of the session, with the three forms being presented
in a random sequence within and between sessions.
A new trial began, every 30 s on the average, with
the presentation of a mand. Thus, there were 20
mands given during each 10-min session. This
procedure was in effect during all conditions. The
other child who was seated at the table was given
independent desk work to do while the session was
being run. When the adult was not attending to
the target child, the adult attended to (i.e., in-
structed and praised) the second child.
When a child displayed a behavior problem,
the experimenter reacted as follows. If the child
left his or her seat, the experimenter waited 10 s
for the child to return. If the child did not return,
the experimenter led the child back to his or her
seat without comment. The experimenter ignored
all other behavior problems (i.e., made no com-
ment) and continued with the task at hand unless
the behavior posed a physical risk. In that case,
the experimenter restrained the child. For example,
if the child struck the experimenter hard, the ex-
perimenter would grasp the child's hand and re-
12. strain it on the child's lap for a period of 5-10 s
while the experimenter would continue with the
task at hand. This procedure was in effect during
all experimental conditions.
In this and subsequent conditions, approxi-
mately one-third of the sessions were conducted by
an adult (randomly chosen from a pool of five
adults) who was naive to the purpose of the ex-
periment. The other sessions were conducted by
the second author.
Easy 33. In the regular dassroom, teacher at-
tention was typically low during independent work
assignments. Because match-to-sample was the
most commonly used task for developing indepen-
dent work skills, we chose it to assess the effects
of low rates of adult attention on the level of be-
havior problems. This test was consistent with
classroom practice and was a task that the children
could complete without error. The sessions were
conducted as in easy 100 but the amount of adult
attention was decreased. Specifically, mands and
praise were each presented during one-third of the
recording intervals as before; however, they were
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
now programmed within the same interval rather
than in different intervals as had been the case for
easy 100. Also, comments were discontinued. These
changes resulted in a decrease in overall adult at-
tention from 100% to 33% of the intervals, with-
13. out altering the amount of praise or mands given.
That is, in the one interval out of three that in-
duded attention, both praise and mands occurred
at a level equal to that in easy 100. During those
periods of time in which the adult was not attend-
ing to the target child, the adult worked with the
other child seated at the table.
Difficult 100. In the regular classroom, vocab-
ulary tasks typically generated many errors. Be-
cause receptive labeling of picture cards from a
Peabody language development kit was one of the
most commonly used tasks for building vocabu-
lary, we chose a similar task for difficult 100, to
be consistent with dassroom practice. To ensure
that the task was indeed difficult, we carried out
an additional assessment prior to the start of this
condition. Specifically, cards from the Peabody Pic-
ture Vocabulary Test were selected on which the
child scored at chance levels with respect to recep-
tive labeling (25% correct). The method for se-
lecting these cards was the same as that used in
easy 100. In all other respects, this condition was
run in the same manner as easy 100.
Response Definitions and Reliability
Three classes of responses were recorded: dis-
ruptive behavior, adult attention, and academic
behavior. Based on our preliminary classroom ob-
servations as well as teacher reports, we identified
three to five common topographies of disruptive
behavior for each child. These topographies in-
cluded aggression for all four children (poking or
hitting other people, or pulling their hair; striking
or knocking over objects); tantrums for Jim, Tom,
14. and Sue (any loud voalization or screaming ac-
companied by whining or crying); self-injury for
Jim, Eve, and Sue (hitting one's head with one's
hand; biting one's hand); opposition for Jim, Eve,
and Sue (saying "No" to an adult's request or
pushing away the task materials); out of seat for
Tom and Sue (child's buttocks breaking contact
with the seat of the chair for 3 s or more); and
stripping in the case of Eve (removing any article
of clothing from one's body).
Adult attention consisted of praise, mands, and
comments. Praise was defined as any form of ver-
bal approval delivered contingent on correct re-
sponding to a task (e.g., "That's right!") or con-
tingent on general cooperative behavior (e.g., "I
like the way you're working today!"). Mands were
defined as any task-related request made by the
adult (e.g., "Point to the truck" for the receptive
labeling task, or "Match this" for the match-to-
sample task). Comments were defined as any de-
scriptive remarks made by the adult (e.g., "There
sure are a lot of pictures," or "It's sunny today.").
Academic behavior was defined separately for
the two tasks. On the receptive task, a correct
response was scored if the child pointed to the
picture named by the adult. An incorrect response
was scored if the child pointed to one of the other
three pictures on the Peabody card or failed to
respond within 10 s. On the match-to-sample task,
a correct response was scored if the child responded
to the adult's command by placing one of the
copies of the pictures on top of the appropriate
sample. An incorrect response was scored if the
15. child placed the copy on top of the wrong sample
or failed to respond within 10 s.
All responses were recorded using a continuous
10-s interval procedure. Observers sat in a corner
of the room, 2.5 m from the child, and out of the
child's line of sight. A tape recorder equipped with
earphones emitted the recording interval number
at the end of each 10-s interval. The presence or
absence of the responses previously defined was
recorded for each interval.
Reliability observers were drawn two at a time
from a pool of four undergraduate students. All
observers were trained prior to the investigation by
recording in classrooms. Training proceeded until
the observers reached a criterion of 75% agreement
on all behavior categories with one standard ob-
server (an undergraduate who had extensive ex-
perience in behavioral recording). During the ex-
periment, reliability was assessed in 70% of the
sessions conducted for each child. Observer records
115
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
were compared on an interval-by-interval basis. For
disruptive behavior and adult attention, the reli-
ability index used was the number of agreements
divided by the number of agreements plus dis-
agreements multiplied by 100. Academic behav-
iors were scored on a trial-by-trial basis to yield
percent correct figures. The mean interobserver re-
16. liability was 80% or higher for all response cate-
gories.
REsuLTS
Validation of Task Difficulty and
Adult Attention Manipulations
For brevity, only group averages are reported;
however, in all cases, individual data were consis-
tent with the group means.
With respect to task difficulty, the mean percent
correct observed across the four children was 96.5%
in easy 100, 97.3% in easy 33, and 26.9% in
difficult 100. With respect to adult attention, the
mean level of this variable observed across the four
children was 99.7% in easy 100, 33.4% in easy
33, and 99.9% in difficult 100. Thus, we suc-
ceeded in creating two levels of task difficulty (an
easy level approximating 100% correct and a dif-
ficult level approximating 25% correct), and two
levels of adult attention (a high level approximat-
ing 100% attention and a low level approximating
33% attention). Finally, praise, mands, and com-
ments each occurred at an average of approxi-
mately 33% in all conditions except during easy
33 in which comments occurred at zero or near-
zero levels as planned.
Effects on Disruptive Behavior
Figure 1 shows the percentage of intervals in
which disruptive behavior occurred during each
session for the four children. There were three dis-
tinct patterns of disruptive behavior. Jim and Eve
were disruptive primarily in the difficult 100 con-
17. dition. Tom was disruptive primarily in the easy
33 condition, and Sue was disruptive in both easy
33 and difficult 100. As expected, disruptive be-
havior in easy 100 was negligible for all children
thus justifying our use of this condition as a base-
line. The filled circles in Figure 1 depict the results
of sessions run by naive experimenters. As can be
seen, there were no systematic differences between
these data points and those generated by the in-
formed experimenter (open circles).
DISCUSSION
The fact that there were several patterns of dis-
ruptive behavior displayed in Experiment 1 sug-
gests that more than one variable was controlling
the children's behavior. There is some evidence in
the published literature (Carmine, 1976) that long
intertrial intervals, such as those we used, may
contribute to off-task behavior. Nonetheless, we
felt that the use of long intervals was justified given
that a major educational goal for these children
involved group instruction, a situation in which
long intervals are inevitable. In fact, long intervals
did not in themselves guarantee disruptive behav-
ior. The nature of the task and level of adult at-
tention were the most reliable predictors.
Consider Jim and Eve. Their behavior problems
became more frequent when demands increased in
difficulty (difficult 100) but these children were
relatively well behaved in the other two conditions.
This behavior pattern is consistent with the notion
of escape responding. Specifically, it is hypothe-
sized that some children have a history of success-
18. fiully escaping from presumably aversive stimuli
(such as difficult task demands and ensuing failure)
contingent on the display of disruptive behavior.
If a child has this history, then difficult task de-
mands may eventually come to be discriminative
for the emission of problem behavior.
Tom's results suggest the operation of a second
controlling variable. His behavior problems be-
came more frequent when the overall level of adult
attention was reduced (easy 33) but he was rela-
tively well behaved in the other two conditions.
This pattern of behavior is consistent with the no-
tion of attention seeking. Specifically, it is hypoth-
esized that some children have experienced the fol-
lowing set of contingencies. First, the amount of
adult attention given to the child decreases to a
low level. From time to time, when the child mis-
behaves, the adult attends to the child. The cu-
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
J im
Easy Easy Easy Diff Easy Diff100 5 33 WIOT E 100 100 100
o..0o h o of o .
. .U
E v e
501
21
19. 0-
Tom
100
50J
01
a
II,
E a s y
100
EasyI -i- ~
E asy
100
A _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
D i f f
100
Eas
Easy
33
9-7
E asy
100
Easy
20. 33 :
Easy
100
Easy
33
Easy
100
I. . I . . I p
Eas Easy Easy
3 3
Diff
100 EasY10e
I .I I - - i. - - I -
Diff
100
Easy
100 I
b ~JoenOI
Diff Easy Diff Easy
100 1 100 1 100 i 100
Eas ~y,Diff Easy
100 100
Easy
21. 100
Easy
33
11
11
11
11
11
1
E asy
100
Easy
33
Easy
33
Easy
100
I.I.. I - i i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1012 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 21 22 2-3 24 25 i6 27
28 i9 30 31
Figure 1. Percent intervals of disruptive behavior as a function
of level of task difficulty (easy vs. difficult) and overall
level of adult attention (100% vs. 33% of total intervals). Open
cirdes depict sessions conducted by an informed experi-
22. menter; filled cirdes, sessions conducted by naive
experimenters.
mulative effect of this intermittent reinforcement
is that the misbehavior is strengthened. If a child
has this history, then low levels of adult attention
may eventually come to be discriminative for the
emission of problem behavior.
Sue differed from the other three children in that
her behavior problems appeared to be under the
control of both the occurrence of difficult task de-
mands and the presence of low levels of adult
attention. This response pattern is consistent with
the results of previously cited research indicating
that the behavior problems of a given child can be
controlled by more than one set of variables.
We would like to qualify our analysis by sug-
gesting that the pattern of results observed could
plausibly be attributed to other processes than those
mentioned. For example, behavior problems as-
sociated with task difficulty might stem from a
child's failure to attend to adult instructions. Like-
wise, behavior problems occurring after a shift to
low levels of attention might be viewed as adjunc-
tive behavior induced by a decrease in the richness
of the prevailing schedule of reinforcement. These
alternative explanations need to be evaluated ex-
perimentally; however, our assumption concerning
the primacy of positive and negative reinforcement
processes is at least as plausible and heuristic as
the alternatives just presented.
117
23. (A
- CZ
4 0
Cc _LUJ
LA>
U. >
0-
u.
LUI
X* Sue
100
50
04
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
SE SS IO N S
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
EXPERIMENT 2
In Experiment 2, we sought to reduce the be-
havior problems identified in Experiment 1 by
teaching the children verbal communicative phras-
24. es that served to elicit either adult assistance or
adult attention.
METHOD
Children and Setting
These were the same as in Experiment 1.
Experimental Design and Overview
The problematic situations identified for each
child in Experiment 1 constituted the baseline phase
in Experiment 2. The intervention consisted of two
phases: relevant response and irrelevant response.
Consider first the relevant response phase for
Jim, Eve, and Sue. Recall that these children mis-
behaved in the difficult 100 condition. Because
this condition involved difficult tasks, one treat-
ment strategy already noted would be to teach the
children to solicit adult assistance. A relevant com-
municative response for a child to make might be
a phrase such as "I don't understand." This phrase
would serve to prompt a teacher to provide help
on the difficult task. Accordingly, we taught this
phrase to the three children involved.
Consider next the relevant response phase for
Tom and again Sue. Recall that they misbehaved
in the easy 33 condition. Because this condition
involved low levels of adult attention, one treat-
ment strategy noted already would be to teach the
children to solicit praise. A relevant communicative
response for a child to make might be a phrase
such as "Am I doing good work?" This phrase
would serve to prompt a teacher to praise the child.
25. Accordingly, we taught this phrase to the two chil-
dren involved.
Of course, it might be argued that teaching a
child any communicative phrase would produce a
decrease in disruption. To control for this possi-
bility, we introduced an irrelevant response phase.
Specifically, we taught Jim, Eve, and Sue (who
misbehaved in difficult 100) to ask, "Am I doing
good work?" Because this phrase was pertinent to
soliciting praise but not assistance, it was desig-
nated as a communicatively irrelevant response with
respect to difficult 100. As such, we predicted that
it would function as a control, failing to bring
about any decrease in disruptive behavior. Simi-
larly, we taught Tom and Sue (who misbehaved
in easy 33) to say "I don't understand." Because
this phrase was pertinent to soliciting assistance but
not praise, it was designated as a communicatively
irrelevant response with respect to easy 33. There-
fore, we predicted that it would not produce a
decrease in disruptive behavior in this condition.
In short, during the irrelevant response phase, chil-
dren who misbehaved in the difficult 100 condi-
tion were taught the phrase that was relevant to
easy 33, and children who misbehaved in the easy
33 condition were taught the phrase that was rel-
evant to difficult 100. Figure 2 shows, in flow
chart form, the relationships between the behavior
of the child and the behavior of the experimenter
in Experiment 2.
The relevant and irrelevant response phases were
alternated with the baseline phase in a reversal
design, with the phases counterbalanced across
26. children. Because Tom was soon to be placed in
another school, he received a shortened version of
the design. Number of sessions per day and session
duration were the same as in Experiment 1.
Procedure
Baseline phase. All procedures and tasks used
in baseline were the same as those described in
Experiment 1 with two exceptions. First, after every
incorrect response in difficult 100, and after every
30 s on the average in easy 33, the experimenter
would ask, "Do you have any questions?" It was
necessary to indude this question in baseline be-
cause it was subsequently used in the relevant and
irrelevant response phases. The question was scored
as a mand. Second, during difficult 100, we used
40 different Peabody cards rather than 20. This
change was necessary because we anticipated that
a large number of cards might be needed during
intervention.
In this and subsequent conditions, approxi-
mately two-thirds of the sessions were run by an
adult (randomly chosen from a pool of five adults)
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
DI F F ICU LT IO0
( J i m , E ve, Sue)
EX PERIMENTE R C H L D EX PER I MEN T ER
27. E A S Y 3 3
( T o m , S u e)
BAS E LINED,, N o NetC
-~R es p onse Command
| N o W ait
R esp ons e S cn
Figure 2. Relationships between the behaviors of the child and
the behaviors of the experimenter during baseline (a
condition in which child verbal responses had not yet been
taught or were ignored if they had been taught), relevant
response (a condition in which the child's verbal response was
relevant to the situation evoking the problem behavior), and
irrelevant response (a condition in which the child's verbal
response was not relevant to the situation evoking the problem
behavior).
who was naive to the purpose of the experiment.
The other sessions were run by the second author.
Relevant response phase. This phase was iden-
tical to baseline except that it was preceded by a
training period. Specifically, each child was taught
to respond to the query, "Do you have any ques-
tions?" with either "Am I doing good work?" or
"I don't understand" depending on which state-
ment was relevant to the problem situation at hand.
Training was carried out in a single session con-
sisting of three stages. In stage one, the child was
verbally prompted by the experimenter to make
the requisite response (i.e., "Say, 'I don't under-
28. stand"' or "Say, 'Am I doing good work?"').
When the child correctly imitated on at least 8 out
of 10 trials, stage two began. In this stage, imi-
tation training was continued in the context of the
task itself. Specifically, in difficult 100 the exper-
imenter asked the child to point to the correct
picture. When the child made an error, the exper-
imenter said "That's not correct!" (as before) and
added, "Do you have any questions? Say, 'I don't
understand."' When the child imitated correctly,
the experimenter said a variation of the sentence,
"O.K., I'll show you" and pointed to the appro-
priate picture while verbalizing its label (e.g., "This
is a horse."). In easy 33, the experimenter asked
the child to match the pictures as before. Every 30
s, the experimenter inquired, "Do you have any
questions? Say, 'Am I doing good work?"' When
119
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
the children imitated correctly, the experimenter
said a variation of the sentence, "I like the way
you're working today. You're putting all the pic-
ture where they belong!" Verbal praise was always
accompanied by smiles and nods as well as physical
approval such as tickling and pats on the back.
When the child imitated correctly on at least 8 out
of 10 trials, stage three began. In this stage, the
adult's verbal prompts were faded out. That is,
the adult spoke the sentence "Say, ' ' more
and more quietly over trials.
29. Training was considered complete when the child
was responding correctly to "Do you have any
questions?" on 10 consecutive trials without any
prompts. At this point, regular sessions were again
conducted with each child as per the general base-
line procedure described previously. The adult con-
tinued to respond to each child's trained verbal
response with the appropriate consequence (i.e.,
assistance or praise). Because children in difficult
100 were now receiving assistance, they would oc-
casionally learn a new label. Therefore, to keep the
difficult 100 condition difficult, we replaced any
card that the child labeled correctly, twice in a row,
with a new card drawn from the pool of 40 cards.
Because Sue misbehaved in both difficult 100
and easy 33, she was trained in each condition
separately. Each day she received training in both
difficult 100 and easy 33 with sessions randomly
alternated between the two conditions.
Irrelevant response phase. This phase was con-
ducted in the same manner as the previous one
except that each child was taught to respond to
the experimenter's question in a manner opposite
that specified in the previous phase. That is, in
difficult 100, the child was now taught to answer,
"Am I doing good work?" and, in easy 33, to say
"I don't understand."
During difficult 100, the experimenter respond-
ed to the child's communicative phrase by praising
(e.g., "I like the way you're trying today."). How-
ever, assistance was not provided. During easy 33,
the experimenter responded by providing assis-
30. tance (e.g., "The picture goes here [pointing] just
where you put it last time."). However, praise was
not provided. In short, during the irrelevant re-
sponse phase, the children were taught phrases that
produced consequences that were presumably ir-
relevant to the problem situation. Specifically, the
children received praise in difficult 100, a situation
that called for assistance; and they received assis-
tance in easy 33, a situation that called for praise.
Response Definitions and Reliability
Disruptive behavior, adult attention, and aca-
demic behavior were recorded using the definitions
described in Experiment 1. In addition, two dasses
of child verbal responses were recorded. A relevant
response was defined as the phrase "Am I doing
good work?" emitted during easy 33, or the phrase
"I don't understand" emitted during difficult 100.
An irrelevant response was defined as the phrase
"I don't understand" emitted during easy 33, or
the phrase "Am I doing good work?" emitted
during difficult 100.
Reliability was assessed in 70% of the sessions
conducted for each child. The reliability procedure
and computation method were carried out as per
Experiment 1. The mean interobserver reliability
was 80% or greater for all response categories with
the exception of disruptive behavior for Sue, which
was 74%.
REsuLTs
Validation of Task Difficulty and Adult
Attention Manipulations
31. The validation data directly parallel those re-
ported in Experiment 1 and will therefore be pre-
sented briefly. In all cases, individual data were
consistent with group means.
With respect to task difficulty, the mean percent
correct across children varied from 25.0% to 27.4%
during all phases of difficult 100 and from 94.9%
to 95.4% during all phases of easy 33. During the
relevant response phase of difficult 100, a child's
score in some sessions ranged as high as 33% cor-
rect, reflecting the fact that, occasionally, the child
learned a new label. However, our practice of re-
placing learned picture cards with new ones en-
sured that the overall percent correct remained dose
to the desired 25% level. With respect to adult
attention, the mean level of this variable ranged
120
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
from 98.4% to 99.1% during all phases of difficult
100 and from 35.2% to 35.6% during all phases
of easy 33. Because both attention level and task
difficulty were held constant across phases, changes
in the amount of disruptive behavior across phases
cannot be attributed to changes in either of these
two variables. Finally, praise, mands, and com-
ments each occurred at an average of approxi-
mately 33% in all conditions except during easy
33 in which comments occurred at near-zero levels
32. as planned.
Child Verbal Responses
The relevant response category occurred during
an average of 36.8% of the intervals across chil-
dren during the relevant response phase. During
the other two phases, namely, baseline and irrele-
vant response, the relevant response category oc-
curred in only 2.3% and 3.7% of the intervals,
respectively. The irrelevant response category oc-
curred during an average of 10.1% of the intervals
across children during the irrelevant response phase.
In contrast, during the baseline and relevant re-
sponse phases, the irrelevant response category oc-
curred in only 1.7% and 1.1% of the intervals,
respectively. It should be noted that in the initial
baseline, none of the trained responses (i.e., rele-
vant or irrelevant) was observed to occur. These
responses were only observed during baseline ses-
sions that were conducted later in the experiment
(i.e., after training had taken place). Table 1 shows
the mean percent intervals in which each child
displayed either a relevant response or an irrelevant
response across the three phases of Experiment 2.
These individual data are consistent with the group
means just reported.
Effects on Disruptive Behavior
Disruptive behavior was reduced to low levels
after a child was trained to emit a relevant com-
municative response but remained high after a child
was taught an irrelevant communicative response.
The top panel of Figure 3 shows the percentage
of intervals in which disruptive behavior occurred
33. during each session for Jim. In baseline (before
Table 1
Child Verbal Response (Percent Occurrence) in Each Phase
of Experiment 2
Child verbal response
Child Relevant Irrelevant
Jim (Difficult 100)
Baseline
Relevant
response
Irrelevant
response
Eve (Difficult 100)
Baseline
Relevant
response
Irrelevant
response
Tom (Easy 33)
Baseline
Relevant
response
Irrelevant
response
36. any communicative responses were trained), Jim
displayed an average level of disruption of 36.2%.
Disruptive behavior during the irrelevant response
phase averaged 48.8%. In sharp contrast to the
above figures, Jim's disruption fell to a level of
0.5% in the relevant response phase. The data for
the other three children are similar to those for
Jim.
The filled circles in Figure 3 depict the results
of sessions conducted by naive experimenters. As
can be seen, there were no systematic differences
121
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
Figure 3. Percent intervals of disruptive behavior during
baseline, relevant response, and irrelevant response phases.
Open cirdes depict sessions conducted by an informed
experimenter; filled cirdes, sessions conducted by naive
experimenters.
The level of relevant verbal responses is indicated by stippled
bars and that of irrelevant verbal responses, by hatched bars.
between these data points and those generated by
the informed experimenter (open circles).
Figure 3 also displays for each child the level of
relevant and irrelevant responses across each phase
of the experiment. Consider Jim's data (top panel).
During the initial relevant response phase, Jim dis-
played sustained rates of the relevant response cat-
egory (stippled bars) across the entire phase. Sus-
37. tained rates of the relevant response were also
maintained during the later relevant response phas-
es. In contrast, consider the initial irrelevant re-
sponse phase. During this phase, the rate of irrel-
evant response (hatched bars) was not sustained
across sessions. By the end of the phase, the re-
sponse level had decreased to zero. This pattern is
also evident during the later irrelevant response
phase. It should be noted that all the response
patterns described above for Jim were also char-
acteristic of the responding of the other three chil-
dren. Finally, consider the baseline phases for the
four children. Occasionally, either relevant or ir-
relevant responses or both would occur during the
early sessions of these phases. In all cases, however,
responding showed a steady decline, generally to a
zero level, as the phase progressed.
DISCUSSION
In Experiment 2, task difficulty, overall atten-
tion level, and the level of praise, mands, and
comments were all held constant across phases for
each child. Therefore, decreases in the level of dis-
ruptive behavior cannot be attributed to changes
122
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING
in any of these variables. It thus appears that the
establishment of a functional communicative re-
38. sponse was the effective variable in reducing be-
havior problems.
The mechanism by which communication train-
ing works may be conceptualized as follows. Con-
sider first those children who exhibited behavior
problems in the difficult task condition. If difficult
task demands and subsequent failure are discrim-
inative for high rates of behavior problems, then
a procedure that reduces task difficulty and thereby
limits incorrect responding will effectively remove
the stimuli that are discriminative for problem be-
havior. The relevant communicative response (i.e.,
"I don't understand") functioned to elicit adult
assistance that resulted in the child's making a
correct (though prompted) response. In other
words, each time that the child made the verbal
request, the adult provided assistance, thereby sim-
plifying the difficult task and averting failure on
the part of the child. Thus, the stimuli controlling
high rates of behavior problems were effectively
eliminated and, not surprisingly, the child's be-
havior improved.
Consider next those children who exhibited be-
havior problems in the low attention condition.
Recall that in the baseline phase of this condition,
the adult attended to behavior problems on an
intermittent basis (e.g., the adult held down the
child's hands following a severe aggressive act but
simply ignored less severe aggressive acts). In other
words, attention-seeking behavior problems were
responded to inconsistently. In contrast, following
relevant response training, the child's attention-
seeking verbal requests (i.e., "Am I doing good
work?") were consistently reinforced. It is a well-
39. known operant principle that consistent reinforce-
ment is a more effective means of strengthening an
operant than inconsistent reinforcement (Sulzer-
Azaroff & Mayer, 1977). Therefore, it is plausible
that the observed decrease in attention-seeking be-
havior problems and concomitant increase in at-
tention-seeking verbal requests reflect the fact that
the communication contingency provided highly
consistent reinforcement for the latter behavior in
the face of highly inconsistent reinforcement for
the former behavior. The result was that the verbal
requests were strengthened and replaced the prob-
lem behaviors.
The conceptualization just outlined is further
supported by the results of the irrelevant response
phase. Consider first those children whose behavior
problems were set off by the presence of difficult
demands and ensuing failure. Merely teaching such
children to solicit praise (the irrelevant response)
would not remove the stimuli that evoke the be-
havior problems. Hence, one would predict that
the problems would remain frequent, a result that
was in fact observed. The praise-seeking response
was nonfunctional in the difficult demand condi-
tion since it did not evoke adult assistance. There-
fore, one could make a second prediction, namely,
that the response should extinguish and, indeed,
it did.
Consider next those children whose behavior
problems were hypothesized to be attention-seek-
ing. Simply teaching such children to solicit assis-
tance in the low attention condition should have
no effect. That is, an assistance-seeking response
40. would be nonfunctional because it would merely
evoke aid in the form of a brief confirmatory state-
ment (i.e., "The picture goes here.") rather than
effusive attention in the form of praise (e.g., "I
like the way you're working!") coupled with nods,
smiles, and physical approval (e.g., tickling). Again,
such a nonfunctional response would be expected
to have no decelerative effect on behavior problems
and the response would therefore be likely to de-
crease over time. Both expectations were con-
firmed. To sum up, the irrelevant response phase
demonstrated that not all communicative phrases
will be effective in reducing behavior problems.
The phrase that is chosen must be functionally
related to the specific nature of each child's behav-
ior problems. Or, to put it in other terms, the
specific form of the verbal response is not impor-
tant. What matters most is the consequence that
follows a particular verbal communicative act.
Of course, one could argue that behavior prob-
lems might also have been reduced without any
communication training; that is, one could simply
provide the children with assistance or praise where
123
EDWARD G. CARR and V. MARK DURAND
appropriate and not teach the children to request
these events verbally. However, this procedure
would place the child in a passive role, a role that
developmentally disabled children already play too
often. Communication training, in contrast, pro-
41. vides an important educative function in that chil-
dren learn that communicative behavior can pro-
duce consistent and useful social effects such as
eliciting assistance on academic work and praise
for good performance. In this manner, the child's
role becomes that of an active participant rather
than a passive recipient. Ultimately, one would
also like to drop the adult query, "Do you have
any questions?" and have the child emit the verbal
response spontaneously. This type of spontaneity
is an important focus of our current research deal-
ing with functional communication training as a
treatment for behavior problems.
Finally, we note that certain problem situations,
at least initially, may call for an intervention strat-
egy other than communication training. Children
who pose serious physical danger to themselves or
others through their behavior may require deceler-
ative treatments on a crisis intervention basis.
Eventually, however, the issue of teaching alter-
native behaviors will arise, and we offer commu-
nication training as one possibility.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Behavior problems can be reduced by teaching
children communicative phrases that are effective
in altering the stimulus conditions that control the
problems. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated an
assessment method for identifying, within an in-
structional context, those stimulus situations (i.e.,
difficult demands or low adult attention or both)
that were discriminative for child misbehavior. In
Experiment 2, we demonstrated that the com-
municative phrase that is selected to replace the
42. behavior problem must be functionally related to
the controlling stimuli. Communicative phrases that
were functionally unrelated were ineffective in re-
ducing behavior problems.
These data are consistent with a broader con-
ceptualization of misbehavior that has recently
emerged within the field. This conceptualization
has been referred to as the communication hy-
pothesis of child behavior problems. The hypoth-
esis states that behavior problems may function
like nonverbal communicative acts to request (i.e.,
mand) specific reinforcers that are socially mediat-
ed (Carr, 1985; Carr & Durand, 1985; Neel et
al., 1983; Reichle & Yoder, 1979).
There are several sources of data bearing on this
hypothesis. Within the field of psycholinguistics,
research suggests that many nonverbal behaviors
displayed by very young children, such as pointing
or showing objects to an adult, serve communi-
cative functions (Bates, Camaioni, & Volterra,
1975; Leung & Rheingold, 1981). Some of these
behaviors serve as nonverbal requests for adult at-
tention and others, as requests for specific rein-
forcing objects and events. Several developmental
psychologists have extended this analysis to other
nonverbal behaviors, in particular, those behaviors
that adults find disturbing. For example, studies
of early social behavior (Bell & Ainsworth, 1972;
Brownlee & Bakeman, 1981; Wolff, 1969) sug-
gest that crying and aggression in infants and tod-
dlers may also function as nonverbal requests that
are effective in reliably securing attention and ma-
terial reinforcers from adults as well as in termi-
43. nating aversive situations. Finally, in the area of
developmental disabilities, there is a substantial
literature demonstrating an inverse relationship be-
tween level of communicative skill and frequency
of behavior problems (Casey, 1978; Foxx & Liv-
esay, 1984; Shodell & Reiter, 1968; Talkington,
Hall, & Altman, 1971). This inverse relationship
has led some investigators (e.g., Shodell & Reiter,
1968; Talkington et al., 1971) to speculate that
behavior problems may function like nonverbal
communicative acts and that, once children are
taught more reliable ways to gain attention or es-
cape aversives (e.g., through speech), the behavior
problems are no longer as effective and disappear.
The communication hypothesis has heuristic
value in that it may lead to the formulation of
specific remediation strategies such as those de-
scribed above. It is likely that we will never be
able to demonstrate definitively that a particular
124
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND COMMUNICATION
TRAINING 125
child intended to ask for assistance or attention by
means of his or her misbehavior. Nonetheless, we
may find it helpful to view misbehavior as if it
were a form of nonverbal communication, specif-
ically, a request for certain behaviors on the part
of others. Then, reasoning analogically, we may
proceed by teaching those children whose misbe-
havior is construed as communicating a nonverbal
44. request for attention, a verbal means for obtaining
the same. In addition, we may teach those children
whose misbehavior is construed as communicating
a nonverbal request to escape, a verbal means for
obtaining assistance. Seen in this light, the key
notion underlying the effectiveness of communi-
cation training is that of functional equivalence.
Specifically, although two behaviors may differ in
form (e.g., aggression versus the phrase, "Am I
doing good work?"), they may nonetheless be
identical in function (i.e., both aggression and the
verbal request produce attention). The communi-
cation training strategy capitalizes on this equiva-
lence by strengthening a socially desirable form
(i.e., a verbal request) that serves the same pre-
sumptive function as a socially undesirable form
(e.g., aggression) thereby weakening or eliminating
the latter.
It is worth emphasizing that the strategy we
have described will fail unless there is functional
equivalence between the two forms. This point was
made dear in the irrelevant response phase during
which, for example, a verbal request for attention
was taught in a situation in which the misbehavior
ostensibly served an escape function. In this in-
stance, the verbal request and the misbehavior were
functionally nonequivalent and, as we have noted,
misbehavior did not decrease. The necessity for
equivalence emphasizes the extreme importance of
first performing a functional analysis of behavior
problems (as was done in Experiment 1) prior to
selecting specific communicative phrases designed
to replace these behaviors. Clearly, then, the notion
of functional equivalence is a cornerstone of the
communication hypothesis of behavior problems
45. and its associated method of treatment. In this
regard, the hypothesis is consistent with the central
thesis of the behavioral approach to psychology,
namely, that the understanding of human behavior
is best advanced through the analysis of function
rather than form.
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Received September 17, 1984
Final acceptance March 2, 1985