The document discusses increasing girls' enrollment in secondary schools in India. It notes that the gender gap in education is more pronounced in Bihar, with girls' enrollment dropping off sharply at age 14 when transitioning to secondary schools. Distance to secondary schools is a major barrier, with enrollment declining as distance increases. The authors propose exploring cost-effective, scalable alternatives to expanding access beyond the default approach of school construction, such as providing bicycles.
96 Diagrams With Leadership Principles And Core ValuesPrivate Account
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. It notes that regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise has also been shown to enhance self-esteem and quality of life.
This study examines the stability of social, risk, and time preferences over multiple years using data from 2002, 2007, 2009, and 2010. The main findings are:
1. Risk preferences are not stable over time, while time preferences are highly stable.
2. Experimental measures of social preferences like altruism and trust show little stability over time.
3. There is some evidence that previous experimental outcomes can influence preferences in later experiments, such as being unlucky increasing later risk aversion or being paired with a generous partner increasing later generosity.
4. However, the impacts across experiments are small and the results should be interpreted cautiously due to sample attrition and differences in experimental designs over the years.
This document describes a study examining how increased access to mobile phones impacted small boat manufacturers in Kerala, India. The researchers conducted a census of 143 boat builders from 1997-2004, collecting data on output, prices, and boat quality. Prior to phones, builders only served local demand. Phones increased information sharing, allowing fishermen to learn about distant builders. This likely expanded each builder's effective market size. The study tests if this led more productive builders to grow and less productive ones to exit, increasing average firm size and productivity over time. The natural experiment from phone diffusion provides an opportunity to study these impacts.
This document discusses a new approach to measuring the impact of foreign labor on native employment. It presents two natural experiments using data on H-2A visa workers and unemployment insurance records from North Carolina farms. The results section analyzes the effect of the recession on job referrals and native labor supply, finding that higher unemployment led to more job referrals but lower native employment, suggesting native workers withdrew from the labor market during economic downturns.
Hiring knowledge agents to spread information about a public health insurance scheme in rural India had a positive impact on villagers' knowledge about the scheme. The effect was entirely driven by agents on incentive pay contracts, who received bonuses based on villagers' knowledge levels. Improved knowledge, in turn, increased enrollment in the scheme. Social distance between agent and villager had a negative impact on knowledge transmission, but incentive pay canceled out this effect. The study used a randomized controlled trial to test these relationships, hiring different types of agents (fixed pay vs incentive pay) across villages.
The study evaluated the impact of an alternative cash transfer program for education in Morocco that provided small, unlabeled cash transfers to fathers in poor communities. Over two years:
1. The unconditional cash transfers reduced the school dropout rate by 67-75% among children enrolled at baseline and increased school reentry by 85% among previous dropouts.
2. Adding attendance conditions did not provide additional educational gains compared to the unconditional transfers.
3. There was also little difference in impacts between transfers made to mothers versus fathers.
4. The program appeared to work in part by changing parents' perceptions of the returns to education and quality of local schools, without directly imposing conditions.
96 Diagrams With Leadership Principles And Core ValuesPrivate Account
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. It notes that regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise has also been shown to enhance self-esteem and quality of life.
This study examines the stability of social, risk, and time preferences over multiple years using data from 2002, 2007, 2009, and 2010. The main findings are:
1. Risk preferences are not stable over time, while time preferences are highly stable.
2. Experimental measures of social preferences like altruism and trust show little stability over time.
3. There is some evidence that previous experimental outcomes can influence preferences in later experiments, such as being unlucky increasing later risk aversion or being paired with a generous partner increasing later generosity.
4. However, the impacts across experiments are small and the results should be interpreted cautiously due to sample attrition and differences in experimental designs over the years.
This document describes a study examining how increased access to mobile phones impacted small boat manufacturers in Kerala, India. The researchers conducted a census of 143 boat builders from 1997-2004, collecting data on output, prices, and boat quality. Prior to phones, builders only served local demand. Phones increased information sharing, allowing fishermen to learn about distant builders. This likely expanded each builder's effective market size. The study tests if this led more productive builders to grow and less productive ones to exit, increasing average firm size and productivity over time. The natural experiment from phone diffusion provides an opportunity to study these impacts.
This document discusses a new approach to measuring the impact of foreign labor on native employment. It presents two natural experiments using data on H-2A visa workers and unemployment insurance records from North Carolina farms. The results section analyzes the effect of the recession on job referrals and native labor supply, finding that higher unemployment led to more job referrals but lower native employment, suggesting native workers withdrew from the labor market during economic downturns.
Hiring knowledge agents to spread information about a public health insurance scheme in rural India had a positive impact on villagers' knowledge about the scheme. The effect was entirely driven by agents on incentive pay contracts, who received bonuses based on villagers' knowledge levels. Improved knowledge, in turn, increased enrollment in the scheme. Social distance between agent and villager had a negative impact on knowledge transmission, but incentive pay canceled out this effect. The study used a randomized controlled trial to test these relationships, hiring different types of agents (fixed pay vs incentive pay) across villages.
The study evaluated the impact of an alternative cash transfer program for education in Morocco that provided small, unlabeled cash transfers to fathers in poor communities. Over two years:
1. The unconditional cash transfers reduced the school dropout rate by 67-75% among children enrolled at baseline and increased school reentry by 85% among previous dropouts.
2. Adding attendance conditions did not provide additional educational gains compared to the unconditional transfers.
3. There was also little difference in impacts between transfers made to mothers versus fathers.
4. The program appeared to work in part by changing parents' perceptions of the returns to education and quality of local schools, without directly imposing conditions.
The document proposes a solution to improve the quality of primary education in India. It suggests having secondary, higher secondary and graduate students devote 1-2 hours daily to teach primary school children. This would improve interest in learning, reduce gaps between privileged and underprivileged children, and increase the ratio of students pursuing higher education, all at half the current primary education budget. Key steps include students from older grades teaching at primary schools using interactive tools and taking younger children for exposure visits to their colleges.
Pratham is one of the largest NGOs in India focused on education for underprivileged children. It was founded in 1995 in Mumbai and has since expanded across 21 Indian states. The document provides background on India's educational challenges, including high dropout rates and poor learning outcomes. It then discusses Pratham's initiatives like pre-school education and annual learning assessments that aim to improve access to, and quality of, education. Pratham has grown significantly and now impacts millions of children through its low-cost and replicable interventions.
Pratham is India's largest non-governmental education organization, working to improve learning outcomes for underprivileged children. It founded the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which surveys rural schooling across India and finds that many children enrolled in primary school remain unable to read, write or do basic math. Pratham uses low-cost teaching methods and mobilizes communities and volunteers to provide remedial and informal education to millions of out-of-school and at-risk students each year.
This document summarizes Teach For India's mission to eliminate educational inequity in India. It discusses how Teach For India recruits and trains university graduates to teach for two years in under-resourced schools. Fellows receive ongoing support and training. The program has shown success in improving student performance and building school infrastructure. Past fellows have gone on to leadership roles in education and social change. Teach For India aims to create a movement to ensure all Indian children receive an excellent education.
Lessons from the field while working for a Common School System at Mewat, Har...Glenn Fawcett
The document summarizes the work of White Lotus Trust in providing transportation to girls through their Blossom Bus program in Mewat, Haryana. Some key points:
- The Blossom Bus transports 315 girls from villages to schools 2-10 km away, enabling many to complete 10th grade as the first in their villages.
- 40 girls who graduated have now entered college, with the Blossom Bus providing transportation.
- Initially the program served 100 girls from 4 villages, expanding to 275 high school girls and 40 college girls by 2016.
- Interviews found most parents now support girls' education but were initially concerned about safety traveling alone to distant schools. The free and
CURRENT SITUATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIAmapmystudy.com
Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of fourteen years is a Constitutional mandate in India. Elementary education in India is a fundamental right.
Enhancing the Quality of School Education in IndiaSwarrnim School
Explore strategies to improve school education in India, focusing on curriculum reform, teacher training, infrastructure, and technology integration for holistic development.
IPDC Presentation copy.pptx on present scenarioAazimPathan
The document discusses the education system in India. It outlines the structure of education in India, from pre-primary to higher education. It acknowledges both advantages, like emphasis on theoretical knowledge, and drawbacks, such as focus on rote learning over concepts. The document also provides statistics on literacy rates and access to education across India to demonstrate improvements still needed.
IPDC Presentation copy.pptx on future scenarioAazimPathan
The document discusses education in India, outlining both strengths and weaknesses of the current system. It provides statistics on literacy rates, school infrastructure issues, and the need to improve practical and skills-based learning. While the system has global recognition and cultural diversity, it needs investment in infrastructure, changes to the teaching methods, and a greater focus on practical subjects like physical education. With continued reforms, India has the potential to further develop its vast human resources through education.
Primary education in India faces several challenges, including low enrollment and attendance rates, high dropout rates before 5th grade, and poor quality of education especially in rural areas and for girls. The government has implemented various programs to address these issues, such as the District Primary Education Program, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and Operation Blackboard. New initiatives like the Right to Education Act aim to increase access to private schools for underprivileged children. However, improving teacher training and classroom practices will be needed to truly enhance educational quality and outcomes for Indian children.
India primary education system is among the largest in the world with nearly 1.5 million schools and over 100 million students enrolled. This large size warrants significant investments to provide high quality education at primary levels. Over the years, the government has worked on strengthening its education system at the elementary level through various policies and schemes such as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Mid-day meal scheme, Right to Education Act (RTE), among others. This has in turn resulted in a six times growth in number of schools offering primary education, thirteen times increase in number of teachers, and doubling of Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) from 1950 to 2016.
MANTRA's School Transformation and Empowerment Project(STEP) - October 2014 B...Anoop Erakkil
1) STEP aims to improve the quality of education in low-fee private and government schools through a multi-stage school improvement framework.
2) In stage 1, a needs assessment was conducted at 9 schools which identified gaps in areas like vision/mission, teaching methods, and parent engagement.
3) In stage 4 private schools, activities focused on developing school leadership and improving instruction, while government school activities centered on processes, tools, and community engagement.
The document summarizes several of Pratham's flagship education programs in India. It discusses Pratham's growth from a local organization to a national one with international impact. Key programs highlighted include Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which conducts annual assessments of children's learning levels; Read India, which aims to improve literacy and numeracy through learning camps; vocational training programs in partnership with industries; and Second Chance, which helps girls who have dropped out earn a high school degree. Impact data shows significant gains in learning and placement outcomes from these initiatives.
Teach For India aims to address educational inequity in India by recruiting top university graduates and professionals to teach for two years in under-resourced schools. This will create a movement of leaders who advocate for educational opportunity for all children. Teach For India is currently accepting applications for its 2010 Fellowship and is seeking outstanding applicants ready for the challenge to join the movement.
This document provides an overview of the education industry in India and discusses key details about the industry. It notes that education in India is provided through both public and private sectors, with free and compulsory education required between ages 6-14. It also discusses the growth of literacy rates in India and increasing enrollment in education. The private education market is large and growing significantly. The document then discusses the structure and regulation of private schools in India and policies around affirmative action and reservations in education.
Education to Educate: A Case of Punjab Education FoundationIJAEMSJORNAL
Mrs. Shehzad’s doorbell rang, and she came out to open the door. She was sure about the arrival of her children Ali and Sana on the door as it was the time of school closing at 3’o clock. While serving the lunch, she thanked Allah and recalled the time a few years back. When Ali was in 4th grade, and Sana was in 5th grade, Mr. & Mrs. Shahzad thought to change the school of their children from private to government. This thought emerged because they were unable to afford the fee schedule of private schools. But they were aware of the drawbacks of Government Schools too. They never wanted to abolish their children’s confidence level, productivity, and learning. It was not the dilemma of one home but the whole nation.
1) A study found that the learning levels among primary and middle school students in India is declining, with fewer students able to perform basic math and reading skills appropriate for their grade level.
2) Between 2005-2013, the proportion of Class 5 students able to read a Class 2 textbook declined by 15% and the number of Class 8 students able to do divisions declined by 23%.
3) While enrollment in schools has increased due to government programs, the quality of education being delivered is poor, with a focus on school attendance rather than actual learning. Infrastructure and teacher training is inadequate.
Cash and vouchers led to starkly different purchasing patterns. Voucher recipients purchased fewer types of items compared to cash recipients, indicating the voucher was extra-marginal for some food items. However, there were few differences in other outcomes like food security and asset ownership between the groups. Cash recipients were able to save more of the transfer value since vouchers could only be spent on certain goods. The voucher program also had higher costs for the implementing agency than cash transfers.
This document analyzes the long-term effects of the 1832 Cherokee Land Lottery on wealth using census and other data. It finds that those who received land titles in the lottery on average had higher wealth levels in 1850 and 1860 compared to those who did not receive titles, even after controlling for other factors. The effects were larger for those matched to land closest to gold deposits discovered in the 1830s.
The document proposes a solution to improve the quality of primary education in India. It suggests having secondary, higher secondary and graduate students devote 1-2 hours daily to teach primary school children. This would improve interest in learning, reduce gaps between privileged and underprivileged children, and increase the ratio of students pursuing higher education, all at half the current primary education budget. Key steps include students from older grades teaching at primary schools using interactive tools and taking younger children for exposure visits to their colleges.
Pratham is one of the largest NGOs in India focused on education for underprivileged children. It was founded in 1995 in Mumbai and has since expanded across 21 Indian states. The document provides background on India's educational challenges, including high dropout rates and poor learning outcomes. It then discusses Pratham's initiatives like pre-school education and annual learning assessments that aim to improve access to, and quality of, education. Pratham has grown significantly and now impacts millions of children through its low-cost and replicable interventions.
Pratham is India's largest non-governmental education organization, working to improve learning outcomes for underprivileged children. It founded the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which surveys rural schooling across India and finds that many children enrolled in primary school remain unable to read, write or do basic math. Pratham uses low-cost teaching methods and mobilizes communities and volunteers to provide remedial and informal education to millions of out-of-school and at-risk students each year.
This document summarizes Teach For India's mission to eliminate educational inequity in India. It discusses how Teach For India recruits and trains university graduates to teach for two years in under-resourced schools. Fellows receive ongoing support and training. The program has shown success in improving student performance and building school infrastructure. Past fellows have gone on to leadership roles in education and social change. Teach For India aims to create a movement to ensure all Indian children receive an excellent education.
Lessons from the field while working for a Common School System at Mewat, Har...Glenn Fawcett
The document summarizes the work of White Lotus Trust in providing transportation to girls through their Blossom Bus program in Mewat, Haryana. Some key points:
- The Blossom Bus transports 315 girls from villages to schools 2-10 km away, enabling many to complete 10th grade as the first in their villages.
- 40 girls who graduated have now entered college, with the Blossom Bus providing transportation.
- Initially the program served 100 girls from 4 villages, expanding to 275 high school girls and 40 college girls by 2016.
- Interviews found most parents now support girls' education but were initially concerned about safety traveling alone to distant schools. The free and
CURRENT SITUATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIAmapmystudy.com
Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of fourteen years is a Constitutional mandate in India. Elementary education in India is a fundamental right.
Enhancing the Quality of School Education in IndiaSwarrnim School
Explore strategies to improve school education in India, focusing on curriculum reform, teacher training, infrastructure, and technology integration for holistic development.
IPDC Presentation copy.pptx on present scenarioAazimPathan
The document discusses the education system in India. It outlines the structure of education in India, from pre-primary to higher education. It acknowledges both advantages, like emphasis on theoretical knowledge, and drawbacks, such as focus on rote learning over concepts. The document also provides statistics on literacy rates and access to education across India to demonstrate improvements still needed.
IPDC Presentation copy.pptx on future scenarioAazimPathan
The document discusses education in India, outlining both strengths and weaknesses of the current system. It provides statistics on literacy rates, school infrastructure issues, and the need to improve practical and skills-based learning. While the system has global recognition and cultural diversity, it needs investment in infrastructure, changes to the teaching methods, and a greater focus on practical subjects like physical education. With continued reforms, India has the potential to further develop its vast human resources through education.
Primary education in India faces several challenges, including low enrollment and attendance rates, high dropout rates before 5th grade, and poor quality of education especially in rural areas and for girls. The government has implemented various programs to address these issues, such as the District Primary Education Program, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and Operation Blackboard. New initiatives like the Right to Education Act aim to increase access to private schools for underprivileged children. However, improving teacher training and classroom practices will be needed to truly enhance educational quality and outcomes for Indian children.
India primary education system is among the largest in the world with nearly 1.5 million schools and over 100 million students enrolled. This large size warrants significant investments to provide high quality education at primary levels. Over the years, the government has worked on strengthening its education system at the elementary level through various policies and schemes such as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Mid-day meal scheme, Right to Education Act (RTE), among others. This has in turn resulted in a six times growth in number of schools offering primary education, thirteen times increase in number of teachers, and doubling of Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) from 1950 to 2016.
MANTRA's School Transformation and Empowerment Project(STEP) - October 2014 B...Anoop Erakkil
1) STEP aims to improve the quality of education in low-fee private and government schools through a multi-stage school improvement framework.
2) In stage 1, a needs assessment was conducted at 9 schools which identified gaps in areas like vision/mission, teaching methods, and parent engagement.
3) In stage 4 private schools, activities focused on developing school leadership and improving instruction, while government school activities centered on processes, tools, and community engagement.
The document summarizes several of Pratham's flagship education programs in India. It discusses Pratham's growth from a local organization to a national one with international impact. Key programs highlighted include Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which conducts annual assessments of children's learning levels; Read India, which aims to improve literacy and numeracy through learning camps; vocational training programs in partnership with industries; and Second Chance, which helps girls who have dropped out earn a high school degree. Impact data shows significant gains in learning and placement outcomes from these initiatives.
Teach For India aims to address educational inequity in India by recruiting top university graduates and professionals to teach for two years in under-resourced schools. This will create a movement of leaders who advocate for educational opportunity for all children. Teach For India is currently accepting applications for its 2010 Fellowship and is seeking outstanding applicants ready for the challenge to join the movement.
This document provides an overview of the education industry in India and discusses key details about the industry. It notes that education in India is provided through both public and private sectors, with free and compulsory education required between ages 6-14. It also discusses the growth of literacy rates in India and increasing enrollment in education. The private education market is large and growing significantly. The document then discusses the structure and regulation of private schools in India and policies around affirmative action and reservations in education.
Education to Educate: A Case of Punjab Education FoundationIJAEMSJORNAL
Mrs. Shehzad’s doorbell rang, and she came out to open the door. She was sure about the arrival of her children Ali and Sana on the door as it was the time of school closing at 3’o clock. While serving the lunch, she thanked Allah and recalled the time a few years back. When Ali was in 4th grade, and Sana was in 5th grade, Mr. & Mrs. Shahzad thought to change the school of their children from private to government. This thought emerged because they were unable to afford the fee schedule of private schools. But they were aware of the drawbacks of Government Schools too. They never wanted to abolish their children’s confidence level, productivity, and learning. It was not the dilemma of one home but the whole nation.
1) A study found that the learning levels among primary and middle school students in India is declining, with fewer students able to perform basic math and reading skills appropriate for their grade level.
2) Between 2005-2013, the proportion of Class 5 students able to read a Class 2 textbook declined by 15% and the number of Class 8 students able to do divisions declined by 23%.
3) While enrollment in schools has increased due to government programs, the quality of education being delivered is poor, with a focus on school attendance rather than actual learning. Infrastructure and teacher training is inadequate.
Cash and vouchers led to starkly different purchasing patterns. Voucher recipients purchased fewer types of items compared to cash recipients, indicating the voucher was extra-marginal for some food items. However, there were few differences in other outcomes like food security and asset ownership between the groups. Cash recipients were able to save more of the transfer value since vouchers could only be spent on certain goods. The voucher program also had higher costs for the implementing agency than cash transfers.
This document analyzes the long-term effects of the 1832 Cherokee Land Lottery on wealth using census and other data. It finds that those who received land titles in the lottery on average had higher wealth levels in 1850 and 1860 compared to those who did not receive titles, even after controlling for other factors. The effects were larger for those matched to land closest to gold deposits discovered in the 1830s.
This paper examines middleman margins and the impact of providing price information to potato farmers in West Bengal, India. It finds that middlemen earn very large margins of 50-90% of farmgate prices on average. When farmers were provided daily wholesale market price information, it had no average effect on prices received but increased volatility, consistent with a bargaining model. This suggests neither risk-sharing nor asymmetric information play a major role in middlemen margins. The key cause of high margins appears to be the market power of middlemen in the hierarchical potato marketing system.
This document summarizes a study on daily income targets and labor supply among 257 Kenyan bicycle taxi drivers. The study collected detailed daily logs from participants over several months, including whether they had a cash need that day and if so, the amount. The results suggest that drivers (1) have cash needs that vary substantially and put them off until the last day, (2) work more on high-need days, and (3) are more likely to quit after reaching their target for the day. Providing unexpected cash payments did not affect labor supply. The study aims to better understand how individuals without formal work arrangements motivate themselves to meet daily income targets.
1. The document analyzes maternal beliefs about the technology of skill formation in children.
2. Objective estimates of the technology are obtained using data on skills, investments, and health conditions of children over time. These estimates find that investments have a statistically significant effect on skills.
3. Maternal beliefs about the technology are heterogeneous and may differ systematically from objective estimates if mothers are misinformed. Comparing beliefs to estimates could reveal if certain groups are misinformed.
This study evaluates a performance incentive program in Mexican high schools aimed at improving mathematics achievement. It provided monetary incentives to students (T1), teachers (T2), or both (T3) based on scores on curriculum-aligned mathematics tests. The program was implemented over three school years in 88 schools randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. Initial results found positive effects on test scores, with the largest effects in the treatment combining incentives for both students and teachers.
1) The document describes a field experiment that randomized offers of index insurance to agricultural households in India to study the interaction between formal insurance and informal risk-sharing networks.
2) It finds that the presence of strong informal risk-sharing networks through castes/jatis reduces demand for formal insurance, and that basis risk, where payouts do not perfectly correlate with losses, also reduces demand.
3) However, informal and formal insurance can be complements when basis risk is high, as both provide partial coverage against different risks. The study uses detailed survey and rainfall data on castes/jatis to characterize their risk-sharing practices.
The document discusses a study on the impact of female property rights on suicide rates in India. It notes that women's ability to inherit property is restricted in many societies, including in India. The study uses variation in property rights for women generated by state amendments to inheritance laws and land reforms. It develops a model of intra-household bargaining incorporating conflict and finds that better property rights for women are associated with a decrease in the gender difference in suicide rates but an increase in overall male and female suicide rates, possibly due to increased intra-household conflict from challenging traditional gender roles.
The document analyzes how pro-poor growth, or reducing poverty, will impact global energy demand. It develops an economic model showing that as household income grows over time in a nonlinear way, ownership of durable goods like refrigerators also increases nonlinearly. The model predicts that the pace of income growth matters, with more uneven income growth leading to higher durable ownership. Analysis of a Mexican anti-poverty program confirms the model's predictions, showing that households receiving more uneven transfers over time were more likely to acquire refrigerators. The findings suggest that projections of energy demand need to account for how rapidly populations rise out of poverty to avoid underestimating future demand.
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the impact of a business literacy intervention in rural Mexico. The intervention provided free 6-week business skills courses taught by professors and students to about 25 women entrepreneurs per class. The courses covered topics like accounting, pricing, taxes, and marketing. The study found that the training led to large, positive and significant effects on profits, revenues, and number of clients both in the short- and medium-run. There was also evidence of heterogeneous treatment effects. The results suggest the training improved accounting practices, lowered costs, increased mark-ups, and in some cases lowered prices.
The document describes an experiment conducted in Malawi to test if job referral networks disadvantage women. The experiment found that when people could refer either men or women, only 30% of referrals were women, compared to 38% of initial applicants. However, when people could only refer one gender, men and women referred at similar rates regardless of the gender they were restricted to. This suggests social incentives rather than differences in productivity lead referral networks to disadvantage women.
This document summarizes a study evaluating Mexico's Hábitat program, which aims to improve infrastructure and quality of life in marginalized urban areas. The study uses a randomized saturation design where municipalities were randomly assigned a treatment fraction, and polygons within municipalities were then randomly assigned as treatment or control. Over 9,700 households were surveyed at baseline in 2009 and follow-up in 2012 to evaluate impacts on infrastructure access, health, social capital, and other outcomes. The randomized design at multiple levels aims to quantify program impacts while accounting for potential spillovers between treatment and control areas.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between medieval trade and religious tolerance in South Asia. The key findings are:
1) Medieval ports in South Asia that benefited from overseas trade centuries ago experienced significantly less Hindu-Muslim violence over the last 200 years compared to other towns, despite being more ethnically diverse.
2) This effect is attributed to the exogenous and non-replicable complementarities between Hindu and Muslim communities that arose from medieval trade, not other factors like wealth, geography, or institutions alone.
3) The research provides evidence that exogenous changes generating robust inter-ethnic complementarities can have a lasting positive impact on peaceful coexistence in ethnically diverse societies.
The document summarizes research on the quality of life insurance advice provided by agents in India. It finds that agents overwhelmingly recommend whole life policies over term life policies, even when term policies better meet customers' needs for risk coverage at low cost. Agents are motivated to recommend whole life due to higher commissions. The research tests whether the quality of advice improves when disclosure requirements make agency problems more transparent or when competition is increased. It uses an audit study approach with standardized customer profiles to evaluate agent recommendations across conditions.
The paper analyzes the price effects of cash versus in-kind transfers using data from a randomized experiment in Mexico. It finds that:
1) Prices for goods decline more for in-kind transfers than for cash transfers, with the difference in price effects being statistically significant.
2) The price effects are larger in more remote villages, consistent with those villages having more closed economies and less competition.
3) The results provide empirical evidence that in-kind transfers can have larger impacts on prices than cash transfers due to introducing supply as well as demand for goods in local markets.
This document provides an overview of a study that estimates a dynamic agricultural production model using observed subjective distributions from farmers in Tanzania. The key points are:
1) The study measures farmers' subjective probability distributions over expected crop prices and yields at different points throughout the growing season. This allows the authors to relax rational expectations assumptions and incorporate observed expectations.
2) The model assumes crops grow according to a nested CES production function with labor, pesticides, and lagged output as inputs. Farmers are assumed to maximize expected profits subject to shocks modeled by subjective distributions.
3) Identification of the shock distributions gt(θt) is needed to estimate the model parameters but the study only observes subjective output
This document summarizes a study on the long-term effects of teacher performance pay in India. The study conducted a 5-year randomized controlled trial across hundreds of schools in Andhra Pradesh. Schools were randomly assigned to receive either individual or group-based teacher incentives linked to student test scores, or to serve as controls. The study finds that students whose teachers received individual incentives scored significantly higher than controls on math and language tests after 5 years of exposure. They also scored higher on non-incentivized subjects. The study provides some of the longest-running and most robust evidence on performance pay for teachers.
The document discusses subsidies for malaria treatment. It notes that malaria kills over 1 million people per year. A new effective drug called ACT is available but unaffordable for most. A program called AMFm aims to reduce ACT prices via subsidies to improve access and fight drug resistance, but there is a risk of overtreatment which could waste money and contribute to drug resistance. The paper aims to study how to balance improved access and targeting of subsidies for ACT malaria treatment.
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the impact of a mobile phone-based agricultural advice and information service called Avaaj Otalo (AO) on cotton farmers in Gujarat, India. The study used a randomized controlled trial with 1,200 farmers randomized to either receive AO, AO plus physical extension sessions, or serve as pure controls. The study examined the impact on sources of information, agricultural knowledge, and farming practices. It also analyzed peer effects and information sharing. The results of the study will provide insights into the effectiveness of using mobile phones to deliver agricultural extension services and the diffusion of information among farmers.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
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to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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1. Cycling to School: Increasing Secondary
School Enrollment for Girls in India
Karthik Muralidharan 1 Nishith Prakash 2
1University of California-San Diego, NBER, J-PAL, BREAD
2University of Connecticut, IZA, CReAM
June 20, 2013 / IFPRI
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 1 / 59
2. Motivation
“Investment in girls’ education may well be the
highest-return investment available in the developing
world.”- Lawrence H. Summers (former Chief Economist of
the World Bank)
“I think the bicycle has done more to emancipate women
than anything else in the world.”- Susan B. Anthony (19th
century leader of US women’s suffrage movement)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 2 / 59
3. Motivation
“Investment in girls’ education may well be the
highest-return investment available in the developing
world.”- Lawrence H. Summers (former Chief Economist of
the World Bank)
“I think the bicycle has done more to emancipate women
than anything else in the world.”- Susan B. Anthony (19th
century leader of US women’s suffrage movement)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 2 / 59
4. Motivation
Increasing school attainment of girls is one of the
Millennium Development Goals
Bridging the gender gap in education is an important policy
question
Improving female education directly contributes to
“Inclusive Growth”:
Growth - by increasing human capital of labor force
Inclusive - by allowing people to participate in the growth
process
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 3 / 59
5. Motivation
Increasing school attainment of girls is one of the
Millennium Development Goals
Bridging the gender gap in education is an important policy
question
Improving female education directly contributes to
“Inclusive Growth”:
Growth - by increasing human capital of labor force
Inclusive - by allowing people to participate in the growth
process
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 3 / 59
6. Motivation
Increasing school attainment of girls is one of the
Millennium Development Goals
Bridging the gender gap in education is an important policy
question
Improving female education directly contributes to
“Inclusive Growth”:
Growth - by increasing human capital of labor force
Inclusive - by allowing people to participate in the growth
process
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 3 / 59
7. Status of Education in India
Larger gender gaps in India (and especially in Bihar) in
school attendance (grows with age)
Primary schools now exist within 1 km of most villages
But distance is still an important barrier to secondary
school attendance (again, more so for girls)
Bihar was among the lowest mean levels of education
(IHDS 2005)
Girls/Boys enrollment ratio in Bihar (2007-08):
93% in Class 1
80% in Class 5
69% in Class 8
62% in Class 9
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 4 / 59
8. Status of Education in India
Larger gender gaps in India (and especially in Bihar) in
school attendance (grows with age)
Primary schools now exist within 1 km of most villages
But distance is still an important barrier to secondary
school attendance (again, more so for girls)
Bihar was among the lowest mean levels of education
(IHDS 2005)
Girls/Boys enrollment ratio in Bihar (2007-08):
93% in Class 1
80% in Class 5
69% in Class 8
62% in Class 9
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 4 / 59
9. Status of Education in India
Larger gender gaps in India (and especially in Bihar) in
school attendance (grows with age)
Primary schools now exist within 1 km of most villages
But distance is still an important barrier to secondary
school attendance (again, more so for girls)
Bihar was among the lowest mean levels of education
(IHDS 2005)
Girls/Boys enrollment ratio in Bihar (2007-08):
93% in Class 1
80% in Class 5
69% in Class 8
62% in Class 9
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 4 / 59
10. School Enrollment by Age & Gender
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 5 / 59
11. Enrollment of 14-15 year olds in Secondary School by
Distance & Gender
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 6 / 59
12. Summary
Gender gap in educational attainment is more pronounced
in Bihar relative to the all India figures
The drop off in girls’ enrollment is particularly pronounced
at age 14, which is the time of transition to secondary
schooling
The probability of 14 and 15 year olds being enrolled in
school steadily declines as the distance to the nearest
secondary school increases both in the all India data as
well as in Bihar
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 7 / 59
13. Summary
Gender gap in educational attainment is more pronounced
in Bihar relative to the all India figures
The drop off in girls’ enrollment is particularly pronounced
at age 14, which is the time of transition to secondary
schooling
The probability of 14 and 15 year olds being enrolled in
school steadily declines as the distance to the nearest
secondary school increases both in the all India data as
well as in Bihar
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 7 / 59
14. Summary
Gender gap in educational attainment is more pronounced
in Bihar relative to the all India figures
The drop off in girls’ enrollment is particularly pronounced
at age 14, which is the time of transition to secondary
schooling
The probability of 14 and 15 year olds being enrolled in
school steadily declines as the distance to the nearest
secondary school increases both in the all India data as
well as in Bihar
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 7 / 59
15. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
16. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
17. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
18. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
19. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
20. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
21. School Access vs. Scale in India
The default approach to school access is in terms of
school construction
Ongoing national campaign to expand access to
secondary schooling via school construction and
expansion (RSMA)
Expensive
Takes time to build new schools
There exists trade-off between access and scale
Secondary School
Access vs. scale trade-off of first order concern here!
Requires qualified and specialized teachers
Not obvious if improving school access should always take
the form of school construction
Need to think of cost-effective scalable policy to improve
access to secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 8 / 59
22. Policy Intervention
In 2006, the Govt. of Bihar initiated a program to provide
cycles to all girls studying in grade 9
Personal initiative of the Chief Minister
Program was called the “Cycle Program”
An allocation of Rs. 2000/student was made (now Rs.
2500, ≈ $46)
High-profile program, politically very visible (and also
copied)
No direct provision of cycles–cash provided to eligible
students through the schools, and receipts for purchase of
cycles were collected (not a typical CCT that goes to HH
budget)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 9 / 59
23. Policy Intervention
In 2006, the Govt. of Bihar initiated a program to provide
cycles to all girls studying in grade 9
Personal initiative of the Chief Minister
Program was called the “Cycle Program”
An allocation of Rs. 2000/student was made (now Rs.
2500, ≈ $46)
High-profile program, politically very visible (and also
copied)
No direct provision of cycles–cash provided to eligible
students through the schools, and receipts for purchase of
cycles were collected (not a typical CCT that goes to HH
budget)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 9 / 59
24. Policy Intervention
Unique hybrid of demand and supply-sided intervention
Enrollment conditionality resembles a traditional CCT
But cycles improve school access by reducing the distance
cost of attendance (also allows economies of scale in
school quality)
This was effectively a CKT program and was one of India’s
first scaled up CT program for girls’ secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 10 / 59
25. Policy Intervention
Unique hybrid of demand and supply-sided intervention
Enrollment conditionality resembles a traditional CCT
But cycles improve school access by reducing the distance
cost of attendance (also allows economies of scale in
school quality)
This was effectively a CKT program and was one of India’s
first scaled up CT program for girls’ secondary education
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 10 / 59
29. Research Questions
What is the impact of exposure to cycle program on
secondary school enrollment for girls?
Disentangle the mechanisms through which policy affects
outcomes (conditionality vs. cycle)?
What are the impacts on learning outcomes?
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 14 / 59
30. Research Questions
What is the impact of exposure to cycle program on
secondary school enrollment for girls?
Disentangle the mechanisms through which policy affects
outcomes (conditionality vs. cycle)?
What are the impacts on learning outcomes?
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 14 / 59
31. Research Questions
What is the impact of exposure to cycle program on
secondary school enrollment for girls?
Disentangle the mechanisms through which policy affects
outcomes (conditionality vs. cycle)?
What are the impacts on learning outcomes?
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 14 / 59
32. Preview of Main Results
Cycle program increased the age-appropriate secondary
school enrollment of girls by 5.2 percentage points
Most of the treatment effect appears to be coming from
villages where the nearest secondary school is more than
3 km away
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an inverted-U
shape
The program had a modest positive impact on percentage
of girls’ appearing for grade 10 exam
The program had no impact on percentage of girls’ passing
grade 10 exam
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 15 / 59
33. Preview of Main Results
Cycle program increased the age-appropriate secondary
school enrollment of girls by 5.2 percentage points
Most of the treatment effect appears to be coming from
villages where the nearest secondary school is more than
3 km away
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an inverted-U
shape
The program had a modest positive impact on percentage
of girls’ appearing for grade 10 exam
The program had no impact on percentage of girls’ passing
grade 10 exam
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 15 / 59
34. Preview of Main Results
Cycle program increased the age-appropriate secondary
school enrollment of girls by 5.2 percentage points
Most of the treatment effect appears to be coming from
villages where the nearest secondary school is more than
3 km away
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an inverted-U
shape
The program had a modest positive impact on percentage
of girls’ appearing for grade 10 exam
The program had no impact on percentage of girls’ passing
grade 10 exam
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 15 / 59
35. Preview of Main Results
Cycle program increased the age-appropriate secondary
school enrollment of girls by 5.2 percentage points
Most of the treatment effect appears to be coming from
villages where the nearest secondary school is more than
3 km away
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an inverted-U
shape
The program had a modest positive impact on percentage
of girls’ appearing for grade 10 exam
The program had no impact on percentage of girls’ passing
grade 10 exam
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 15 / 59
36. Preview of Main Results
Cycle program increased the age-appropriate secondary
school enrollment of girls by 5.2 percentage points
Most of the treatment effect appears to be coming from
villages where the nearest secondary school is more than
3 km away
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an inverted-U
shape
The program had a modest positive impact on percentage
of girls’ appearing for grade 10 exam
The program had no impact on percentage of girls’ passing
grade 10 exam
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 15 / 59
37. Contributions and Policy Implication
Rigorously evaluates the effectiveness of one of India’s first
scaled up CCT/CKT program for girls’ secondary education
Answers the question of whether ‘distance cost’ reduces
gender gap in enrollment and attainment
Relevant not just for India but other developing countries
This paper also makes a methodological contribution to the
program evaluation literature by demonstrating the
feasibility of credible impact evaluations even in contexts of
universal program roll out
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 16 / 59
38. Contributions and Policy Implication
Rigorously evaluates the effectiveness of one of India’s first
scaled up CCT/CKT program for girls’ secondary education
Answers the question of whether ‘distance cost’ reduces
gender gap in enrollment and attainment
Relevant not just for India but other developing countries
This paper also makes a methodological contribution to the
program evaluation literature by demonstrating the
feasibility of credible impact evaluations even in contexts of
universal program roll out
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 16 / 59
39. Contributions and Policy Implication
Rigorously evaluates the effectiveness of one of India’s first
scaled up CCT/CKT program for girls’ secondary education
Answers the question of whether ‘distance cost’ reduces
gender gap in enrollment and attainment
Relevant not just for India but other developing countries
This paper also makes a methodological contribution to the
program evaluation literature by demonstrating the
feasibility of credible impact evaluations even in contexts of
universal program roll out
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 16 / 59
40. Contributions and Policy Implication
Rigorously evaluates the effectiveness of one of India’s first
scaled up CCT/CKT program for girls’ secondary education
Answers the question of whether ‘distance cost’ reduces
gender gap in enrollment and attainment
Relevant not just for India but other developing countries
This paper also makes a methodological contribution to the
program evaluation literature by demonstrating the
feasibility of credible impact evaluations even in contexts of
universal program roll out
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 16 / 59
41. Brief Related Literature
School Access:
Impact of school construction programs have found positive
effects on enrollment (Duflo 2001, Burde and Linden 2012,
Kazianga et al. 2012)
Access to roads increases enrollment (Mukherjee 2011)
Trade-off between access and scale (Muralidharan et al.
2013, Jacob, Kochar, and Reddy 2008, De Haan, Leuven,
and Osterbeek 2011)
Conditional Transfers:
CCT programs have found a positive impact on girls’
education enrollment and attainment (Fiszbein and Schady
2009)
Methodological:
Bleakley (2007), Hornbeck (2010), Duflo (2001),
Jayachandran & Lleras-Muney (2008)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 17 / 59
42. Brief Related Literature
School Access:
Impact of school construction programs have found positive
effects on enrollment (Duflo 2001, Burde and Linden 2012,
Kazianga et al. 2012)
Access to roads increases enrollment (Mukherjee 2011)
Trade-off between access and scale (Muralidharan et al.
2013, Jacob, Kochar, and Reddy 2008, De Haan, Leuven,
and Osterbeek 2011)
Conditional Transfers:
CCT programs have found a positive impact on girls’
education enrollment and attainment (Fiszbein and Schady
2009)
Methodological:
Bleakley (2007), Hornbeck (2010), Duflo (2001),
Jayachandran & Lleras-Muney (2008)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 17 / 59
43. Brief Related Literature
School Access:
Impact of school construction programs have found positive
effects on enrollment (Duflo 2001, Burde and Linden 2012,
Kazianga et al. 2012)
Access to roads increases enrollment (Mukherjee 2011)
Trade-off between access and scale (Muralidharan et al.
2013, Jacob, Kochar, and Reddy 2008, De Haan, Leuven,
and Osterbeek 2011)
Conditional Transfers:
CCT programs have found a positive impact on girls’
education enrollment and attainment (Fiszbein and Schady
2009)
Methodological:
Bleakley (2007), Hornbeck (2010), Duflo (2001),
Jayachandran & Lleras-Muney (2008)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 17 / 59
44. Outline of Today’s Talk
Data & Outcome Measures
Identification and Empirical Framework
Main Findings
Robustness Checks
Discussion
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 18 / 59
45. Data Sources
District-Level Health Survey (DLHS) Data 2008
Survey conducted ≈1.5 years after Cycle program launched
Representative sample of approximately 1,000 HH/district
(total sample of close to 50,000 HH across
Bihar/Jharkhand)
Family roster with education histories
Village data includes distance to nearest secondary school
We also collect official data on student learning outcomes
using appearance/passing on 10th grade board exam
Also collect official school enrollment data (for testing
trends only)
ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 19 / 59
46. Data Sources
District-Level Health Survey (DLHS) Data 2008
Survey conducted ≈1.5 years after Cycle program launched
Representative sample of approximately 1,000 HH/district
(total sample of close to 50,000 HH across
Bihar/Jharkhand)
Family roster with education histories
Village data includes distance to nearest secondary school
We also collect official data on student learning outcomes
using appearance/passing on 10th grade board exam
Also collect official school enrollment data (for testing
trends only)
ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 19 / 59
47. Data Sources
District-Level Health Survey (DLHS) Data 2008
Survey conducted ≈1.5 years after Cycle program launched
Representative sample of approximately 1,000 HH/district
(total sample of close to 50,000 HH across
Bihar/Jharkhand)
Family roster with education histories
Village data includes distance to nearest secondary school
We also collect official data on student learning outcomes
using appearance/passing on 10th grade board exam
Also collect official school enrollment data (for testing
trends only)
ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 19 / 59
48. Outcome Measures
Enrollment outcome
Dummy variable if a student is enrolled in or completed
grade 9
Learning outcomes: grade 10 performance
Log of number of students appearing for grade 10 exam
(aggregate at school level)
Log of number of students who passed grade 10 exam
(aggregate at school level)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 20 / 59
49. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
50. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
51. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
52. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
53. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
54. Empirical Challenges
Identification:
Main challenge for the empirical analysis is that the
program was implemented state-wide and so it is difficult to
find a control group
The program was launched across the full state of Bihar at
a time of high growth, improving law and order, and
plausibly increasing rates of return to education
Address this by employing triple difference
Risk of over-reporting of girls’ enrollment in administrative
data in response to the Cycle program:
Use large household data to mitigate this risk
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 21 / 59
55. Difference in Difference
We treat 14-15 year olds as ‘treated’ cohorts (exposed to
the program) and 16-17 year olds as ‘control’ cohorts (not
exposed to the program) – [as in Duflo 2001]
14-15 vs.16-17 year old girls (first difference)
Compare with corresponding difference for boys (second
difference)
Boys are exposed to similar changes in Bihar but are NOT
eligible for the cycle program (for e.g. increasing household
incomes and increased public investment in education)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 22 / 59
56. Difference in Difference
We treat 14-15 year olds as ‘treated’ cohorts (exposed to
the program) and 16-17 year olds as ‘control’ cohorts (not
exposed to the program) – [as in Duflo 2001]
14-15 vs.16-17 year old girls (first difference)
Compare with corresponding difference for boys (second
difference)
Boys are exposed to similar changes in Bihar but are NOT
eligible for the cycle program (for e.g. increasing household
incomes and increased public investment in education)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 22 / 59
57. Difference in Difference
We treat 14-15 year olds as ‘treated’ cohorts (exposed to
the program) and 16-17 year olds as ‘control’ cohorts (not
exposed to the program) – [as in Duflo 2001]
14-15 vs.16-17 year old girls (first difference)
Compare with corresponding difference for boys (second
difference)
Boys are exposed to similar changes in Bihar but are NOT
eligible for the cycle program (for e.g. increasing household
incomes and increased public investment in education)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 22 / 59
58. Difference in Difference
We treat 14-15 year olds as ‘treated’ cohorts (exposed to
the program) and 16-17 year olds as ‘control’ cohorts (not
exposed to the program) – [as in Duflo 2001]
14-15 vs.16-17 year old girls (first difference)
Compare with corresponding difference for boys (second
difference)
Boys are exposed to similar changes in Bihar but are NOT
eligible for the cycle program (for e.g. increasing household
incomes and increased public investment in education)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 22 / 59
59. Estimating Equation
yihv = β0 + β1Female dummyihv ∗ Treatihv +
β2Female dummyihv + β3Treatihv + γX + eihv (1)
where
yihv is the outcome variable of interest corresponding to child i, in household
h and village v
X = control variables (social groups, religion, household level characteristics,
and village level characteristics)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 23 / 59
60. Descriptive Statistics
Full Sample Bihar Jharkhand
PANEL A: Dependent variable
Enrolled in or completed grade 9 (Among 14-17 year olds) 0.378 0.309 0.337
(0.485) (0.462) (0.473)
PANEL B: Key independent variables
Treatment group = Child age 14 & 15 (Among 14-17 year olds) 0.545 0.543 0.586
(0.498) (0.498) (0.493)
Female dummy 0.476 0.485 0.473
(0.499) (0.500) (0.499)
PANEL C: Demographic controls
Social group: Scheduled caste 0.191 0.190 0.136
(0.393) (0.393) (0.343)
Social group: Scheduled tribes 0.075 0.022 0.361
(0.263) (0.145) (0.480)
Social group: Other backward caste 0.547 0.588 0.423
(0.498) (0.492) (0.494)
Social group: Hindu 0.814 0.846 0.646
(0.389) (0.361) (0.478)
Social group: Muslim 0.142 0.151 0.118
(0.349) (0.358) (0.323)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 24 / 59
61. Difference in Difference Estimate for the Exposure of
Cycle Program on Girl’s Enrollment
Dependent variable=Enrolled in or completed grade 9
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Treat×Female dummy 0.123*** 0.114*** 0.0908*** 0.0904***
(0.0149) (0.0144) (0.0135) (0.0134)
Treat -0.192*** -0.184*** -0.167*** -0.166***
(0.0108) (0.0106) (0.00992) (0.00992)
Female dummy -0.186*** -0.178*** -0.168*** -0.167***
(0.0117) (0.0112) (0.0103) (0.0103)
Constant 0.475*** 0.823*** 0.487*** 0.502***
(0.00980) (0.0831) (0.0622) (0.0673)
Demographic controls NO YES YES YES
HH level and literacy controls NO NO YES YES
Village level controls NO NO NO YES
Observations 18,453 18,453 18,353 18,331
R-squared 0.038 0.106 0.225 0.227
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 25 / 59
62. Parallel Trend Assumption for Difference in Difference
Treating the double-difference estimate as causal requires
that there were parallel trends in boys and girls enrollment
prior to the program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 26 / 59
63. Do Parallel Trends Hold?
We reject the parallel trend assumption
Half of the increase in enrollment would have happened
anyway!
Grade 9
Dependent variable=Log(Enrollment)
School Level
(1)
Female Dummy×Year 0.0518***
(0.00476)
Female Dummy -0.870***
(0.0631)
Pre Year 0.0852***
(0.00539)
Constant 4.235***
(0.0492)
Observations 20,266
R-squared 0.167
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 27 / 59
64. Parallel Trend Assumption for Triple Difference
We compare the double difference estimate in the state of
Bihar (the treated state), with the same estimate for the
state of Jharkhand (the control state), which is a
neighboring state which was a part of the state of Bihar till
recently, and only separated administratively in 2001
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 28 / 59
65. Do Parallel Trends Hold?
Fail to reject the parallel trend assumption
Grade 9
Dependent variable=Log(Enrollment)
School Level
(1)
Female Dummy×Year×Bihar dummy -0.0100
(0.0120)
Female Dummy×Year 0.0618***
(0.0111)
Female Dummy×Bihar dummy 0.175
(0.110)
Bihar dummy×Year 0.0290**
(0.0129)
Female dummy -1.045***
(0.0900)
Time trend 0.0562***
(0.0117)
Bihar dummy -0.123
(0.118)
Constant 4.358***
(0.108)
Observations 22,279
R-squared 0.171
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 29 / 59
66. Triple Difference
Compare double difference across Bihar & Jharkhand
(triple difference)
The triple difference is our preferred estimate of program
impact
Estimating equation:
yihv = β0 + β1Treatihv ∗ Female dummyihv ∗ Bihar +
β2Treatihv ∗ Female dummyihv + β3Treatihv ∗ Bihar +
β4Female dummyihv ∗ Bihar +
β5Treatihv + β6Female dummyihv +
β7Bihar + γX + eihv (2)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 30 / 59
67. Triple Difference Estimate for the Exposure of Cycle
Program on Girl’s Enrollment
Dependent variable=Enrolled in or completed grade 9
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.103*** 0.0912*** 0.0525** 0.0523**
(0.0302) (0.0294) (0.0252) (0.0253)
Treat×Female dummy 0.0195 0.0235 0.0380* 0.0381*
(0.0263) (0.0256) (0.0214) (0.0215)
Treat×Bihar dummy -0.0437** -0.0418** -0.0290* -0.0281*
(0.0179) (0.0177) (0.0160) (0.0161)
Female dummy×Bihar dummy -0.0942*** -0.0905*** -0.0686*** -0.0673***
(0.0233) (0.0226) (0.0200) (0.0201)
Treat -0.148*** -0.143*** -0.138*** -0.138***
(0.0143) (0.0142) (0.0127) (0.0127)
Female dummy -0.0915*** -0.0880*** -0.0986*** -0.0994***
(0.0202) (0.0196) (0.0172) (0.0172)
Bihar dummy 0.0115 -0.0437*** -0.0247* -0.0378**
(0.0163) (0.0165) (0.0146) (0.0148)
Demographic controls NO YES YES YES
HH level and literacy controls NO NO YES YES
Village level controls NO NO NO YES
Constant 0.464*** 0.771*** 0.503*** 0.463***
(0.0130) (0.0240) (0.0240) (0.0393)
Observations 30,295 30,295 30,147 30,112
R-squared 0.035 0.088 0.208 0.210
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 31 / 59
68. Summary of Results
Exposure to the Cycle program increased the
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment of girls by
5.2 percentage points (or 40% increase on a base of 13%)
The age-appropriate secondary school enrollment rate for
boys was 26 percent
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 32 / 59
69. Summary of Results
Exposure to the Cycle program increased the
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment of girls by
5.2 percentage points (or 40% increase on a base of 13%)
The age-appropriate secondary school enrollment rate for
boys was 26 percent
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 32 / 59
70. Mechanisms
Even if we find an effect, there may be multiple
mechanisms
Conditionality, cycle, third factors (other programs, returns)
If the channel of impact is that the cycle reduces the
‘distance cost’ of attending school, then we should see a
larger impact in villages where the nearest secondary
school is further away (data lets us test this)
Compare triple difference by whether a village was
above/below median distance to school (quadruple
difference)
Plot triple-difference by distance (non-parametric)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 33 / 59
71. Mechanisms
Even if we find an effect, there may be multiple
mechanisms
Conditionality, cycle, third factors (other programs, returns)
If the channel of impact is that the cycle reduces the
‘distance cost’ of attending school, then we should see a
larger impact in villages where the nearest secondary
school is further away (data lets us test this)
Compare triple difference by whether a village was
above/below median distance to school (quadruple
difference)
Plot triple-difference by distance (non-parametric)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 33 / 59
72. Mechanisms
Even if we find an effect, there may be multiple
mechanisms
Conditionality, cycle, third factors (other programs, returns)
If the channel of impact is that the cycle reduces the
‘distance cost’ of attending school, then we should see a
larger impact in villages where the nearest secondary
school is further away (data lets us test this)
Compare triple difference by whether a village was
above/below median distance to school (quadruple
difference)
Plot triple-difference by distance (non-parametric)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 33 / 59
73. Mechanisms
Even if we find an effect, there may be multiple
mechanisms
Conditionality, cycle, third factors (other programs, returns)
If the channel of impact is that the cycle reduces the
‘distance cost’ of attending school, then we should see a
larger impact in villages where the nearest secondary
school is further away (data lets us test this)
Compare triple difference by whether a village was
above/below median distance to school (quadruple
difference)
Plot triple-difference by distance (non-parametric)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 33 / 59
74. Sketch of Mechanism of Impact
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 34 / 59
75. Prediction
Returns to secondary school does not vary by distance but
cost does
This suggests maximum impact at the ‘intermediate’ range
of distance to school
Predicts an inverted U-shaped from a model where the
cycle reduces costs of schooling proportional to the
distance to school (but where the absolute cost of
attendance is still too high to attend at very large distances)
Low impact at short and long distances
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 35 / 59
76. Prediction
Returns to secondary school does not vary by distance but
cost does
This suggests maximum impact at the ‘intermediate’ range
of distance to school
Predicts an inverted U-shaped from a model where the
cycle reduces costs of schooling proportional to the
distance to school (but where the absolute cost of
attendance is still too high to attend at very large distances)
Low impact at short and long distances
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 35 / 59
77. Prediction
Returns to secondary school does not vary by distance but
cost does
This suggests maximum impact at the ‘intermediate’ range
of distance to school
Predicts an inverted U-shaped from a model where the
cycle reduces costs of schooling proportional to the
distance to school (but where the absolute cost of
attendance is still too high to attend at very large distances)
Low impact at short and long distances
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 35 / 59
78. Distribution of Villages by Distance to Nearest
Secondary School
0.05.1.15.2
Density
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance to Secondary School (KM)
Bihar
0.1.2.3
Density
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance to Secondary School (KM)
Population Weighted
Bihar
0.05.1.15
Density
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance to Secondary School (KM)
Jharkhand
0.05.1.15
Density
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance to Secondary School (KM)
Population Weighted
Jharkhand
Figure 2: Distribution of Villages by Distance to Nearest Secondary School
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 36 / 59
79. Quadruple Difference: The Impact of Distance to
Secondary School on Girl’s Enrollment
Dependent variable=Enrolled in or completed grade 9
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy×Long distance 0.0940 0.0875 0.0898* 0.0882*
(0.0578) (0.0560) (0.0503) (0.0502)
Treat×Female dummy×Long distance -0.0788 -0.0803* -0.0745* -0.0733*
(0.0496) (0.0480) (0.0427) (0.0426)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0426 0.0338 -0.00504 -0.00420
(0.0410) (0.0394) (0.0376) (0.0376)
Female dummy×Bihar dummy×Long distance -0.0826* -0.0746* -0.0698* -0.0695*
(0.0450) (0.0433) (0.0393) (0.0391)
Treat×Bihar dummy×Long distance -0.0285 -0.0254 -0.00856 -0.00790
(0.0363) (0.0356) (0.0328) (0.0328)
Demographic controls NO YES YES YES
HH level and literacy controls NO NO YES YES
Village level controls NO NO NO YES
Constant 0.513*** 0.816*** 0.530*** 0.487***
(0.0228) (0.0279) (0.0271) (0.0410)
Observations 30295 30295 30147 30112
R-squared 0.039 0.091 0.209 0.210
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 37 / 59
82. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
83. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
84. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
85. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
86. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
87. What did we Learn?
Important to have state level controls as parallel trend is
rejected
Considerable catching up at all distances in Bihar
Positive DD estimates in Jharkhand at all distances ⇒ girls’
age-appropriate secondary school enrollment catching up
If there is generic catching up ⇒ more likely to happen
more when secondary schools close by
DD estimate insignificant at most distance above 5 km
Not much going on the conditionality side
The conditionality should have an impact at every distance
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 40 / 59
88. Summary of Results
Almost all the program impacts are found in villages that
are over 3 km away from a secondary school (with the
point estimate of treatment effects in villages that are
closer being close to zero)
The main mechanism of program impact is not the
conditionality, but rather the reduction of the distance cost
of attending school
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an
inverted-U shape
DDD estimates are positive and significant at distances
between 5 and 13 kms ⇒ intermediate range of distance to
school at which we would see a positive effect
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 41 / 59
89. Summary of Results
Almost all the program impacts are found in villages that
are over 3 km away from a secondary school (with the
point estimate of treatment effects in villages that are
closer being close to zero)
The main mechanism of program impact is not the
conditionality, but rather the reduction of the distance cost
of attending school
The triple difference non-parametric plot as a function of
distance to the nearest secondary school has an
inverted-U shape
DDD estimates are positive and significant at distances
between 5 and 13 kms ⇒ intermediate range of distance to
school at which we would see a positive effect
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 41 / 59
90. Robustness-I
Further concern:
Improvements in roads & law and order in Bihar would also
have a greater impact on girls’ school participation than
boys
This impact may be greater as a function of distance to a
secondary school
If these improvements also differentially reduce the cost of
girls’ secondary school participation proportional to the
distance in the same way that the bicycle may have ⇒ our
estimates could be confounding the impact of these other
improvements with that of the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 42 / 59
91. Robustness-I
Further concern:
Improvements in roads & law and order in Bihar would also
have a greater impact on girls’ school participation than
boys
This impact may be greater as a function of distance to a
secondary school
If these improvements also differentially reduce the cost of
girls’ secondary school participation proportional to the
distance in the same way that the bicycle may have ⇒ our
estimates could be confounding the impact of these other
improvements with that of the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 42 / 59
92. Robustness-I
Further concern:
Improvements in roads & law and order in Bihar would also
have a greater impact on girls’ school participation than
boys
This impact may be greater as a function of distance to a
secondary school
If these improvements also differentially reduce the cost of
girls’ secondary school participation proportional to the
distance in the same way that the bicycle may have ⇒ our
estimates could be confounding the impact of these other
improvements with that of the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 42 / 59
93. Robustness-I
Address this concern by conducting a placebo test:
Estimate triple-difference impact of exposure to the cycle
program on the probability of girls’ age appropriate
enrollment in (or completion of) the eighth grade
Improvements in roads, law and order, and safety should
affect girls in this cohort in comparable ways
Girls in eighth grade were not eligible for the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 43 / 59
94. Robustness-I
Address this concern by conducting a placebo test:
Estimate triple-difference impact of exposure to the cycle
program on the probability of girls’ age appropriate
enrollment in (or completion of) the eighth grade
Improvements in roads, law and order, and safety should
affect girls in this cohort in comparable ways
Girls in eighth grade were not eligible for the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 43 / 59
95. Robustness-I
Address this concern by conducting a placebo test:
Estimate triple-difference impact of exposure to the cycle
program on the probability of girls’ age appropriate
enrollment in (or completion of) the eighth grade
Improvements in roads, law and order, and safety should
affect girls in this cohort in comparable ways
Girls in eighth grade were not eligible for the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 43 / 59
96. Robustness-I
Address this concern by conducting a placebo test:
Estimate triple-difference impact of exposure to the cycle
program on the probability of girls’ age appropriate
enrollment in (or completion of) the eighth grade
Improvements in roads, law and order, and safety should
affect girls in this cohort in comparable ways
Girls in eighth grade were not eligible for the cycle program
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 43 / 59
97. Triple Difference Estimate for the Exposure of Cycle
Program on Girl’s Enrollment in 8th Grade
Dependent variable=Enrolled in or completed grade 8
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0111 -0.00226 0.00235 0.00189
(0.0237) (0.0229) (0.0214) (0.0215)
Treat×Female dummy 0.0259 0.0384** 0.0462*** 0.0457***
(0.0184) (0.0178) (0.0169) (0.0170)
Treat×Bihar dummy -0.00940 -0.00699 -0.00968 -0.00957
(0.0184) (0.0180) (0.0164) (0.0164)
Female dummy×Bihar dummy -0.0380** -0.0350** -0.0365** -0.0352**
(0.0184) (0.0176) (0.0168) (0.0168)
Treat -0.151*** -0.155*** -0.154*** -0.154***
(0.0152) (0.0149) (0.0133) (0.0134)
Female dummy -0.0956*** -0.0950*** -0.101*** -0.101***
(0.0148) (0.0141) (0.0137) (0.0137)
Bihar dummy -0.0438*** -0.105*** -0.0779*** -0.0891***
(0.0163) (0.0165) (0.0146) (0.0148)
Demographic controls NO YES YES YES
HH level and literacy controls NO NO YES YES
Village level controls NO NO NO YES
Constant 0.522*** 0.818*** 0.549*** 0.532***
(0.0130) (0.0240) (0.0240) (0.0393)
Observations 33,179 33,179 33,012 32,972
R-squared 0.038 0.089 0.202 0.203
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 44 / 59
98. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
99. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
100. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
101. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
102. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
103. Robustness-II
Border Districts:
Restrict the sample for our main triple-difference estimates
to just the border districts in Bihar and Jharkhand
Point estimates are practically indistinguishable from those
in the full sample
Triple difference analysis requires very large samples to
have adequate power
Duflo (2001) used Indonesia intercensal survey dataset
Replicating this using Indonesian Family Life Survey
(IFLS-3) yields positive point estimates on the impact of
school construction on education attainment, but these are
insignificant because of the considerably smaller sample
size
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 45 / 59
104. Triple Difference Estimate for the Exposure of Cycle
Program on Girl’s Enrollment (Border Districts Only)
Dependent variable=Enrolled in or completed grade 9
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0985** 0.0946** 0.0592* 0.0563
(0.0407) (0.0385) (0.0357) (0.0356)
Treat×Female dummy 0.0400 0.0412* 0.0485** 0.0484**
(0.0267) (0.0242) (0.0230) (0.0232)
Treat×Bihar dummy -0.0683** -0.0740** -0.0726*** -0.0698***
(0.0295) (0.0288) (0.0268) (0.0267)
Female dummy×Bihar dummy -0.0876*** -0.0945*** -0.0618** -0.0591**
(0.0338) (0.0320) (0.0295) (0.0295)
Treat -0.154*** -0.146*** -0.138*** -0.139***
(0.0177) (0.0167) (0.0158) (0.0158)
Female dummy -0.115*** -0.108*** -0.117*** -0.118***
(0.0233) (0.0218) (0.0213) (0.0214)
Bihar dummy 0.0195 -0.0152 -0.000376 -0.0116
(0.0288) (0.0277) (0.0237) (0.0234)
Demographic controls NO YES YES YES
HH level and literacy controls NO NO YES YES
Village level controls NO NO NO YES
Constant 0.449*** 0.612*** 0.387*** 0.292***
(0.0185) (0.0411) (0.0408) (0.0588)
Observations 9939 9939 9899 9886
R-squared 0.040 0.093 0.219 0.222
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 46 / 59
105. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
106. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
107. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
108. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
109. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
110. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
111. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
112. Robustness-III
Cluster the standard errors at the district level:
The coefficients on the triple interaction terms continue to
be significant in all four specifications
Clustering is at village level in DLHS-3
Spillovers:
If boys reduce schooling (undertake more chores) because
their sisters go to school ⇒ estimates bias upwards
Less likely in a patriarchal culture of rural Bihar
We plot single difference for boys and girls for Bihar by
distance
No noticeable pattern for boys
Inverted-U for girls
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 47 / 59
113. Are Effects Heterogenous?
Many of the large scale public policy programs in
developing countries have heterogeneous effects
Despite the cycle program’s universality and the fact that it
was not targeted towards specific groups, castes, or
religions, it may still have heterogenous effects
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 48 / 59
114. Heterogeneity in the Exposure of the Cycle Program
on Girls’ Enrollment
Treatment group = Age 14 and 15 Full School > 3 km
Control group = Age 16 and 17 sample away
(1) (2)
Triple Difference Coefficient
Treat×Female×Bihar×Asset Index 0.00317 0.0452
(0.0240) (0.0353)
Treat×Female×Bihar×SES Index 0.0107 0.00827
(0.0182) (0.0250)
Treat×Female×Bihar×OBC vs. General 0.0344 -0.0345
(0.0816) (0.103)
Treat×Female×Bihar×SC vs. General -0.0498 -0.0873
(0.0949) (0.121)
Treat×Female×Bihar×ST vs. General -0.0652 -0.177
(0.114) (0.130)
Treat×Female×Bihar×Muslim vs. General 0.0413 0.0107
(0.105) (0.136)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 49 / 59
115. What are the Impacts on Learning Outcomes?
We found positive impact of the exposure to the Cycle
program on girls enrollment in secondary school
The next logical step is to look at the impact of the cycle
program on learning outcomes
Log(Appeared)
Log(Passed)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 50 / 59
116. What are the Impacts on Learning Outcomes?
We found positive impact of the exposure to the Cycle
program on girls enrollment in secondary school
The next logical step is to look at the impact of the cycle
program on learning outcomes
Log(Appeared)
Log(Passed)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 50 / 59
117. What are the Impacts on Learning Outcomes?
We found positive impact of the exposure to the Cycle
program on girls enrollment in secondary school
The next logical step is to look at the impact of the cycle
program on learning outcomes
Log(Appeared)
Log(Passed)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 50 / 59
118. Estimates of Exposure of the Cycle Program on
Performance in Grade 10 Exam (School Level)
Dependent Variable Log(Appeared) Log(Passed)
(1) (2)
PANEL A: DD Estimates
Female Dummy×Post 0.304*** 0.215***
(0.0239) (0.0302)
Observations 32172 31995
R-squared 0.195 0.168
PANEL B: DDD Estimates
Female Dummy×Bihar×Post 0.0946** 0.00103
(0.0399) (0.0449)
Observations 45564 45215
R-squared 0.162 0.144
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 51 / 59
119. Triple Difference Estimates of Exposure of the Cycle
Program on Test Scores
Treatment group = Age 14 and 15 Parents (1) + Household (2) + Village
Control group = Age 16 education controls controls
(1) (2) (3)
PANEL A: Impact of Cycle Program on Girl’s Enrollment
Dependent variable: Enrollment dummy
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0488 0.0504 0.0600
(0.0509) (0.0521) (0.0616)
PANEL B: Impact of Cycle Program on Girl’s Test Scores
Dependent variable: girl student can do two-digit subtraction
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.00258 0.00448 0.0411
(0.0334) (0.0346) (0.0413)
Dependent variable: girl student can do division (3-by-1 form)
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0107 0.0105 -0.00771
(0.0460) (0.0465) (0.0536)
Dependent variable: girl student can read Std. 1 level text
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy 0.0293 0.0408 0.0478
(0.0280) (0.0287) (0.0349)
Dependent variable: girl student can read Std. 2 level text
Treat×Female dummy×Bihar dummy -0.00781 -0.0164 -0.00634
(0.0444) (0.0452) (0.0502)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 52 / 59
120. Summary of Results
We find that exposure to the cycle program increased the
number of girls appearing for the SSC exam by 9.5%
(significant at the 5% level)
No increase in the number of girls who passed the SSC
exam
Results consistent with other evaluations of conditional
transfer programs in developing countries (especially Latin
America) that find significant impacts on enrollment but
typically find no impacts on learning outcomes
Verify triple difference results using ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 53 / 59
121. Summary of Results
We find that exposure to the cycle program increased the
number of girls appearing for the SSC exam by 9.5%
(significant at the 5% level)
No increase in the number of girls who passed the SSC
exam
Results consistent with other evaluations of conditional
transfer programs in developing countries (especially Latin
America) that find significant impacts on enrollment but
typically find no impacts on learning outcomes
Verify triple difference results using ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 53 / 59
122. Summary of Results
We find that exposure to the cycle program increased the
number of girls appearing for the SSC exam by 9.5%
(significant at the 5% level)
No increase in the number of girls who passed the SSC
exam
Results consistent with other evaluations of conditional
transfer programs in developing countries (especially Latin
America) that find significant impacts on enrollment but
typically find no impacts on learning outcomes
Verify triple difference results using ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 53 / 59
123. Summary of Results
We find that exposure to the cycle program increased the
number of girls appearing for the SSC exam by 9.5%
(significant at the 5% level)
No increase in the number of girls who passed the SSC
exam
Results consistent with other evaluations of conditional
transfer programs in developing countries (especially Latin
America) that find significant impacts on enrollment but
typically find no impacts on learning outcomes
Verify triple difference results using ASER 2008
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 53 / 59
124. Summary of Results
Potential Explanations:
The program provided an incentive for enrollment but not
for achievement
The girls induced to stay in school are likely to have been
drawn from the lower end of the eighth grade test score
distribution ⇒ less likely to pass the strict standards of the
externally-graded SSC exam
Investments in school quality did not keep pace with the
increase in demand ⇒ may have led to a reduction in
per-student school quality
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 54 / 59
125. Summary of Results
Potential Explanations:
The program provided an incentive for enrollment but not
for achievement
The girls induced to stay in school are likely to have been
drawn from the lower end of the eighth grade test score
distribution ⇒ less likely to pass the strict standards of the
externally-graded SSC exam
Investments in school quality did not keep pace with the
increase in demand ⇒ may have led to a reduction in
per-student school quality
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 54 / 59
126. Summary of Results
Potential Explanations:
The program provided an incentive for enrollment but not
for achievement
The girls induced to stay in school are likely to have been
drawn from the lower end of the eighth grade test score
distribution ⇒ less likely to pass the strict standards of the
externally-graded SSC exam
Investments in school quality did not keep pace with the
increase in demand ⇒ may have led to a reduction in
per-student school quality
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 54 / 59
127. Summary of Results
Potential Explanations:
The program provided an incentive for enrollment but not
for achievement
The girls induced to stay in school are likely to have been
drawn from the lower end of the eighth grade test score
distribution ⇒ less likely to pass the strict standards of the
externally-graded SSC exam
Investments in school quality did not keep pace with the
increase in demand ⇒ may have led to a reduction in
per-student school quality
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 54 / 59
128. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
129. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
130. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
131. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
132. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
133. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
134. Cost Effectiveness
Compare our estimates to CCT program in Pakistan
(Chaudhury and Parajuli 2010)
Girls’s stipend program ($3/month per recipient) increased
female enrollment in grade 6–8 (between 2003–2005) by 9
percent (4 percentage points on a base of 43%)
Cycle program ($2/month per recipient) increased female
enrollment by 40 percent (5 percentage points on a base of
13%)
Female dropout much bigger challenge at secondary level
vs. middle level
Cycle program had both a higher absolute impact and
higher impact relative to base enrollment rates compared
to the Stipend program
Cycle program more cost-effective than comparable CCT
Likely to be more cost-effective for girls who live further
away from a secondary school
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 55 / 59
135. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
136. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
137. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
138. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
139. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
140. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
141. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
142. Cash vs. Kind Transfers as a Tool for Social Policy
Under what circumstances may in-kind transfer do better
than equivalent cash transfer?
Cycle for an adolescent girl was unlikely to be
infra-marginal to pre-program household spending ⇒
difficult to substitute away (Das et al. 2013)
Bicycle directly reduced the marginal cost of schooling on a
daily basis relative to general cash transfer (augments
household budget)
Why might a household not use cash transfer to buy a
bicycle on their own if this was a binding constraint?
Household still face credit constraint ⇒ difficult to transform
small monthly transfers into an expensive capital good (need
to pay upfront)
In-kind provision changes the default of what the money is
spent on, and removes the transfer from sphere of
intra-household bargaining
Individual versus Group provision:
Positive spillovers, group externalities (greater safety when
girls cycle together, change in social norms)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 56 / 59
143. Historical Perspective
Role played by bicycles in enhancing the mobility, freedom,
and independence of women in the 19th century
Cycle program can also empower girls’ beyond school
attendance by increasing their mobility and independence
This suggests an additional reason for why an in-kind
transfer like the bicycle may in this context be more
effective at improving female education outcomes
Households in strongly patriarchal settings like rural Bihar
may be more inclined to direct the girl’s share towards
consumption (or saving for marriage) than to make
investments for girls (such as a bicycle)
Investments in girls (e.g. bicycle) can dynamically improve
their bargaining power over time in their communities (Basu
2006)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 57 / 59
144. Historical Perspective
Role played by bicycles in enhancing the mobility, freedom,
and independence of women in the 19th century
Cycle program can also empower girls’ beyond school
attendance by increasing their mobility and independence
This suggests an additional reason for why an in-kind
transfer like the bicycle may in this context be more
effective at improving female education outcomes
Households in strongly patriarchal settings like rural Bihar
may be more inclined to direct the girl’s share towards
consumption (or saving for marriage) than to make
investments for girls (such as a bicycle)
Investments in girls (e.g. bicycle) can dynamically improve
their bargaining power over time in their communities (Basu
2006)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 57 / 59
145. Historical Perspective
Role played by bicycles in enhancing the mobility, freedom,
and independence of women in the 19th century
Cycle program can also empower girls’ beyond school
attendance by increasing their mobility and independence
This suggests an additional reason for why an in-kind
transfer like the bicycle may in this context be more
effective at improving female education outcomes
Households in strongly patriarchal settings like rural Bihar
may be more inclined to direct the girl’s share towards
consumption (or saving for marriage) than to make
investments for girls (such as a bicycle)
Investments in girls (e.g. bicycle) can dynamically improve
their bargaining power over time in their communities (Basu
2006)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 57 / 59
146. Historical Perspective
Role played by bicycles in enhancing the mobility, freedom,
and independence of women in the 19th century
Cycle program can also empower girls’ beyond school
attendance by increasing their mobility and independence
This suggests an additional reason for why an in-kind
transfer like the bicycle may in this context be more
effective at improving female education outcomes
Households in strongly patriarchal settings like rural Bihar
may be more inclined to direct the girl’s share towards
consumption (or saving for marriage) than to make
investments for girls (such as a bicycle)
Investments in girls (e.g. bicycle) can dynamically improve
their bargaining power over time in their communities (Basu
2006)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 57 / 59
147. Historical Perspective
Role played by bicycles in enhancing the mobility, freedom,
and independence of women in the 19th century
Cycle program can also empower girls’ beyond school
attendance by increasing their mobility and independence
This suggests an additional reason for why an in-kind
transfer like the bicycle may in this context be more
effective at improving female education outcomes
Households in strongly patriarchal settings like rural Bihar
may be more inclined to direct the girl’s share towards
consumption (or saving for marriage) than to make
investments for girls (such as a bicycle)
Investments in girls (e.g. bicycle) can dynamically improve
their bargaining power over time in their communities (Basu
2006)
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 57 / 59
148. Summary of Results
Impact of exposure to the Cycle program suggest that it
increased girls age-appropriate enrollment in secondary
schools by 5 percentage points
On a base of 13%, this is a 40% increase in enrollment
Exposure to the Cycle program had a greater impact for
girls who lived further away from a secondary school
A key mechanism for program impact was the reduction in
the ‘distance cost’ of school attendance for girls due to the
cycle
Modest impact on learning outcomes (consistent with CT
literature)
Program was at least as cost-effective as other
comparable ones
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 58 / 59
149. Summary of Results
Impact of exposure to the Cycle program suggest that it
increased girls age-appropriate enrollment in secondary
schools by 5 percentage points
On a base of 13%, this is a 40% increase in enrollment
Exposure to the Cycle program had a greater impact for
girls who lived further away from a secondary school
A key mechanism for program impact was the reduction in
the ‘distance cost’ of school attendance for girls due to the
cycle
Modest impact on learning outcomes (consistent with CT
literature)
Program was at least as cost-effective as other
comparable ones
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 58 / 59
150. Summary of Results
Impact of exposure to the Cycle program suggest that it
increased girls age-appropriate enrollment in secondary
schools by 5 percentage points
On a base of 13%, this is a 40% increase in enrollment
Exposure to the Cycle program had a greater impact for
girls who lived further away from a secondary school
A key mechanism for program impact was the reduction in
the ‘distance cost’ of school attendance for girls due to the
cycle
Modest impact on learning outcomes (consistent with CT
literature)
Program was at least as cost-effective as other
comparable ones
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 58 / 59
151. Summary of Results
Impact of exposure to the Cycle program suggest that it
increased girls age-appropriate enrollment in secondary
schools by 5 percentage points
On a base of 13%, this is a 40% increase in enrollment
Exposure to the Cycle program had a greater impact for
girls who lived further away from a secondary school
A key mechanism for program impact was the reduction in
the ‘distance cost’ of school attendance for girls due to the
cycle
Modest impact on learning outcomes (consistent with CT
literature)
Program was at least as cost-effective as other
comparable ones
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 58 / 59
152. Summary of Results
Impact of exposure to the Cycle program suggest that it
increased girls age-appropriate enrollment in secondary
schools by 5 percentage points
On a base of 13%, this is a 40% increase in enrollment
Exposure to the Cycle program had a greater impact for
girls who lived further away from a secondary school
A key mechanism for program impact was the reduction in
the ‘distance cost’ of school attendance for girls due to the
cycle
Modest impact on learning outcomes (consistent with CT
literature)
Program was at least as cost-effective as other
comparable ones
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 58 / 59
153. Policy Implications and Future Research
Implications for cash vs. kind transfers–kind may work well
when:
There is a direct reduction in the marginal cost of schooling
The in-kind item is NOT infra-marginal to household
spending
It helps the input ‘stick’ to the recipient as opposed to be
subject to intra household bargaining/allocation
Possibly an evidence supporting cost-effective scalable
policy to improve access to secondary education without
compromising on scale
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 59 / 59
154. Policy Implications and Future Research
Implications for cash vs. kind transfers–kind may work well
when:
There is a direct reduction in the marginal cost of schooling
The in-kind item is NOT infra-marginal to household
spending
It helps the input ‘stick’ to the recipient as opposed to be
subject to intra household bargaining/allocation
Possibly an evidence supporting cost-effective scalable
policy to improve access to secondary education without
compromising on scale
Muralidharan & Prakash Cycling to School 59 / 59