This document discusses the discussion and conclusions sections of scientific writing. It provides guidelines for the typical elements to include in the discussion such as referencing the study objectives and findings, justifications and limitations, comparisons, and implications. It recommends using the past tense to discuss specific studies and the present tense for general statements. The conclusions should summarize the key results and implications without introducing new information. The research question, gap, objectives, and conclusions must all be compatible and address answering the original question.

1. SCIENTIFIC & TECHNICAL WRITING
The Discussion and Conclusions
Communicating Science: 2.8, 2.9
Prof. R.L. Boxman
Tel Aviv University
R.L. Boxman, 9/2000

2. TELAVIV UNIVERSITY 2
Trapezoidal Organization
Experimental
Details
Results
Introduction
Discussion
Broad
background
Narrow focus
Broad
implications

3. Discussion Technical Writing in English 3
The Discussion
• Puts the results in their proper scientific
context
• Answers the question “So what?”
• Explains the significance of the results
• Converts “information” into “knowledge”

4. Discussion Elements
Reminders
(narrow focus)
1. Reference to main
objective, hypothesis, or
research question.
2. Review of the most
important findings.
Interpretations
(broaden focus)
3. Justifications
4. Limitations
5. Comparisons
6. Validations
7. Explanations
Implications
(further broaden
focus)
8. Generalizations
9. Significance
10. Recommendations
Discussion Technical Writing in English 4

5. Discussion Technical Writing in English 5
Typical Discussion Elements
• Specific reference to the present study:
1. Reference to main purpose or hypothesis
2. Review of the most important findings
3. Limitations and justifications:
* Demonstration of self-consistency (e.g., with model
assumptions)
* Demonstration of statistical validity
* Limitations of technique and their implications
(e.g., bandwidth of instrument  high frequency
components, if existent, cannot be observed)

6. Discussion Technical Writing in English 6
Typical Discussion Elements continued
Specific reference to the present study (continued)
4. Comparisons
* Between different elements of the present
study
* With previous works (between various
theories, between various experiments,
between experiment and theory, or theory
and experiment)

7. Discussion Technical Writing in English 7
Typical Discussion Elements continued
• General statements
5. Implications and generalizations
6. Recommendations
* For future research
* Practical applications
• Discussion starts with specific statements re.
present study, and diverges towards more
general statements

8. Discussion Technical Writing in English 8
Author’s attitude
Sliding scale of certainty for explanations and implications:
category use key words example
speculation idea or ideas that
come to mind
may,
possible,
conceivably
“A possible
explanation is
that the
specimen may
be heated by the
process.”
likely some evidence
supports this idea
suggests,
indicates
“The increased
electrical
conductivity
suggests that
the sample is
heated by the
process.”

9. Discussion Technical Writing in English 9
Sliding scale of certainty
very likely substantial evidence
supports this idea
is consistent,
strongly
suggest
“The increased
electrical
conductivity as well
as the increased
radiance, strongly
indicate that the
sample is heated by
the process.”
most likely There is more
evidence and/or
theoretical support for
this idea than any
other existing idea
most likely “The most likely
explanation for the
increased electron
emission is sample
heating by the
process.”
proven All possible
explanations are on
the table, and a
decisive test indicates
that this idea and only
this idea explains the
observation
proven,
proves, proof,
shown,
demonstrated
“Thus it was proven
that the increased
electron emission is
caused by process
sample heating.”

10. Discussion Technical Writing in English 10
Complex Structure in
Discussion Statements
Main Clause THAT Noun Clause
(researcher’s
position)
(information)
Thus it was proven that the increased
electron emission
is caused by
process sample
heating.

11. Discussion Technical Writing in English 11
Verb Tense
•Simple Past – common in specific references to current study
sentence
type
Example
Refer to
purpose
“The objective of the present study was
to correlate systolic anomalies with
genetic factors.”
Refer to
hypothesis
“It was initially expected that instabilities
would be observed above a threshold
voltage.”
Refer to
findings
“However, constant output was observed
for the entire range of parameters
investigated.”

12. Discussion Technical Writing in English 12
Verb Tense - explanations
and limitations
condition tense example
generally
applicable
present “Increased nitrogen incorporation produces
harder coatings.”
restricted
to this
study
past “The increased coating hardness was the
result of increased nitrogen incorporation.”
speculative modal
auxil.
“The increased coating hardness may have
been the result of increased nitrogen
incorporation.”

13. Discussion Technical Writing in English 13
Verb Tense continued
• Comparisons – use the present tense.
– Example: “The present results disagree with
Smith’s earlier findings [23].”
• General statements (explanations,
implications) – present, modal auxiliaries,
tentative verbs.
– Examples:
• The present results demonstrate the necessity of
controlling the axial magnetic field.
• The increased throughput observed here may be caused
by the more efficient packing and unpacking operations.
• It is likely that further improvements can be obtained by
placing acoustic absorbers on the partitions between
firing positions, as well as on the ceiling and floors.

14. Discussion Technical Writing in English 14
No New Results in Discussion!
• Don’t introduce “new” results in the
Discussion !!!
– The discussion should discuss results
• Presented earlier in the paper, or
• In the literature (with a specific reference).
– Don’t put forward “new” facts in the
discussion!!!
• Don’t “pull rabbits out of the hat”.

15. Discussion Technical Writing in English 15
Conclusions
• May be the concluding paragraph of the
discussion, or
• A separate section, entitled “Conclusions”, or
“Conclusions and Recommendations”
• Should be very short (1-2 paragraphs in a
paper, 0.5-2 pages in a thesis.

16. Discussion Technical Writing in English 16
Conclusions continued
• Should be self-contained
– No references
• either internal (e.g. see Fig. 3)
• or external (e.g. …Smith [3])
• Recommendations or suggestions for further
work
– Must be firmly based on the present work.

17. Discussion Technical Writing in English 17
Conclusions – “do’s”
• Summarize the most important results, and
their implications.
– Remember - this is a summary.
– The implications should have been developed and
discussed in the Discussion.
• Think in terms of 3 things you want the reader
to remember.
• The conclusions should contain the answer to
the “research question”
– Or an “admission of failure”, (in which case
perhaps the paper should be rewritten around a
more modest research question).

18. Discussion Technical Writing in English 18
Conclusions – “don’ts”
• Don’t repeat objectives or methodology.
• Don’t use indicative sentences.
– Example: “The acoustic pressure generated by
firing various weapons was measured.”
• No “new” information – this section should
summarize results and ideas which are
presented and developed in detail in previous
sections (i.e. results and discussion).

19. Compatibility of the Research
Question, Gap Statement,
Objectives and Conclusions
• RQ, gap, objective, value statement (when
included) and answer to the RQ (in
Conclusions) must be mutually compatible.
• Research Question (RQ) is the research
objective expressed as a one sentence question.
– Demands an answer,
– Must be a grammatical question, ending with "?"
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20. Compatibility of RQ, Gap, Objectives
and Conclusions (Continued)
• The Gap Statement explicitly states what
was not done previously or what was wrong
in previous work, using a negative word (not,
never, etc.)
• The Objective states the purpose of the work
– Answer the research question
– Fill the gap
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21. Compatibility of RQ, Gap, Objectives
and Conclusions (Continued)
• The optional value statement is an
outgrowth of all of these elements.
– Describes the potential benefit of research
– Answers “so what?”
• Conclusions must explicitly and informatively
– Answer the RQ
– Fill in the gap.
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