1) A cyber crime is a crime that involves a computer and the Internet. A forensics investigation involves gathering and preserving evidence in a way that is suitable for presentation in a court of law. Use the library to research any recent (within the past 12 months), real-world cyber crime. Discuss each of the following scenarios:
· What was the cyber crime? Who or what did the cyber crime affect?
· How did the cyber crime occur?
· In your opinion, how could the cyber crime have been avoided?
· How would you conduct the forensics investigation for this cyber crime?
Use and list at least 2 sources to support your response to the question. You may use the textbook as a resource. Be sure to use APA formatting for all references.
Responses to Other Students: Respond to at least 2 of your fellow classmates with at least a 100-word reply about their Primary Task Response regarding items you found to be compelling and enlightening. To help you with your discussion, please consider the following questions:
· What did you learn from your classmate's posting?
· What additional questions do you have after reading the posting?
· What clarification do you need regarding the posting?
· What differences or similarities do you see between your posting and other classmates' postings?
2) Antiforensic techniques make proper forensic investigations more difficult. Antiforensic techniques are deliberate and can reduce the quantity and quality of digital evidence. Antiforensic techniques can also be used to increase security. Use the library to research antiforensic techniques, and discuss the following:
· What are at least 3 examples of antiforensic techniques, and how are they used?
· Discuss how antiforensic techniques affect computer forensics, file recovery, and security.
Use and list at least 2 sources to support your response to the question. You may use the textbook as a resource. Be sure to use APA formatting for all references.
3) Review and reflect on the knowledge you have gained from this course. Based on your review and reflection, write at least 3 paragraphs on the following:
· What was the most valuable concept that you learned in this class that you will most likely use in your future career?
· What concept in this course provided the most insight to the technical aspects of computer forensics? Explain.
· The main post should include at least 1 reference to research sources, and all sources should be cited using APA format.
A Primer on the Validity of
Assessment Instruments Gail M. Sullivan, MD, MPH
1. What is reliability?1
Reliability refers to whether an assessment instrument gives
the same results each time it is used in the same setting with
the same type of subjects. Reliability essentially means
consistent or dependable results. Reliability is a part of the
assessment of validity.
2. What is validity?1
Validity in research refers to how accurately a study answers
the study question or the strength of the study c ...
FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS Planning Your Research ShainaBoling829
FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH
EFFORTS
Planning Your Research Project Chapter Four
What is the Research Design?
The research design is the general strategy that
provides the overall structures for the procedures
used in the research project. It is the planning
guide.
The Basic Format of the Research
Design
The question
The question converted to a research problem
A temporary hypothesis
Literature search
Data collection
Organization of the data
Analysis of the data
Interpretation of the data
The data either support or do not support the
hypothesis
Planning vs. Methodology
The general approach
to planning research is
similar across all
disciplines
The strategies used to
collect and analyze
data may be specific
to a particular
academic discipline
Research Planning Research Methodology
General Criteria for a Research Project
Universality (can be carried out by any competent
researcher)
Replication
Control (important for replication)
Measurement
The Nature and Role of Data
Data (plural) ‘data are’
Data ARE NOT absolute reality
Data are transient and ever changing
Primary Data are closest to truth
No researcher can glimpse ABSOLUTE TRUTH
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data
Any research effort should be replicable
Restrictions we identify are the criteria for the
admissibility of data
Standardize the data
Planning for Data Collection
What data are needed?
Where is the data located?
How will data be obtained?
How will data be interpreted?
Defining Measurement
Measurement is limiting the data of any
phenomenon – substantial or insubstantial – so that
those data may be interpreted and ultimately
compared to a particular qualitative or quantitative
standard
Measurement is ultimately a comparison: a think or
concept measured against a point of limitation
Types of Measurement Scales
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Nominal Scales
A nominal scale limits the data
Nominal measurement is simplistic, but it does divide
data into discrete categories that can be compared
to one another.
Only a few statistical procedures are appropriate
for analyzing nominal data (a) mode, (b)
percentage, and (c) chi-square test
Ordinal Scales
Ordinal scales allow us to rank-order data
In addition to using statistics we can use with
nominal data, we can also use statistical procedures
to determine (a) the median, (b) the percentile rank,
and (c) Spearman’s rank order correlation
Interval Scales
An interval scale is characterized by two features:
(a) it has equal units of measurement, and (b) its
zero point has been established arbitrarily
Interval scales allow statistical analyses that are not
possible with nominal and ordinal data
Because an interval scale reflects equal distances ...
Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument; How to Test the Validati...Hamed Taherdoost
Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tools to collect data in especially social science research. The main objective of questionnaire in research is to obtain relevant information in most reliable and valid manner. Thus the accuracy and consistency of survey/questionnaire forms a significant aspect of research methodology which are known as validity and reliability. Often new researchers are confused with selection and conducting of proper validity type to test their research instrument (questionnaire/survey). This presentation explores and describes the validity and reliability of a questionnaire/survey and also discusses various forms of validity and reliability tests.
FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS Planning Your Research ShainaBoling829
FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH
EFFORTS
Planning Your Research Project Chapter Four
What is the Research Design?
The research design is the general strategy that
provides the overall structures for the procedures
used in the research project. It is the planning
guide.
The Basic Format of the Research
Design
The question
The question converted to a research problem
A temporary hypothesis
Literature search
Data collection
Organization of the data
Analysis of the data
Interpretation of the data
The data either support or do not support the
hypothesis
Planning vs. Methodology
The general approach
to planning research is
similar across all
disciplines
The strategies used to
collect and analyze
data may be specific
to a particular
academic discipline
Research Planning Research Methodology
General Criteria for a Research Project
Universality (can be carried out by any competent
researcher)
Replication
Control (important for replication)
Measurement
The Nature and Role of Data
Data (plural) ‘data are’
Data ARE NOT absolute reality
Data are transient and ever changing
Primary Data are closest to truth
No researcher can glimpse ABSOLUTE TRUTH
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data
Any research effort should be replicable
Restrictions we identify are the criteria for the
admissibility of data
Standardize the data
Planning for Data Collection
What data are needed?
Where is the data located?
How will data be obtained?
How will data be interpreted?
Defining Measurement
Measurement is limiting the data of any
phenomenon – substantial or insubstantial – so that
those data may be interpreted and ultimately
compared to a particular qualitative or quantitative
standard
Measurement is ultimately a comparison: a think or
concept measured against a point of limitation
Types of Measurement Scales
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Nominal Scales
A nominal scale limits the data
Nominal measurement is simplistic, but it does divide
data into discrete categories that can be compared
to one another.
Only a few statistical procedures are appropriate
for analyzing nominal data (a) mode, (b)
percentage, and (c) chi-square test
Ordinal Scales
Ordinal scales allow us to rank-order data
In addition to using statistics we can use with
nominal data, we can also use statistical procedures
to determine (a) the median, (b) the percentile rank,
and (c) Spearman’s rank order correlation
Interval Scales
An interval scale is characterized by two features:
(a) it has equal units of measurement, and (b) its
zero point has been established arbitrarily
Interval scales allow statistical analyses that are not
possible with nominal and ordinal data
Because an interval scale reflects equal distances ...
Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument; How to Test the Validati...Hamed Taherdoost
Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tools to collect data in especially social science research. The main objective of questionnaire in research is to obtain relevant information in most reliable and valid manner. Thus the accuracy and consistency of survey/questionnaire forms a significant aspect of research methodology which are known as validity and reliability. Often new researchers are confused with selection and conducting of proper validity type to test their research instrument (questionnaire/survey). This presentation explores and describes the validity and reliability of a questionnaire/survey and also discusses various forms of validity and reliability tests.
NUR 440 Peer Review Guidelines and Rubric Overview Th.docxvannagoforth
NUR 440 Peer Review Guidelines and Rubric
Overview: The purpose of peer review is to facilitate quality-nursing care through best practice discovered in evidence-based research. According to the
American Nurses Association, “peer review in nursing is the process by which practicing registered nurses systematically access, monitor, and make judgments
about the quality of nursing care provided by peers as measured against professional standards of practice. Peer review implies that the nursing care delivered
by a group of nurses or an individual nurse is evaluated by individuals of the same rank or standing according to established standards of practice.” Peer review
helps not only the author but the reviewer as well through the development of a critical eye which can then be applied to their own work.
Prompt
As the reviewer:
When you peer review another’s work, you will critically evaluate and suggest improvements. You will likely read the abstract once or twice before delving in with
comments and first impressions. Using the checklist below, identify strengths and areas for improvement, being sure to address each critical element in your
review.
Peer Review Checklist:
x Aims and objectives: Is the purpose clearly stated?
x Background: Does the author offer background on the subject?
x Methods: Are the methods clearly stated? What type of method did the author use?
x Results: Are the results valid and reliable?
x Conclusions: Are the conclusions clearly stated and are they informed by the results?
x Relevance to clinical practice: Does the author state the relevancy to clinical practice?
x Articulation of response (e.g., citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, organization)
You will be evaluated on your peer reviews, not the abstract submitted, using the rubric below.
As the author of the abstract, remember the following:
x Read the review carefully, avoiding any desire to defend your choices.
x If you are unclear what the reviewer means, ask them to clarify.
x If you have any questions, feel free to pose them to the reviewer.
x Take special note of repeated commentary (e.g., grammar, citation, etc.) as this may signify an area for improvement.
x Thank the reviewers for their feedback. If some commentary was especially helpful, this is useful information for the reviewer.
x Accept that negative feedback comes with the territory. Your job is not to make everyone happy but to make your work the best that it can be.
https://americannursetoday.com/nursing-peer-review-principles-and-practice/
Guidelines for Submission: You must submit your abstract to the provided discussion for review by Sunday of the previous module. When choosing two abstracts
for review, be sure to select peers who have not yet received feedback. Each of your reviews should be 2–3 paragraphs in length.
Rubric
Critical Elements Exemplary (100%) Proficient (85%) Needs Improvement (55%) Not Evident (0%) Value
Analysis Mee ...
A guide to understand and application of Research Methodology for a research paper writing. This presentation has been prepared for a live webinar organised on 8th May, 2021.
Write a comprehensive analysis (5-7 pages) of an adverse event o.docxsmithhedwards48727
Write a comprehensive analysis (5-7 pages) of an adverse event or near miss from your nursing experience. Integrate research and data on the event to propose a quality improvement (QI) initiative to your current organization.
Health care organizations strive to create a culture of safety. Despite technological advances, quality care initiatives, oversight, ongoing education and training, legislation, and regulations, medical errors continue to be made. Some are small and easily remedied with the patient unaware of the infraction. Others can be catastrophic and irreversible, altering the lives of patients and their caregivers and unleashing massive reforms and costly litigation. Many errors are attributable to ineffective interprofessional communication.
This assessment’s goal is to address a specific event in a health care setting that impacts patient safety and related organizational vulnerabilities with a quality improvement initiative to prevent future incidents.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 1: Plan quality improvement initiatives in response to adverse events and near-miss analyses.
Evaluate quality improvement technologies related to the event that are required to reduce risk and increase patient safety.
Analyze the missed steps or protocol deviations related to an adverse event or near miss.
Analyze the implications of the adverse event or near miss for all stakeholders.
Outline a quality improvement initiative to prevent a similar adverse event or near miss.
Competency 3: Evaluate quality improvement initiatives using sensitive and sound outcome measures.
Incorporate relevant metrics of the adverse event or near miss incident to support need for improvement.
Competency 5: Apply effective communication strategies to promote quality improvement of interprofessional care.
Communicate analysis and proposed initiative in a professional, effective manner, writing clearly and logically, with correct use of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Integrate relevant sources to support arguments, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Instructions
For this assessment, you will prepare a comprehensive analysis on an adverse event or near miss that you or a peer experienced during your professional nursing career. You will integrate research and data on the event and use this information as the basis for a quality improvement (QI) initiative proposal in your current organization.
The following points correspond to the grading criteria in the scoring guide. The subbullets under each grading criterion further delineate tasks to fulfill the assessment requirements. Be sure that your adverse event or near-miss analysis addresses all of the content below. You may also want to read the scoring guide to better understand .
Data Collection Tools: Validity & Reliability.
Objectives:
Discuss types of measurement tools for collecting data for quantitative, qualitative and outcome research.
Differentiate between interview guide and interview schedule
Discuss reliability and validity of questionnaires.
Data:
The set of values collected for the variable of each of the elements belonging to the sample
Data sources include (Quantitative)
Surveys where there are a large number of respondents (esp where you have used a Likert scale)
Questionnaires, data collection tools/ instruments
Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding data into numbers)
Secondary data (government data; SATs scores etc)
Analysis techniques include hypothesis testing, correlations and cluster analysis.
Data sources include (Qualitative)
Interviews (structured, semi-structured or unstructured)
Focus groups
Questionnaires or surveys
Secondary data, including diaries, self-reporting, written accounts of past events/archive data and company reports;
Direct observations – may also be recorded (video/audio)
Ethnography
Data analysis; thematic or content analysis .
Data Collection:
“The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer queries, stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.”
Data Collection Methods:
Surveys, quizzes, and questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups
Direct observations
Documents and records.
Data Collection Tools for Quantitative Research:
Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes
Closed-ended surveys and online quizzes are based on questions that give respondents predefined answer options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-ended surveys – those based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio questions.
Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’), multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined information.
Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-scale, or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose from on a fixed scale.
Data Collection Tools for Qualitative Research:
1. Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires
Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires. The main difference between the two is the fact that closed-ended surveys offer predefined answer options the respondent must choose from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.
2. In-depth Interviews/ Face to Face Interviews
One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of data collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the interviewer collects data directly from the interviewee.
It is a Presentation on the Meaning, types, methods of establishing validity, the factors influencing validity and how to increase the validity of a tool
This handout is connected to the Mentoring Program Evaluation & Goals webinar from Monday, May 16, 2011, as part of the free monthly webinar series from Friends for Youth's Mentoring Institute.
Please respond to the followingAnalyze ONE of the Neo-Piageti.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Analyze ONE of the Neo-Piagetians’ theories of cognitive development
Examine the primary ways in which the chosen theory falls short in addressing adult learners from a different class, ethnicity, gender, and/or social context.
Suggest specific implications of applying the chosen conceptualization within a learning setting comprising adult learners. Justify your response.
.
Please respond to the followingBased on the discussion prepar.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Based on the discussion preparation for this week, suggest two biologically rooted approaches that instructors may use in order to facilitate learning of one particular task. Illustrate the process by which embodied learning would foster a deeper learning of the task in question.
.
More Related Content
Similar to 1) A cyber crime is a crime that involves a computer and the Inter.docx
NUR 440 Peer Review Guidelines and Rubric Overview Th.docxvannagoforth
NUR 440 Peer Review Guidelines and Rubric
Overview: The purpose of peer review is to facilitate quality-nursing care through best practice discovered in evidence-based research. According to the
American Nurses Association, “peer review in nursing is the process by which practicing registered nurses systematically access, monitor, and make judgments
about the quality of nursing care provided by peers as measured against professional standards of practice. Peer review implies that the nursing care delivered
by a group of nurses or an individual nurse is evaluated by individuals of the same rank or standing according to established standards of practice.” Peer review
helps not only the author but the reviewer as well through the development of a critical eye which can then be applied to their own work.
Prompt
As the reviewer:
When you peer review another’s work, you will critically evaluate and suggest improvements. You will likely read the abstract once or twice before delving in with
comments and first impressions. Using the checklist below, identify strengths and areas for improvement, being sure to address each critical element in your
review.
Peer Review Checklist:
x Aims and objectives: Is the purpose clearly stated?
x Background: Does the author offer background on the subject?
x Methods: Are the methods clearly stated? What type of method did the author use?
x Results: Are the results valid and reliable?
x Conclusions: Are the conclusions clearly stated and are they informed by the results?
x Relevance to clinical practice: Does the author state the relevancy to clinical practice?
x Articulation of response (e.g., citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, organization)
You will be evaluated on your peer reviews, not the abstract submitted, using the rubric below.
As the author of the abstract, remember the following:
x Read the review carefully, avoiding any desire to defend your choices.
x If you are unclear what the reviewer means, ask them to clarify.
x If you have any questions, feel free to pose them to the reviewer.
x Take special note of repeated commentary (e.g., grammar, citation, etc.) as this may signify an area for improvement.
x Thank the reviewers for their feedback. If some commentary was especially helpful, this is useful information for the reviewer.
x Accept that negative feedback comes with the territory. Your job is not to make everyone happy but to make your work the best that it can be.
https://americannursetoday.com/nursing-peer-review-principles-and-practice/
Guidelines for Submission: You must submit your abstract to the provided discussion for review by Sunday of the previous module. When choosing two abstracts
for review, be sure to select peers who have not yet received feedback. Each of your reviews should be 2–3 paragraphs in length.
Rubric
Critical Elements Exemplary (100%) Proficient (85%) Needs Improvement (55%) Not Evident (0%) Value
Analysis Mee ...
A guide to understand and application of Research Methodology for a research paper writing. This presentation has been prepared for a live webinar organised on 8th May, 2021.
Write a comprehensive analysis (5-7 pages) of an adverse event o.docxsmithhedwards48727
Write a comprehensive analysis (5-7 pages) of an adverse event or near miss from your nursing experience. Integrate research and data on the event to propose a quality improvement (QI) initiative to your current organization.
Health care organizations strive to create a culture of safety. Despite technological advances, quality care initiatives, oversight, ongoing education and training, legislation, and regulations, medical errors continue to be made. Some are small and easily remedied with the patient unaware of the infraction. Others can be catastrophic and irreversible, altering the lives of patients and their caregivers and unleashing massive reforms and costly litigation. Many errors are attributable to ineffective interprofessional communication.
This assessment’s goal is to address a specific event in a health care setting that impacts patient safety and related organizational vulnerabilities with a quality improvement initiative to prevent future incidents.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 1: Plan quality improvement initiatives in response to adverse events and near-miss analyses.
Evaluate quality improvement technologies related to the event that are required to reduce risk and increase patient safety.
Analyze the missed steps or protocol deviations related to an adverse event or near miss.
Analyze the implications of the adverse event or near miss for all stakeholders.
Outline a quality improvement initiative to prevent a similar adverse event or near miss.
Competency 3: Evaluate quality improvement initiatives using sensitive and sound outcome measures.
Incorporate relevant metrics of the adverse event or near miss incident to support need for improvement.
Competency 5: Apply effective communication strategies to promote quality improvement of interprofessional care.
Communicate analysis and proposed initiative in a professional, effective manner, writing clearly and logically, with correct use of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Integrate relevant sources to support arguments, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Instructions
For this assessment, you will prepare a comprehensive analysis on an adverse event or near miss that you or a peer experienced during your professional nursing career. You will integrate research and data on the event and use this information as the basis for a quality improvement (QI) initiative proposal in your current organization.
The following points correspond to the grading criteria in the scoring guide. The subbullets under each grading criterion further delineate tasks to fulfill the assessment requirements. Be sure that your adverse event or near-miss analysis addresses all of the content below. You may also want to read the scoring guide to better understand .
Data Collection Tools: Validity & Reliability.
Objectives:
Discuss types of measurement tools for collecting data for quantitative, qualitative and outcome research.
Differentiate between interview guide and interview schedule
Discuss reliability and validity of questionnaires.
Data:
The set of values collected for the variable of each of the elements belonging to the sample
Data sources include (Quantitative)
Surveys where there are a large number of respondents (esp where you have used a Likert scale)
Questionnaires, data collection tools/ instruments
Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding data into numbers)
Secondary data (government data; SATs scores etc)
Analysis techniques include hypothesis testing, correlations and cluster analysis.
Data sources include (Qualitative)
Interviews (structured, semi-structured or unstructured)
Focus groups
Questionnaires or surveys
Secondary data, including diaries, self-reporting, written accounts of past events/archive data and company reports;
Direct observations – may also be recorded (video/audio)
Ethnography
Data analysis; thematic or content analysis .
Data Collection:
“The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer queries, stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.”
Data Collection Methods:
Surveys, quizzes, and questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups
Direct observations
Documents and records.
Data Collection Tools for Quantitative Research:
Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes
Closed-ended surveys and online quizzes are based on questions that give respondents predefined answer options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-ended surveys – those based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio questions.
Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’), multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined information.
Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-scale, or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose from on a fixed scale.
Data Collection Tools for Qualitative Research:
1. Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires
Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires. The main difference between the two is the fact that closed-ended surveys offer predefined answer options the respondent must choose from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.
2. In-depth Interviews/ Face to Face Interviews
One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of data collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the interviewer collects data directly from the interviewee.
It is a Presentation on the Meaning, types, methods of establishing validity, the factors influencing validity and how to increase the validity of a tool
This handout is connected to the Mentoring Program Evaluation & Goals webinar from Monday, May 16, 2011, as part of the free monthly webinar series from Friends for Youth's Mentoring Institute.
Please respond to the followingAnalyze ONE of the Neo-Piageti.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Analyze ONE of the Neo-Piagetians’ theories of cognitive development
Examine the primary ways in which the chosen theory falls short in addressing adult learners from a different class, ethnicity, gender, and/or social context.
Suggest specific implications of applying the chosen conceptualization within a learning setting comprising adult learners. Justify your response.
.
Please respond to the followingBased on the discussion prepar.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Based on the discussion preparation for this week, suggest two biologically rooted approaches that instructors may use in order to facilitate learning of one particular task. Illustrate the process by which embodied learning would foster a deeper learning of the task in question.
.
Please respond to the following in an approx. 5-6 page paper, double.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following in an approx. 5-6 page paper, double-spaced, 12 point font:
Considering everything we have learned to date about Palestine: the history of the region, the contemporary events leading to the establishment of Israel, and the different factions involved, was the failure to find a sustainable solution for all sides inevitable? Why or why not?
Your essay must have a clear thesis, and be supported by specific examples from the material we have covered (lecture, text, etc.). You must also draw on some of the primary sources (documents), in order to support your position.
I will be sending you my id and password for all the presentation lectures.
.
Please respond to the followingImagine you have recently .docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Imagine you have recently been hired to be the Chief Learning Officer (CLO) for a corporation and have been tasked to establish a corporate university.
Discuss the various types of training media you would use to educate your corporate students and how these media would be put to use.
Make sure to include a rationale and at least one citation from your reading.
.
Please respond to one (1) the followingRead the article e.docxSONU61709
Please respond to
one (1)
the following:
Read the article entitled
“Leadership Excellence: Communicate Your Vision”
. Next, assess the consequences of leaders not being able to communicate their change vision. Discuss the outcomes of a change management plan with an under-communicated vision of change. Develop a strategy for avoiding under-communicating the change vision.
View the video titled “John Kotter – Communicating a Vision for Change” (4 min 16 s) below. You may also view the video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGVe3wRKmH0
. Next, assess the means of communication that are available to us as leaders. Review Kotter’s comments regarding communication, and efficient and effective communications. As the leader of a large organization implementing a change, develop a strategy for communicating your vision of change. Discuss the tools that the organization would use as well as the frequency of communication.
.
Please respond to the followingResearch on the Internet a rec.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Research on the Internet a recent public relations campaign that was undertaken to address a corporate scandal or misbehavior by a government official or celebrity, and study what part ethics played in the campaign, whether positively or negatively. Communications professor John Marston proposed a four-step model of the process through which public relations can influence public opinion. These steps include research, action, communication, and evaluation. Explain in detail how Marston’s four-step approach can be used to shape public opinion on the story you researched.
Research on the Internet a celebrity who has generated negative publicity in recent years for his/her sponsoring company. Businesses choose celebrities to endorse their products for a variety of reasons. Unfortunately, some of these celebrities act in ways that generate a lot of negative publicity for themselves and, by extension, for the sponsors who pay them. In the case of the celebrity you researched, explain in detail what actions you would take in this situation and why you would take them.
.
Please respond to Question One (bolded) and one additional ess.docxSONU61709
Please respond to
Question One
(bolded) and
one additional essay
question under
Question Two
of your choice. Please provide a complete essay response for both questions. Each response should be at least two pages (double- spaced, 12 pitch, Times New Roman). One reference page should accompany your work in APA format. Please place your name on each page. No late work will be accepted.
Question One:
As a student researcher, please introduce one theorist from the list below and describe what major components he or she has offered to those attempting to understand the development of children and/or families? Please include a photo of the selected theorist and critique his or her theory. For example, please discuss the strengths
and limitations of the individual’s theory.
Albert Bandura
David Liu
Erik Erikson
Harriette Pipes McAdoo
Jean Piaget
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lev Vygotsky
Question Two: (Choose One Question To Answer Below)
•
Linda Espinosa
•
Maria Montessori
•
Robert Coles
•
Sigmund Freud
•
Terry Cross
•
Urie Bronfenbrenner
What happens to children who experience consistent and high levels of stress and Cortisol? https://www.medstargeorgetown.org/ourservices/psychiatry/treatments/child-and-adolescent- psychiatryprogram/
How can parents work to protect children from Contaminants at School? http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/translational/peph/podc asts/school/index.cfm
Many children love being in or around water, whether it’s a backyard pool or a local beach. But without proper safety measures, water can be dangerous for young children. Please identify one academic journal article related to water safety? How can parents make water safety a priority? Please review this site: https://www.redcross.org/gethelp/how-to-prepare-for-emergencies/types-of-emergencies/watersafety.html
How could the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, also known as the WIC program, assist a single parent with limited income? What foods are eligible under this program?
hat steps can parents take to keep their children healthy?
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life- coping/children.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019- ncov%2Fprepare%2Fchildren.html
According to the NIEHS and EPA how can parents help prevent lead poisoning in children and youth? What is your state or local area doing to help eradicate lead poisoning?
*Student should utilize the referenced links above as well as other scholarly documents to develop their responses.
*Students must include a reference page for each question in APA format.
Important: Work submitted without a reference page
will not
be graded.
.
Please respond to the following in a substantive post (3–4 paragraph.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following in a substantive post (3–4 paragraphs):
Explain the primary reasons project management causes a cultural change.
Describe the impact of that cultural change on integrative information technology.
Provide at least one example of a cultural change that project management can cause.
Be sure to provide full citations and references
.
Please respond to the followingDebate if failing to reje.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Debate if “failing to reject the null” is the same as “accepting the null.” Support your position with examples of acceptance or rejection of the null.
Be sure to respond to at least one of your classmates’ posts.
Click here to watch the video
Reply Quote
.
Please respond to the followingCharts and graphs are used.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Charts and graphs are used quite often in newspapers, magazines, books, and various online articles. There are pros and cons to using these types of visual representations.
Describe one pro and one con for using a graph or chart. Share an example of a time when this type of visual changed your mind about something or gave you a deeper understanding of a topic or current event.
.
Please respond to the followingAppraise the different approac.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Appraise the different approaches (e.g., biological, psychological, sociocultural, etc.) that may influence the myriad of methods by which adults construct learning. Suggest key instructional strategies that you might use that favor an integrated approach to teaching within a diverse learning context. Provide examples of such strategies in use in order to support your response.
.
Please respond to the following discussion with a well thought out r.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following discussion with a well thought out response with relating to at least one source (cite using APA). Post your main post within midnight Thursday.
How could you use milestones and/or Earned Value Management as a measure of success in a project?
What limitation does just offering milestones provide as a means of project reporting?
Define some best practices with monitoring project quality.
Choose at least one quality tool and explain how it may be used in a project.
.
Please respond to each classmate if there is a need for it and als.docxSONU61709
Please respond to each classmate if there is a need for it and also any suggestion and comment that u may think are need it in order to correct the rough draft for the final use it
1)Hey---------, I like your introduction, your thesis is clear and it is in the last sentence of the intro. I think that the big theme of this story is to hold on to our traditional ancestral values, or at least respect these values because they are important and we clearly see it in the story. I would suggest to watch out for spelling errors and to work a little more on your conclusion, I would recommend giving more summary and more details in explaining your thesis.
2) hello -----,
I like your explination and view of this short story. Other then giving a little more detail from the story I think you did great. What made you choose this story to write about?
After reading you paper what made you choice this story? I like how you talk about the story and how you break everything down. I know you wanted to keep everything original I believe you could have adding just a little more to your paper. I can completely understand how writing papers can be hard keep up the amazing work.
3)Hi, -----------
I also had chosen the same story to write about. I thought you had done a good job. I know its hard to think of so many words, about the the same thing. But my understanding is we werent allowed to use out side sources. We were only allowed to use our book. May be I misunderstood, which is very possible. Did you agree with the villagers for destroying the school, because their path was blocked off?
Running head: FICTION ANALYSIS: DEAD MEN’S PATH 1
FICTION ANALYSIS: DEAD MEN’S PATH 4
Fiction Analysis:Dead Men's Path
Estrella Gonzalez
South University
ENG1300 SU01 Composition III/Literature
Joseph Walker
Fiction Analysis:Dead Men's Path Comment by Joseph: Start actual paper at the top of a new page.
Dead Men's Path by China Achebe delves into the implications of making choices. Achebe uses symbolism to bring home his views on the repercussions that choices people make can have on their lives. Achebe presents a society that is torn apart in two divides: between the tradition on one hand and modernity on the other hand. The society is not willing to welcome the new progressive thoughts that have been brought by the missionaries(Achebe, 2009). Through the use of symbolism, Achebe makes a cataclysmic flowing story that has much deeper imnsights than the superficial representations in words. What are some of the dangers of disregarding the opinions that is supported by majority in the society? Achebe’s Dead Men's Path answers this question using symbolic presentations. Comment by Joseph: Set off titles. Comment by Joseph: Be careful of the spelling of names. Comment by Joseph: You don’t need a citation for simple plot summary. Comment by J.
please respond to both discussion in your own words in citation plea.docxSONU61709
please respond to both discussion in your own words in citation please need it in your own words
1.The Florida bog frog could be a small and uncommon land and water proficient. This species features a yellowish-brown upper body, a yellow stomach, brown eardrum, yellow throat, a contract ridge that runs along the side down the back, and littler webbed feet with bigger toes . There's restricted data accessible approximately the reproduction of the Florida bog frog. Florida bog frogs breed between the months of April and August. Amid the breeding season, marsh frogs will let out boisterous “chucks” to pull in a mate.Florida bog frogs occupy numerous regions including shallow, acidic spring leaks; boggy floods of streams; .The most risk to the Florida marsh frog is the degradation of its habitat. Bog frogs flourish best in early succession vegetation.
2.The Florida mouse is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is the only species in the genus Podomys, which is the single mammal genus endemic to Florida. I like this mouse because it reminds me of Mickey Mouse created by Walt Disney, and redirect me to its amusement parks in Orlando, Florida. This mouse also caught my attention because it looks so funny and different from the rest of the mice. The Florida mouse is found only in a limited area in central peninsular Florida and one small area in the Florida panhandle. The mouse inhabits some of Florida's hottest and driest regions in the high pinelands, sandhills, flatlands, and coastal scrub. They average between 5 to 8 inches long, and their tails are between 2 to 3.5 inches long, weighing between 1/2 ounce to 1 ounce. The Florida mouse has soft silky fur that is brown or brownish-orange in color. Its underparts are white. Their ears are large and furless. Their tails are long, and their back paws are large and have 5 pads. Their teeth are sharp, and they use them for gnawing.
The Florida mouse is nocturnal and is active throughout the year except on unusually cold nights. The mouse can climb but is primarily a terrestrial species. They communicate by emitting high pitched squeals, and when they are excited, they thump the ground with their front paws producing a drumming sound. The Florida mouse also has a distinctive odor, almost like a skunk. A baby of a Florida mouse is called a pinkie, kitten, or pup. The females are called doe and males buck. A Florida mouse group is called a nest, colony, harvest, horde, or mischief.
The Florida mouse is an omnivore, and its diet consists of acorns when available, insects, seeds, nuts, fungi, crickets, ticks, fruit, berries, and other plant material and vertebrates. A 1987 report indicates the mouse feeds on engorged ticks (
Ornithodorus turicata americanus
) that parasitize gopher frogs (
Rana areolata
) and gopher tortoises.
According to the official State of Florida's Endangered and Threatened Species List of wildlife, the Florida mouse is considered as State Species of Special Conce.
please respond In your own words not citations1. The Miami blu.docxSONU61709
please respond In your own words not citations
1. The Miami blue butterfly may be a little butterfly .The Miami blue butterfly can be found in tropical pine rock-lands, and beach side in Florida. The Miami blue was thought extinct until it was rediscovered in 1999 . In spite of many changes the Bahia Honda populace held on until 2010, when it vanished, maybe due to a combination of dry spell, cold temperatures, and being eaten by non-native green iguanas. They was rediscovered in Key West National Natural life Asylum in 2006. The are one of Florida most endangered species. I love butterflies because they're colorful with wings of distinctive patterns. I love how they change from caterpillars to cocoons to butterflies. Its so relate able to life , always changing and evolving . Its astonishing that the butterfly emerges from the unpleasant small caterpillar and shapes a cocoon and after that rises as a butterfly
2.Six families of dragonflies exist in Florida with most found near ponds and other freshwater sources. Dragonflies feature large eyes that make up most of their head and a muscular body that helps the insects use their large wings to fly. Sometimes you'll see dragonflies hovering near blacktop parking lots, but for the most part, the insects stay near water except when they look for a mate. They then return to the water to breed and deposit eggs.
Adult dragonflies will eat any insect as long as they can catch it. Dragonfly nymphs live in the water, and they usually wait on aquatic vegetation.
From the nymph stage to the adult stage, the dragonfly has a significant, positive ecological impact. Dragonfly eggs are laid and hatched in or near water, so their lives impact both water and land ecosystems. Once hatched, dragonfly nymphs can breathe underwater, and they use a motion similar to jet propulsion to move through their environment. This enables them to eat harmful aquatic organisms such as mosquito larvae. The nymph will continue contributing to this ecosystem for one to five years before becoming a mature adult. The adult dragonfly has enormous compound eyes that are useful in searching for flying insects. While flying, it uses its six legs to scoop food out of the air. Clasping the prey in its front legs, it then eats the insect in flight.
Dragonflies play ecological roles not only as predators but also as prey of birds, frogs, and other creatures. The presence of dragonflies indicates freshwater. One of the most useful dragonfly facts is that they reside low in the food chain, so a scientific study of their numbers and their health can reveal changes in water ecosystems more quickly than studying other animals or plants. Some national parks are beginning to use this species to survey and document the health of the park's water ecosystems. Since dragonflies eat mosquitoes and other insects, they help gardeners and outdoor enthusiasts. This also helps the environment because it allows humans to reduce the u.
Please respond in 300 words the followingWe see SWOT present.docxSONU61709
Please respond in 300 words the following
We see SWOT presented in a 4 block matrix:
Internal: S/W
External: O/Th
Choose a department in a hospital, such as labor and delivery, and provide an analysis that involves both internal and external matrices.
Use an outside resource for your initial post. Seek information through healthcare news articles and journals. Write in third person and do not use “I think or in my opinion”. Keep your information factual and follow APA standards on referencing
.
Please respond to the followingReflect on the usefulness .docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Reflect on the usefulness of a portfolio to provide evidence of accomplishments to pursue career goals.
Determine if this approach may be more effective than others.
Make sure to include a rationale and at least one citation from your reading.
.
Please respond to the followingLeadership talent is an or.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Leadership talent is an organization-wide goal. Discuss how the responsibilities of the development of leadership talent should be partitioned among Human Resources staff and line managers. Be sure to address both the identification and development of future leadership.
.
Please respond to the followingHealth care faces critic.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Health care faces critical staffing shortages. Imagine you are part of the executive management team researching health care shortages.
Outline some of the staffing shortages in the market where you live. Are they consistent with national trends?
Design a strategy that describes how your organization would alleviate some staffing shortages, including whether you would hire licensed practical nurses instead of registered nurses. Include concepts from readings throughout your program or from peer-reviewed journal articles.
.
Please respond to the followingMNCs, IOs, NGOs, and the E.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
MNCs, IOs, NGOs, and the European Union are nonstate actors in the role of pushing foreign policy to combat terrorism. Discuss 1 or 2 ways in which the national strategy influences any of these nonstate actors.
Analyze the benefits or disadvantages for the United States with regard to the agency's position on foreign aid. Provide 1 or 2 examples to support your response.
.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
1) A cyber crime is a crime that involves a computer and the Inter.docx
1. 1) A cyber crime is a crime that involves a computer and the
Internet. A forensics investigation involves gathering and
preserving evidence in a way that is suitable for presentation in
a court of law. Use the library to research any recent (within the
past 12 months), real-world cyber crime. Discuss each of the
following scenarios:
· What was the cyber crime? Who or what did the cyber crime
affect?
· How did the cyber crime occur?
· In your opinion, how could the cyber crime have been
avoided?
· How would you conduct the forensics investigation for this
cyber crime?
Use and list at least 2 sources to support your response to the
question. You may use the textbook as a resource. Be sure to
use APA formatting for all references.
Responses to Other Students: Respond to at least 2 of your
fellow classmates with at least a 100-word reply about their
Primary Task Response regarding items you found to be
compelling and enlightening. To help you with your discussion,
please consider the following questions:
· What did you learn from your classmate's posting?
· What additional questions do you have after reading the
posting?
· What clarification do you need regarding the posting?
· What differences or similarities do you see between your
posting and other classmates' postings?
2) Antiforensic techniques make proper forensic investigations
more difficult. Antiforensic techniques are deliberate and can
reduce the quantity and quality of digital evidence. Antiforensic
techniques can also be used to increase security. Use the library
to research antiforensic techniques, and discuss the following:
· What are at least 3 examples of antiforensic techniques, and
how are they used?
2. · Discuss how antiforensic techniques affect computer
forensics, file recovery, and security.
Use and list at least 2 sources to support your response to the
question. You may use the textbook as a resource. Be sure to
use APA formatting for all references.
3) Review and reflect on the knowledge you have gained from
this course. Based on your review and reflection, write at least 3
paragraphs on the following:
· What was the most valuable concept that you learned in this
class that you will most likely use in your future career?
· What concept in this course provided the most insight to the
technical aspects of computer forensics? Explain.
· The main post should include at least 1 reference to research
sources, and all sources should be cited using APA format.
A Primer on the Validity of
Assessment Instruments Gail M. Sullivan, MD, MPH
1. What is reliability?1
Reliability refers to whether an assessment instrument gives
the same results each time it is used in the same setting with
the same type of subjects. Reliability essentially means
consistent or dependable results. Reliability is a part of the
assessment of validity.
2. What is validity?1
3. Validity in research refers to how accurately a study answers
the study question or the strength of the study conclusions.
For outcome measures such as surveys or tests, validity refers
to the accuracy of measurement. Here validity refers to how
well the assessment tool actually measures the underlying
outcome of interest. Validity is not a property of the tool
itself, but rather of the interpretation or specific purpose of
the assessment tool with particular settings and learners.
Assessment instruments must be both reliable and valid for
study results to be credible. Thus, reliability and validity must
be
examined and reported, or references cited, for each assessment
instrument used to measure study outcomes. Examples of
assessments include resident feedback survey, course
evaluation,
written test, clinical simulation observer ratings, needs
assessment survey, and teacher evaluation. Using an instrument
with high reliability is not sufficient; other measures of validity
are needed to establish the credibility of your study.
4. 3. How is reliability measured?2–4
Reliability can be estimated in several ways; the method will
depend upon the type of assessment instrument. Sometimes
reliability is referred to as internal validity or internal
structure of the assessment tool.
For internal consistency 2 to 3 questions or items are
created that measure the same concept, and the difference
among the answers is calculated. That is, the correlation
among the answers is measured.
Cronbach alpha is a test of internal consistency and
frequently used to calculate the correlation values among
the answers on your assessment tool.5 Cronbach alpha
calculates correlation among all the variables, in every
combination; a high reliability estimate should be as close to
1 as possible.
For test/retest the test should give the same results each
time, assuming there are no interval changes in what you are
measuring, and they are often measured as correlation, with
5. Pearson r.
Test/retest is a more conservative estimate of reliability
than Cronbach alpha, but it takes at least 2 administrations
of the tool, whereas Cronbach alpha can be calculated after
a single administration. To perform a test/retest, you must
be able to minimize or eliminate any change (ie, learning) in
the condition you are measuring, between the 2
measurement times. Administer the assessment instrument
at 2 separate times for each subject and calculate the
correlation between the 2 different measurements.
Interrater reliability is used to study the effect of
different raters or observers using the same tool and is
generally estimated by percent agreement, kappa (for binary
outcomes), or Kendall tau.
Another method uses analysis of variance (ANOVA) to
generate a generalizability coefficient, to quantify how
much measurement error can be attributed to each potential
factor, such as different test items, subjects, raters, dates of
6. administration, and so forth. This model looks at the overall
reliability of the results.6
5. How is the validity of an assessment
instrument determined?4,7,8
Validity of assessment instruments requires several sources
of evidence to build the case that the instrument measures
what it is supposed to measure.9,10 Determining validity can
be viewed as constructing an evidence-based argument
regarding how well a tool measures what it is supposed to
do. Evidence can be assembled to support, or not support, a
specific use of the assessment tool. Evidence can be found in
content, response process, relationships to other variables,
and consequences.
Content includes a description of the steps used to
develop the instrument. Provide information such as who
created the instrument (national experts would confer
greater validity than local experts, who in turn would have
more validity than nonexperts) and other steps that support
7. the instrument has the appropriate content.
Response process includes information about whether
the actions or thoughts of the subjects actually match the
test and also information regarding training for the raters/
observers, instructions for the test-takers, instructions for
scoring, and clarity of these materials.
Relationship to other variables includes correlation of
the new assessment instrument results with other
performance outcomes that would likely be the same. If
Gail M. Sullivan, MD, MPH, is Editor-in-Chief, Journal of
Graduate Medical
Education.
Corresponding author: Gail M. Sullivan, MD, MPH, Editor-in-
Chief, Journal of
Graduate Medical Education, 515 N State St, Suite 2000,
[email protected]
DOI: 10.4300/JGME-D-11-00075.1
E D I T O R I A L
Journal of Graduate Medical Education, June 2011 119
there is a previously accepted ‘‘gold standard’’ of
8. measurement, correlate the instrument results to the
subject’s performance on the ‘‘gold standard.’’ In many
cases, no ‘‘gold standard’’ exists and comparison is made to
other assessments that appear reasonable (eg, in-training
examinations, objective structured clinical examinations,
rotation ‘‘grades,’’ similar surveys).
Consequences means that if there are pass/fail or cut-off
performance scores, those grouped in each category tend to
perform the same in other settings. Also, if lower performers
receive additional training and their scores improve, this
would add to the validity of the instrument.
Different types of instruments need an emphasis on
different sources of validity evidence.7 For example, for
observer ratings of resident performance, interrater agreement
may be key, whereas for a survey measuring resident stress,
relationship to other variables may be more important. For a
multiple choice examination, content and consequences may
be essential sources of validity evidence. For high-stakes
9. assessments (eg, board examinations), substantial evidence to
support the case for validity will be required.9
There are also other types of validity evidence, which
are not discussed here.
6. How can researchers enhance the validity of their
assessment instruments?
First, do a literature search and use previously developed
outcome measures. If the instrument must be modified for use
with your subjects or setting, modify and describe how, in a
transparent way. Include sufficient detail to allow readers to
understand the potential limitations of this approach.
If no assessment instruments are available, use content
experts to create your own and pilot the instrument prior to
using it in your study. Test reliability and include as many
sources of validity evidence as are possible in your paper.
Discuss the limitations of this approach openly.
7. What are the expectations of JGME editors regarding
assessment instruments used in graduate medical education
research?
JGME editors expect that discussions of the validity of your
assessment tools will be explicitly mentioned in your
10. manuscript, in the methods section. If you are using a
previously studied tool in the same setting, with the same
subjects, and for the same purpose, citing the reference(s) is
sufficient. Additional discussion about your adaptation is
needed if you (1) have modified previously studied
instruments; (2) are using the instrument for different
settings, subjects, or purposes; or (3) are using different
interpretation or cut-off points. Discuss whether the
changes are likely to affect the reliability or validity of the
instrument.
Researchers who create novel assessment instruments
need to state the development process, reliability measures,
pilot results, and any other information that may lend
credibility to the use of homegrown instruments.
Transparency enhances credibility.
In general, little information can be gleaned from single-
site studies using untested assessment instruments; these
studies are unlikely to be accepted for publication.
11. 8. What are useful resources for reliability and validity of
assessment instruments?
The references for this editorial are a good starting
point.
References
1 American Educational Research Association, American
Psychological
Association, National Council on Measurement in Education.
Standards for
Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC:
American
Educational Research Association; 1999.
2 Downing SM. Reliability: on the reproducibility of assessment
data. Med
Educ. 2004;38(9):1006–1012.
3 Beckman TJ, Ghosh AK, Cook DA, Erwin PJ, Manderkar JN.
How reliable are
assessments of clinical teaching?: a review of the published
instruments. J
Gen Intern Med. 2004;19(9):971–977.
4 Cook DA, Beckman TJ. Current concepts in validity and
reliability for
psychometric instruments. Am J Med. 2006;119(2):166e7–
166e16.
5 Bland JM, Altman DG. Statistics notes: Cronbach’s alpha.
BMJ.
1997;314:572.
12. 6 Brennan RL. Generalizability Theory. New York, NY:
Springer-Verlag; 2001.
7 Downing SM. Validity: on the meaningful interpretation of
assessment
data. Med Educ. 2003;37(9):830–837.
8 Downing SM, Haldyna TM. Validity threats: overcoming
interference
with proposed interpretations of assessment data. Med Educ.
2004;38(3):327–333.
9 Kane M. Validating high-stakes testing programs. Educ Meas
Issues Pract.
2002;1:31–41.
10 Kane M. The assessment of professional competence. Eval
Health Prof.
1992;15(2):163–182.
E D I T O R I A L
120 Journal of Graduate Medical Education, June 2011
T
he following are corrections to the June 2011 issue.
1. Sullivan GM. A primer on the validity of assessment
instruments. J Grad Med Educ. 2011;3(2):119–120.
On p 119, the sentence should read: Cronbach alpha
13. calculates correlation among all the variables, in every
combination, and generates one number that the closer it is
to 1, the higher the reliability estimate.
2. Salem JK, Jones RR, Sweet DB, Hasan S, Torregosa-
Arcay H, Clough L. Improving care in a resident practice
for patients with diabetes. J Grad Med Educ.
2011;3(2):196–202.
The Figure legends should read:
Figure 1 Description of Sample Selection for Outcomes
Analysis
Figure 2 Timeline for Implementation of Interventions
3. Saeed F, Majeed MH, Kousar N. Easing international
medical graduates entry into us training. J Grad Med Educ.
2011;3(2):269.
The lead author’s name is Fahad Saeed, MD.
4. Sweeney A, Stephany A, Whicker S, Bookman J,
Turner DA. Senior Pediatric Residents as Teachers for an
Innovative Multidisciplinary Mock Code Curriculum.
14. J Grad Med Educ. 2011;3(2):188–195.
The Figure 3 label for the seventh column is:
Communicating Effectively.
5. Le-Bucklin KT, Hicks R, Wong A. Impact of a
Teaching Rotation on Residents’ Attitudes Toward
Teaching: A 5-Year Study. J Grad Med Educ.
2011;3(2):253–255.
The Results section of the Abstract should read:
Results: Four categories showed significant
improvement, including feeling prepared to teach
(P , .0001), having confidence in their teaching ability
(P , .0001), being aware of their expectations as a teacher
(P , .0001), and feeling that their anxiety about teaching
was at a healthy level (P 5 .0037). There was an increase
in the level of enthusiasm, but the P value did not reach a
significant range (P 5 .12). The level of enthusiasm started
high and was significantly higher on the pretest than every
other tested category (P , .0001).
15. Footnote c to Table 2 should read: P value as calculated
using the Mann-Whitney U test.
E R R A T A
446 Journal of Graduate Medical Education, September 2011
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29. Validity? Don’t Blame the
Messenger
Sandip Sinharay1, Shelby J. Haberman1,
and Howard Wainer2
Abstract
There are several techniques that increase the precision of
subscores by borrowing
information from other parts of the test. These techniques have
been criticized on
validity grounds in several of the recent publications. In this
note, the authors ques-
tion the argument used in these publications and suggest both
inherent limits to the
validity argument and empirical issues worth examining.
Keywords
subscores, validity, augmented subscore
Introduction: Subscores and Adjusted Subscores
There are several techniques that increase the precision of
subscores by borrowing
information from other parts of the test. These techniques have
been criticized on val-
idity grounds in several recent publications such as Skorupski
and Carvajal (2010) and
Stone, Ye, Zhu, and Lane (2010). In this note, we question the
argument used in these
30. publications and suggest both inherent limits to the validity
argument and empirical
issues worth examining. We begin with an introduction to the
techniques that borrow
information from other parts of the test as part of the subscore
computation process
and then evaluate the validity arguments advanced recently
concerning these
techniques.
Interest in subscores in educational testing reflects their
potential remedial and
instructional benefit. According to the National Research
Council report ‘‘Knowing
1Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ, USA
2National Board of Medical Examiners, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Sandip Sinharay, Educational Testing Service, 12T Rosedale
Road, Princeton, NJ 08541, USA
Email: [email protected]
Educational and Psychological
Measurement
71(5) 789–797
ª The Author(s) 2011
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10391782&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2011-03-22
What Students Know’’ (2001), the target of assessment is to
provide particular infor-
mation about an examinee’s knowledge, skill, and abilities.
Subscores have the poten-
tial to provide such information; however, they are too often not
reliable enough for
their intended purposes. Several researchers have suggested
methods that increase the
precision of subscores by borrowing information from the other
related scores or sub-
scores. For example,
• Wainer, Sheehan, and Wang (2000) and Wainer, Vevea, et al.
(2001) suggest
the augmented subscore that is a function of an examinee’s
score on the sub-
scale of interest and that examinee’s score on the remaining
subscales.
• Yen (1987) suggested the objective performance index (OPI)
that is
32. a weighted average of the observed subscore and an estimate of
the observed
subscore obtained using a unidimensional item response theory
(IRT) model
for the entire test.
• Haberman (2008a) suggested a weighted average of a subscore
and the total
score. Sinharay (2010) found that this weighted average is
typically very sim-
ilar to the augmented subscore (Wainer et al., 2000).
• Several researchers (de la Torre & Patz, 2005; Haberman &
Sinharay, 2010;
Luecht, 2003; Yao & Boughton, 2007) suggested using
estimated abilities or
their transformations obtained from a multivariate IRT (MIRT)
model as sub-
scores. For background on MIRT models, see, for example,
Reckase (1997).
The scores obtained from the above-mentioned approaches will
be referred to as
‘‘adjusted subscores.’’1 Researchers have found that adjusted
subscores are more reli-
able, often substantially so, than the subscores themselves
(Dwyer, Boughton, Yao,
Steffen, & Lewis, 2006; Sinharay, 2010; Skorupski & Carvajal,
33. 2010; Stone, Ye,
Zhu, & Lane, 2010).
Recent Criticisms of Adjusted Subscores
The validity of adjusted subscores has been questioned recently.
Skorupski and
Carvajal (2010) studied four subscores from a large statewide
test and found that
the corresponding OPIs and the augmented subscores (Wainer et
al., 2000) were
highly correlated among themselves. The correlations between
augmented subscores
were 0.97 or greater and those between the OPIs were all 1.00.
Skorupski and Carvajal
(2010) commented that this phenomenon of high correlations
among the adjusted sub-
scores (which means that the rank orderings for the four
adjusted subscores are very
similar) leads to potential loss of meaning of the subscores and
‘‘reduces, if not elim-
inates, the utility of the subscores for the diagnostic purposes
for which they are
intended. This begs the question: Are the augmented subscores
providing more useful
34. information than the raw ones?’’ (p. 372). They went on to
comment that ‘‘although
augmentation dramatically improves the reliability of subscores,
it may in fact nega-
tively affect the validity of score interpretations’’ (p. 372). In
the abstract of their arti-
cle, they commented that the near-perfect correlations among
the adjusted subscores
790 Educational and Psychological Measurement 71(5)
‘‘called into question the validity of the resultant subscores, and
therefore the useful-
ness of the subscore augmentation process.’’
Stone et al. (2010) studied the four subscores for the spring
2006 assessment of the
Delaware Student Testing Program 8th grade mathematics
assessment. They found
the augmented subscores, the OPIs, and the MIRT-based
subscores to be highly cor-
related among themselves and commented that ‘‘it may be that
adjusted subscale
scores represent the measurement of a construct that is different
from the construct
35. being measured by the unadjusted subscale scores’’ (p. 80).
They commented that bor-
rowing information from other subscales causes a ‘‘potential
threat to validity’’ of the
adjusted subscores (p. 80).
It seems that Skorupski and Carvajal (2010) and Stone et al.
(2010) have criticized
the use of adjusted subscores in general (rather than criticizing
their use with their data
sets), and their criticisms might make some practitioners
wonder whether it makes
sense to use adjusted subscores at all.
Should One Report Diagnostic Scores for the Tests
Considered in Skorupski and Carvajal (2010) and
Stone et al. (2010)?
Let us look closely at the tests considered by Skorupski and
Carvajal (2010) and Stone
et al. (2010) and ask the question, ‘‘Should one report
subscores, or, more generally,
any kind of diagnostic scores for these tests?’’
According to Standard 5.12 of the Standards for Educational
and Psychological
Testing (American Educational Research Association, American
Psychological Asso-
36. ciation, & National Council for Measurement in
Education,1999), scores should not
be reported for individuals unless the validity, comparability,
and reliability of such
scores have been established. This standard applies to subscores
as well as to the over-
all or total score. Furthermore, Standard 1.12 of the Standards
for Educational and
Psychological Testing (1999) demands that, if a test provides
more than one score,
then the distinctiveness of the separate scores should be
demonstrated.
Haberman (2008a) suggested an approach to determine if
subscores and augmented
subscores have added value over the total score. This approach
has been applied in
Lyren (2009); Puhan, Sinharay, Haberman, and Larkin (2010);
and Sinharay
(2010). In this approach, a subscore has added value if it is
reliable and is distinct
from the other subscores.
Sinharay (2010) applied the approach of Haberman to the data
set considered in
37. Stone et al. (2010) and concluded that none of the original
subscores were of added
value and that none of the weighted averages (or augmented
subscores) were of added
value. In addition, Stone et al. reported an exploratory factor
analysis that suggested
the presence of only one factor in the data set and found the
disattenuated correlations
between the subscores to be between 0.96 and 1.03.
Sinharay et al. 791
The disattenuated correlations between the subscores of
Skorupski and Carvajal
(2010) were between 0.89 and 0.96, with an average of 0.94.
None of the subscores,
weighted averages, and augmented subscores had added value
for this data set either.2
These results are enough to conclude that subscores or, more
generally, any kind of
diagnostic scores (including adjusted subscores) for the tests
considered in Skorupski
and Carvajal (2010) and Stone et al. (2010) will not satisfy
professional quality stand-
38. ards (especially the above-mentioned Standard 1.12 on
distinctiveness). Hence, it is
true that the adjusted subscores for these tests lack validity
(because of the fact that
Haberman, 2008b, showed that the validity of subscores is
limited when the subscores
are either not reliable or are highly correlated with total scores).
However, no reasonable person should blame the adjusted
subscores for not being
valid for the tests considered in Skorupski and Carvajal (2010)
and Stone et al. (2010).
If the bathroom scale tells us that we need to lose weight, it
would be unfair to blame
the scale. The tests considered in Skorupski and Carvajal and
Stone et al. were unidi-
mensional and were incapable of producing diagnostic scores of
any kind. So it is no
wonder that the adjusted subscores computed from these data
are not valid. However,
responsibility for the lack of validity lies not with the adjusted
subscores but rather
with the tests and those who try to report any diagnostic
subscores from the tests in
the first place. The adjusted subscores are just the messengers
39. of the bad news that
the data are not appropriate for diagnostic score reporting.
A General Defense of Adjusted Subscores
The examples of Skorupski and Carvajal (2010) and Stone et al.
(2010) do not repre-
sent a complete picture of the empirical situation, as is evident
from a recent review of
subscores for operational tests (Sinharay, 2010). For example,
consider the Swedish
Scholastic Assessment Test considered in Lyren (2009), which
included subscores
and adjusted subscores that had added value. For this test, the
correlation between
the augmented subscores ranged between 0.58 and 0.94, with an
average of 0.79.3
These correlations are much higher than the correlations
between the unadjusted sub-
scores that ranged between 0.42 and 0.67, with an average of
0.55. However, the cor-
relation between the augmented subscores are much lower than
those in Skorupski and
Carvajal (2010) and Stone et al. (2010) and demonstrate that the
correlations between
40. augmented subscores are not always extremely high.
When several subscores of an assessment are adjusted by use of
the total score (or
other parts of the test), the adjusted subscores share a common
component, the total
score (or score on the other parts), so that the adjusted
subscores will always be
more highly correlated than are the original observed subscores.
In general, increased correlations among adjusted subscores do
not threaten valid-
ity. If the correlations are very high, then the adjusted subscores
are essentially just
versions of the total score, and the test is not able to produce
useful diagnostic scores.
If the correlations are not very high, measurement error has
been reduced with the
computation of the adjusted subscore (because the variance of
adjusted subscore is
less than that of the subscore and hence the reliability is
higher). If the measurement
792 Educational and Psychological Measurement 71(5)
error is sufficiently reduced, then the correlation with external
41. criterion scores is likely
to increase rather than decrease when adjusted rather than
observed subscores are
employed, although empirical study is needed to verify this
observation with real
data (Haberman, 2008b).
To examine the validity issue in a simple setting, it is helpful to
consider parallel
forms. The subscore on a parallel form is a basic validity
criterion for the correspond-
ing observed and adjusted subscores on the original form. For
example, let us consider
the test TC2 considered in Table 1 of Sinharay (2010). The test,
which measured
achievement in a discipline, had 200 multiple choice items and
three subscores,
each having 66 or 67 items. We split the test into two tests, say
Test A and Test B,
of length 100 items each. Tests A and B were made roughly
parallel in difficulty
and content. We then computed the subscores and augmented
subscores for Tests A
and B. All three of the augmented subscores have added value
for both Tests A and
42. B according to the criteria of Haberman (2008a). Table 1 shows
some correlations.
The table shows that any subscore on Test B (or A) has a higher
correlation with
the corresponding augmented subscore on parallel Test A (or B)
than with the corre-
sponding subscore on parallel Test A (or B).4 For example, the
correlation between
subscore 1 on Test B and augmented subscore 1 on Test A is
0.88, which is larger
than 0.85, the correlation between subscore 1 on Test B and
subscore 1 on Test A.
Figure 1, which is like Figure 4 of Skorupski and Carvajal
(2010), shows the subscore
profiles (top panel) and the profiles of augmented subscores
(bottom panel) of five
randomly chosen examinees. Although the three observed
subscores for each exam-
inee vary more than the three augmented subscore for the
examinee, the profiles of
augmented subscores are not all parallel, unlike in Figure 4 of
Skorupski and Carvajal.
Some of the profiles of augmented subscores even intersect with
each other.
43. Thus, the two facts—(a) the adjusted subscores (augmented
subscores in this case)
estimate the subscores on a parallel form better and (b) the
profiles of the adjusted sub-
scores are not all parallel—show that adjusted subscores did not
‘‘lose their meaning’’
or ‘‘have their utility reduced or eliminated’’ (as commented in
Skorupski & Carvajal,
2010, p. 372) and did not represent a construct different from
that measured by the
subscores (as mentioned in Stone et al., 2010).
Therefore, for a test that was designed to report diagnostic
scores (e.g., the Swedish
Scholastic Assessment Test or the test TC2 considered above),
it is straightforward to
gather evidence that supports the proposed interpretation of the
adjusted subscores and
Table 1. Correlations Among Subscores and Augmented
Subscores
Subscore
Correlation Between a
Subscore on Test A
and the Corresponding
44. Subscore on Test B
Correlation Between an
Augmented Subscore on Test
A and the Corresponding
Subscore on Test B
Correlation Between a
Subscore on Test A and the
Corresponding Augmented
Subscore on Test B
1 0.85 0.88 0.87
2 0.79 0.84 0.82
3 0.83 0.85 0.84
Sinharay et al. 793
it will not be difficult to stand up to any criticism of the
adjusted subscores as long as
the accumulated evidence is evaluated in an evenhanded way
(Kane, 2006, mentioned
the need to stand up to criticism in establishing validity).
To make the validity claim foolproof, it is important also to
collect empirical evi-
dence concerning validity of subscores and adjusted subscores.
Haberman (2008b)
45. suggested some theoretical results on the validity of subscores,
but those results do
not obviate the need for data on validity. Although modern
concepts of validity of tests
consider many aspects of test content, intended use, and
consequences of use (Kane,
2006; Messick, 1989), a mature testing program requires
empirical evidence that
a reported test score is adequately related to appropriate
criterion scores.
If the adjusted subscores have lower correlations with
appropriate criterion varia-
bles than the total scores or the original subscores, then there is
justification to criticize
them for lack of validity. However, until that can be
demonstrated, we think that it is
premature to criticize their validity based on any current
findings. It does not seem that
any of the validity standards of the Standards for Educational
and Psychological Test-
ing (American Educational Research Association, American
Psychological
Figure 1. Subscore profiles of five randomly chosen examinees
794 Educational and Psychological Measurement 71(5)
46. Association, & National Council for Measurement in Education,
1999) have been vio-
lated by the use of the adjusted subscores.
We agree with Stone et al. (2010) that score users may not like
or understand the
dependence of, say, a reading subscore on a speaking subscore.
However, many score
users do not understand measurement concepts such as
Cronbach’s alpha or equiper-
centile equating and that has not deterred the testing companies
from reporting reli-
ability values or equated scores. In addition, we believe that it
would not be
difficult to make an argument that, for example, a common
language skill is required
to answer both reading and listening items, which will justify
the adjustment of listen-
ing subscores using reading subscores in addition to the
listening subscores. Think of
a test for which (a) the subscores are reliable and distinct, (b)
the adjusted subscores
have higher reliability than the subscores, (c) there is a strong
47. evidence of criterion
validity of adjusted subscores, and (d) the subscales are
somewhat connected concep-
tually (e.g., language skills such as reading and listening). Here,
it makes sense to
adjust subscores. In our opinion, for such a test, it is possible
for the testing company
to make a claim about the validity of the adjusted subscores that
is strong enough to
overcome the above-mentioned potential problem of explanation
of adjusted sub-
scores to users and to convince the users that the adjusted
subscores are reliable, valid,
and useful.
Authors’ Note
Any opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors
and are not necessarily those of
Educational Testing Service or National Board of Medical
Examiners.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Dan Eignor, Wendy Yen, Gautam
Puhan, and George Mercoulides
for their helpful comments and to William Skorupski for
48. generously sharing with us some sum-
mary of a data set.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interests with
respect to the authorship and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The research of the first two authors was funded by Educational
Testing Service (ETS), which is
the company that these two authors work for.
Notes
1. A better name would have been ‘‘augmented subscores,’’ but
that corresponds to the scores
described in Wainer et al. (2000).
Sinharay et al. 795
2. We thank William Skorupski for generously sharing with us
some summary of their data that
allowed us to perform these computations.
3. The correlations among OPIs or MIRT-based subscores would
be of similar magnitudes.
49. 4. The same result would have been obtained for OPIs and
MIRT-based subscores.
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