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12.06.2012 - Giacomo de Giorgi

The document summarizes a study that evaluated the impact of a business literacy intervention in rural Mexico. The intervention provided free 6-week business skills courses taught by professors and students to about 25 women entrepreneurs per class. The courses covered topics like accounting, pricing, taxes, and marketing. The study found that the training led to large, positive and significant effects on profits, revenues, and number of clients both in the short- and medium-run. There was also evidence of heterogeneous treatment effects. The results suggest the training improved accounting practices, lowered costs, increased mark-ups, and in some cases lowered prices.

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Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results BUSINESS LITERACY AND DEVELOPMENT: EVIDENCE FROM A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL IN RURAL MEXICO Gabriela Calderon 1 Jesse Cunha2 Giacomo De Giorgi3 1 Stanford 2 NPS and UC-Santa Cruz 3 Stanford and Columbia, BREAD, CEPR and NBER December, 2012
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Motivation Self employment is prevalent in the developing world In 2002, the % of self-employed non-agricultural workers is above 60% in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, North Africa, Latin America, and Asia Small businesses are often badly managed and rarely have any formal accounting [DeMel et al., 2008 and 2009; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011; Bloom et al., 2012]. In particular low returns to capital for females [DeMel et al., 2008] As a consequence small businesses might be unprofitable and destined to fail Do those businesses lack managerial capital? Most of the discussion has focused on credit [Morduch and Karlan, 2009], also mis-allocation of capital [Banerjee and Duflo, 2012]
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Introduction In early 2008 we designed a business literacy intervention in partnership with a newly founded Mexican NGO: CREA Previous designs had the provision of business training attached to microfinance operations [Field et al., 2010; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011; Drexler et al., 2011]. This makes it harder to identify the parameter of interest [DeMel et al., 2012]. Bloom et al. (2012) is an exception on managerial capital in large Indian firms. See MacKenzie and Woodruff (2012) for a survey. We use a two-stages randomization which helps us identifying ITE s [Miguel and Kremer, 2004; Angelucci and De Giorgi, 2009] and deal with GE effects Provision of business classes in late 2009 for 6 weeks (48 hours in total) Baseline data summer 2009, first follow-up late summer/fall of 2010, Second follow-up in the spring of 2012
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Preview of the Results We find large, positive and significant effects on: Profits, Revenues, and # of clients. Importantly on formal accounting These results are confirmed both in the short and medium run, i.e. 6 and 30 months after the intervention Also some evidence of ITE s. Important for policy and the evaluation and the intervention. Results on revenues, costs and profits seem confirmed if we compute them or simply use the reported measures Better accounting, lower costs, higher mark-up and to some extent lower prices seem part of the picture Death of the (far) left-tail (for the “treated”)
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Related Literature De Mel, McKenzie and Woodruf (2008), provided capital (RCT design) to entrepreneurs. They find very low return on capital for females Karlan and Valdivia (2008), business training added to microfinance program in Peru. 30 to 60 minute class during the repayment meetings (supposed to last 22 weeks). Some effects on revenues and business knowledge Field et al. (2010): cultural (norms) barrier to high returns. Sample from microfinance. Bloom et al. (2012): large textile firms (300+) in India, management consulting at the plant level. Improvement in productivity, decentralization of decisions, use of computers for data recording. Informational barriers seem the issue. Drexler et al. (2010): micro-entrepreneurs in the Dominican Republic (linked to microfinance). 2 treatment arms: (i) rule-of-thumb (separate business from personal accounts) produced positive effects on accounting practices. (ii) Basic accounting, no effects. Both have no effects on profitability and investment behavior. Public good providers McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) have a detailed survey of the papers out there
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Accounting Accounting Practices at Baseline .8 .6 Fraction .4 .2 0 Personal Notes None Formal Accounting Other accounting
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Sectors 40 30 Percent 20 10 0 Ready-to-eat food Prepared food Clothing General grocery Handicrafts Other resale sector
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Size 60 40 Percent 20 0 0 4 8 12 2 6 10 14 size
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results CREA (www.crea.org.mx) We are involved with the Business Skills Course (6 topics, 2 classes per topic): - Simple business accounting - How to set prices - Taxes and legal issues - Business organization and choice of products - Marketing - Sales
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Classes Free (no tuition). 6 weeks, two 4-hour classes per week. about 25 women per class, 2 teachers per class (professors, graduate and undergraduates students). Strong emphasis on practical examples related to own business. Assign and collect homeworks related to attendees’ businesses. Incentives: - completion certificate from CREA, the Institute for Women of Zacatecas (government agency) and the Autonomous University of Zacatecas - Raffle every week conditional on attendance and completion of homework - Future CREA courses based on regular attendance
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Course Structure For each one of the six courses, a handout of 30 pages was circulated Each handout contained: - The definition of a concept (revenues, total costs, unitary costs, profits). - Importance of understanding a concept. - Examples on how to compute it. - Exercises in class, so that the women compute it by themselves. - Homeworks, on material taught in class, applied to attendees’ businesses. Attendees have to hand in the homework on the second class of the specific section. Teachers give feedback on the homeworks.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Comparison with Other Studies Table 3: Key Characteristics of Training Delivery Training content Course Length Participant Actual Attendance Study Training Provider new or established? (hours) Cost (USD) Cost (USD) Rate Berge et al. (2012) Training professionals New 15.75 0 $70 83% Bruhn and Zia (2012) Training organization New 6 0 $245 39% Calderon et al. (2012) Professors & Students New 48 0 n.r. 65% De Mel et al. (2012) Training organization Established (ILO) 49-63 0 $126-140 70-71% Drexler et al. (2012) "Standard" Local instructors New 18 0 or $6 $21 50% "Rule-of-thumb" Local instructors New 15 0 or $6 $21 48% Field et al. (2010) Microfinance credit officers New (a) 2 days 0 $3 71% Giné and Mansuri (2011) Microfinance credit officers New (b) 46 0 n.r. 50% Glaub et al. (2012) Professor New 3 days 0 $60 84% Karlan and Valdivia (2011) Microfinance credit officers Established (FFH) 8.5-22 (c) 0 n.r. 76-88% Klinger and Schündeln (2011) Training professionals Established (Empretec) 7 days 0 n.r. n.r. Mano et al. (2012) Local instructors New (d) 37.5 0 $740 87% Premand et al. (2012) Govt. office staff New 20 days + 0 n.r. 59-67% Sonobe et al. (2011) Tanzania Training professionals New (d) 20 days 0 >$400 92% Ethiopia Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 75% Vietnam - Steel Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 39% Vietnam - Knitwear Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 59% Valdivia (2012) Training professionals New 108 (e) 0 $337 (f) 51% Notes: (a) Shortened version of existing program + new content on aspirations added. (b) Adapted from ILO's Know About Business modules
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Example Suppose that Belen has a store that sells beauty products. She sells makeup, hair products, and products for nails. Below is a list of articles that she sold today: Beauty Items Quantity Item Unit Price Subtotal 3 Nail polish $10 $30 1 Shampoo $30 $30 2 Eyeshadows $20 $40 Total $100 (EXPLANATION) As we can see in this bill of sale, Belen sold 3 nail polish for $10 pesos each (3 x $10), generating a revenue of $30 pesos, 1 anti-dandruff shampoo for $30 pesos (1 x $30) gererating a revenue of $30 pesos, and 2 eye shadows for $20 pesos each (2 x $20) generating a revenue of $40 pesos. In total, Belen had revenues of $100 pesos today. After each example attendees go through a similar problem by themselves
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Exercise 2: Leticia sells in her grocery store pineapple candy that she produces herself. Leticia needs your help to calculate her revenues from September 17th. Below is a list of products that she sold. Please calculate the revenue for each item and then calculate her total revenues. ABARROTES LETY Ventas del dia Quantity Item Unit Price Subtotal 20 Dulces de pina $3.50 5 Kilos de tomate $6 10 Kilos de cebolla $5 4 Kilos de naranja $10 Total
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Exercise: Accounting How to determine revenues, costs and profits of their business: - Revenues: List all the products/services you sell and multiply by the price. Add up and calculate total revenues. - Costs: List all the costs that your business incurs. Determine which are fixed costs and variable costs. Calculate your unitary costs. - Profits: Calculate your profits based on the revenues and costs obtained. Class problem: Determine prices - Costs: Calculate the unitary costs. - Competitors: Identify competitors, and their prices. - Consumers: Identify who are their consumers, and how much they are willing to pay for their product. The exercise emphasized the importance of these 3 factors in order to determine prices and not incur in losses.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Class Exercise Section 10 Exercise Now we are going to do an exercise, but I want to let you know that the numbers are invented, as is the example. If you have any questions, please ask me. If they do no answer of don't want to answer, STOP and leave , the other parts blank. Part 1: Imagine that you produce 5 tablecloths every week and that each tablecloth costs 10 pesos. Suppose the first week you sell 1 tablecloth The second week you sell 2 tablecloths The third week you sell 2 tablecloths and the fourth week you sell 5 tablecloths a) How many tablecloths do you have left over at the end of the month? b) What is your income for this month? Part 2: Each week, you spend 5 pesos for cloth and 5 pesos in salaries in order to make tablecloths. Each month has 4 weeks. c) How much are your profits at the end of the month? That is, how much money do you earn this month? d) If your profits were to be zero for this month, what price should you have set for your tablecloths?
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Experimental Intervention Two stage randomization: - village level (hold classes in village or not) - within treated villages (classes offered to some women and not to others). Randomization procedure: multivariate matching algorithm (at both village and within village level) Design allows for identification of spill-over effects ITE s within villages (we also collected socio-economic networks data), and a “cleaner” policy evaluation since treated and controls operate in the same marketplace. Sample of villages includes: - within 2 hours drive of Zacatecas City - have between 100 and 500 women entrepreneurs (identified by 2005 Mexican census). - In practice, this only excludes the smallest hamlets and the 3 largest cities. Zacatecas is high altitude, dry, and agricultural. Most villages are surrounded by farmland. Good road access to villages, but isolated none-the-less.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Experimental Intervention Within village: - Women entrepreneurs identified by knowledgeable locals found the “diputado” or “commisiario” (mayor-like position), and asked him to get at least 3 knowledgeable women to list all women entrepreneurs - Included in baseline if (i) worked for herself and (ii) sold a good, rather than a service. - The universe of women within chosen villages fitting this category were included in baseline. Baseline survey includes: - 17 villages - about 50 female entrepreneurs per village
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Los Ramírez, Río Grande, México - Google Maps http://maps.google.com/ Experimental villages The placemark has been moved. Undo RSS View in Google Earth Print Send Link Where in the World Game ©2010 Google - Map data ©2010 Google, INEGI - To see all the details that are visible on the screen, use the "Print" link next to the map.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Businesses map within a village
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (1)
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (2)
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (3)
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Down scaling - We originally selected 25 villages (10 treatment). However, for budgetary reasons and given that CREA was unable to implement the classes in all treatment localities - We scaled down the initial selection to 17 villages (7 Treatment and 10 Control) before the intervention - We then invited 25 randomly selected women to attend the classes in those 7 villages
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Timing Baseline survey: July-August 2009. Entrepreneurs invited to classes: early October 2009. Classroom sessions: late October to December 2009. First Follow-up survey: late July to September 2010. Second Follow-up survey: late March to May 2012. - 65% take-up rate for the classes (107 over 164 invitees). We focus on ITT s - We asked other participants to nudge them. We also sent someone from the team and extended a second invitation
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Attendance was recorded and homeworks were required. Outcomes of Interest: Profits, revenues, the # of clients, accounting practices, costs, mark-up, employment Inference would be pretty straightforward with a large sample size and many villages. Unfortunately we have neither. Then wild bootstrap (Cameron et al., 2008) and Randomization Inference (due to the small number of clusters (17)). Also attrition...bounding exercises and rematch.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Intensity of treatment .15 15 10 .1 homeworks Density .05 5 0 0 1 13 attendance Density homeworks ® About 50% of the women attended at least six classes and handed-in at least 6 homeworks
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Balance Table Entire sample (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Treatment Control p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 132.24 154.92 0.42 10.00 300.00 760 (16.06) (22.61) Weekly profits 364.39 400.79 0.36 25.00 1000.00 731 (26.28) (33.71) Knows daily profits 0.87 0.91 0.48 1.00 1.00 848 (0.06) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.83 0.89 0.34 0.00 1.00 843 (0.06) (0.03) Daily revenue 456.16 405.96 0.90 1.00 0.00 874 (55.18) (35.89) Weekly revenue 1,311.55 1,291.49 0.81 0.00 84.00 628 (110.95) (95.53) Number of daily clients  16.99 17.61 0.22 6.00 240.00 875 (2.04) (1.33) Total number of workers, including owner  1.58 1.65 0.22 1.00 3.00 865 (0.05) (0.04) Keeps formal business accounts 0.01 0.04 0.09 0.00 0.00 873 (0.01) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 39.43 39.19 0.95 6.00 84.00 866 (3.19) (1.65) Age of business (months) 81.24 91.47 0.37 4.00 240.00 874 (10.10) (7.75) Replacement value of business capital 8,062.61 9,238.82 0.30 0.00 12200.00 875 (1,009.51) (1,023.20) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 2,986.29 2,974.28 0.94 1000.00 5000.00 696 (92.06) (140.90) Maximum loan available if needed 8,703.94 9,016.38 0.89 500.00 20000.00 689 (1,079.86) (1,951.88) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 5.48 6.43 0.17 0.08 10.00 506 (0.62) (0.32) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.39 0.47 0.10 0.00 0.75 864 (0.04) (0.03) Years of education 5.96 6.07 0.72 2.00 9.00 846 (0.32) (0.13) Age 46.04 45.67 0.60 28.00 65.00 869 (0.48) (0.53) Roof is made of temporary material 0.33 0.32 0.92 0.00 1.00 844 (0.09) (0.05) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Eligible: Attendees vs. Non-attendees Among those assigned to treatment Did not  (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Attended attend p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 110.83 177.91 0.34 10.00 300.00 141 (28.90) (43.62) Weekly profits 286.11 536.22 0.13 25.00 1000.00 131 (44.80) (107.25) Knows daily profits 0.90 0.81 0.17 1.00 1.00 164 (0.04) (0.10) Knows weekly profits 0.86 0.79 0.22 0.00 1.00 163 (0.04) (0.10) Daily revenue 337.85 690.53 0.18 1.00 0.00 164 (75.24) (243.80) Weekly revenue 1,018.70 1,897.25 0.74 0.00 84.00 130 (173.77) (462.05) Number of daily clients  16.61 17.73 0.37 6.00 240.00 164 (1.99) (3.56) Total number of workers, including owner 1.64 1.48 0.37 1.00 3.00 159 (0.06) (0.13) Keeps formal business accounts  0.01 0.02 0.72 0.00 0.00 164 (0.01) (0.02) Weekly hours worked by the owner 37.84 42.43 0.36 6.00 84.00 162 (4.02) (4.03) Age of business (months) 80.18 83.23 0.86 4.00 240.00 164 (7.92) (19.53) Replacement value of business capital 7,441.43 9,228.68 0.45 0.00 12200.00 164 (1,310.72) (1,819.19) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 3,064.04 2,808.85 0.50 1000.00 5000.00 128 (140.02) (271.85) Maximum loan available if needed 8,479.91 9,190.24 0.79 500.00 20000.00 130 (1,595.83) (1,792.58) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 5.94 4.38 0.15 0.08 10.00 101 (0.64) (1.07) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.39 0.38 0.79 0.00 0.75 164 (0.05) (0.06) Years of education 6.07 5.76 0.57 2.00 9.00 161 (0.41) (0.44) Age 46.98 44.25 0.32 28.00 65.00 163 (0.91) (1.80) Roof is made of temporary material 0.38 0.22 0.03 0.00 1.00 160 (0.11) (0.07) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Attrition Attrition in 2nd Follow‐up (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Attrited Present p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 125.38 155.65 0.23 10.00 300.00 760 (15.47) (21.78) Weekly profits 441.46 384.72 0.40 25.00 1000.00 731 (66.29) (28.59) Knows daily profits 0.87 0.90 0.32 1.00 1.00 848 (0.03) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.87 0.88 0.70 0.00 1.00 843 (0.04) (0.03) Daily revenue 359.27 426.92 0.32 1.00 0.00 874 (29.59) (35.86) Weekly revenue 1,532.55 1,246.13 0.81 0.00 84.00 628 (265.15) (71.28) Number of daily clients  17.14 17.57 0.04 6.00 240.00 875 (1.83) (1.14) Total number of workers, including owner  1.52 1.66 0.04 1.00 3.00 865 (0.07) (0.03) Keeps formal business accounts 0.03 0.03 0.84 0.00 0.00 873 (0.02) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 42.57 38.57 0.19 6.00 84.00 866 (2.84) (1.57) Age of business (months) 86.35 90.20 0.78 4.00 240.00 874 (11.73) (7.98) Replacement value of business capital 8,072.53 9,209.35 0.55 0.00 12200.00 875 (1,426.11) (1,097.91) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 3,223.48 2,927.60 0.43 1000.00 5000.00 696 (324.63) (132.60) Maximum loan available if needed 8,262.71 9,101.00 0.69 500.00 20000.00 689 (1,035.06) (1,921.05) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 6.87 6.11 0.21 0.08 10.00 506 (0.42) (0.36) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.44 0.46 0.64 0.00 0.75 864 (0.04) (0.03) Years of education 6.44 5.97 0.04 2.00 9.00 846 (0.23) (0.14) Age 45.41 45.81 0.75 28.00 65.00 869 (1.29) (0.41) Roof is made of temporary material 0.32 0.32 0.92 0.00 1.00 844 (0.07) (0.05) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Quitting Quit Business in 2nd Follow‐up (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Quit No Quit p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 125.48 185.82 0.14 10.00 300.00 636 (12.64) (39.23) Weekly profits 335.44 433.36 0.09 25.00 1000.00 608 (34.57) (43.78) Knows daily profits 0.91 0.89 0.30 1.00 1.00 705 (0.03) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.88 0.88 0.78 0.00 1.00 699 (0.03) (0.04) Daily reveune 390.83 462.28 0.07 1.00 0.00 727 (49.98) (54.37) Weekly revenue 1,073.08 1,418.66 0.94 0.00 84.00 518 (86.81) (137.43) Number of daily clients  17.64 17.49 0.25 6.00 240.00 728 (1.64) (1.40) Keeps formal business accounts 1.62 1.71 0.25 1.00 3.00 719 (0.04) (0.06) Total number of workers, including owner 0.02 0.04 0.27 0.00 0.00 727 (0.01) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 37.46 39.65 0.33 6.00 84.00 721 (2.34) (1.39) Age of business (months) 78.58 101.60 0.04 4.00 240.00 727 (9.19) (10.04) Replacement value of business capital 8,423.58 9,978.04 0.18 0.00 12200.00 728 (1,257.23) (1,220.67) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 2,729.23 3,128.03 0.14 1000.00 5000.00 581 (152.15) (211.34) Maximum loan available if needed 9,615.53 8,566.25 0.78 500.00 20000.00 571 (3,482.60) (1,294.74) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 6.12 6.11 0.97 0.08 10.00 422 (0.49) (0.40) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.45 0.46 0.69 0.00 0.75 719 (0.03) (0.03) Years of education 6.26 5.69 0.02 2.00 9.00 702 (0.16) (0.18) Age 44.36 47.22 0.00 28.00 65.00 723 (0.66) (0.53) Roof is made of temporary material 0.40 0.24 0.00 0.00 1.00 701 (0.06) (0.04) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary A sobering picture emerges: i. micro firms (1.6 size), ii. low profits (30USD per week), iii. low schooling (6 years), iv. basically no formal accounting, v. unable to do simple math and “optimal” pricing calculations Invitees and controls are not statistically different, but... Here attrition is defined as people who dropped from the sample and we couldn’t re-interview (∼ 15% at first follow-up). Smaller for the treated (13%). Virtually all of the attrited women either moved out of the village or were not available on the day of the interview. A further 10% attrition by the 2nd follow-up Amongst the non-attriters, 21% of the sample quit their business by the first follow-up, and 50% had quit by the second follow-up. Quit rates are indistinguishable across treatment groups in both the first follow-up (p-value=0.70) as well as at the second follow-up (p-value=0.47). Not surprisingly, quitters have lower profits and revenues at baseline than non-quitters, are about three years younger, and are poorer in terms of the one indicator of wealth that we observe (the roof of their house is made out of a temporary material).
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Empirics ITT is identified (with no spill-over effects), γ : 3 3 yit = α + βTi + δt WAVEt + γt (Ti ∗ WAVEt ) + it (1) t=2 t=2 yit = α + βTi + δPOST t + γ(Ti ∗ POSTt ) + it (2) i is individual, and t time (pre and post intervention). With spill-over within village, γ is biased (we can estimate this), we then use between village variation (Hp. no spillover or GE to control villages). TT is identified, γ, by the IV estimate of the effect of attendance where the IV is the invitation T. yit = α + βAi + δPOST it + γ(Ai ∗ POSTit ) + it (3) by instrumental variables. Ai equals 1 if the woman attended classes, and zero otherwise, and Ti , Ti ∗ POSTit are used as instruments for Ai , Ai ∗ POSTit respectively. Focus on between village variation, controlling for baseline X s (precision)
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results Table : Main results between village ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.075 -0.040 -0.102 -0.145 -0.005 0.018 0.005 0.008 -0.016 -0.009 -0.010 -0.001 (0.115) (0.206) (0.117) (0.174) (0.138) (0.221) (0.095) (0.173) (0.118) (0.181) (0.085) (0.139) Post 0.057 0.082 0.255 0.288 0.026 0.061 0.062 0.085 -0.062 -0.056 -0.051 -0.027 (0.075) (0.071) (0.092)** (0.087)*** (0.065) (0.070) (0.115) (0.120) (0.053) (0.055) (0.030) (0.031) Treatment*Post 0.390 0.423 0.295 0.337 0.172 0.211 0.304 0.436 0.161 0.193 0.166 0.202 (0.097)*** (0.143)*** (0.113)** (0.158)** (0.127) (0.180) (0.127)** (0.199)** (0.144) (0.208) (0.063)** (0.091)** p-values wild boot (0.001) (0.019) (0.195) (0.029) (0.279) (0.019) lower bound 0.131 0.118 0.148 0.171 0.089 0.096 0.144 0.172 0.062 0.093 0.091 0.111 Observations 1,411 1,411 1,324 1,324 1,515 1,515 1,469 1,469 1,355 1,355 1,795 1,795 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (without X s) Table : Main results between village ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Weekly Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.039 -0.058 -0.131 -0.191 -0.034 -0.051 -0.082 -0.123 -0.070 -0.106 -0.034 -0.051 (0.143) (0.213) (0.143) (0.206) (0.166) (0.249) (0.145) (0.220) (0.154) (0.236) (0.112) (0.171) Post 0.056 0.056 0.294 0.294 0.090 0.090 0.105 0.105 -0.057 -0.057 -0.026 -0.026 (0.076) (0.076) (0.082)***(0.082)*** (0.074) (0.074) (0.119) (0.119) (0.073) (0.073) (0.033) (0.033) Treatment*Post 0.297 0.397 0.219 0.307 0.118 0.169 0.273 0.387 0.172 0.240 0.140 0.195 (0.104)** (0.153)** (0.125)* (0.176) (0.131) (0.194) (0.144)* (0.212)* (0.170) (0.247) (0.072)* (0.112) p-values wild boot (0.052) (0.134) (0.392) (0.086) (0.350) (0.114) lower bound 0.080 0.121 0.115 0.176 0.033 0.050 0.116 0.177 0.069 0.106 0.074 0.114 Observations 1,114 1,114 1,051 1,051 1,164 1,164 1,163 1,163 1,063 1,063 1,389 1,389 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results A look at the mechanisms, accounting ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Monthly Profits ln(Monthly Revenues ln(Mark-up good-by- Outcome = 1{Account} good-by-good) good-by-good) good) ln(Mean Prices) ln(Mean Costs) ln(# goods) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) Treatment -0.024 -0.034 -0.083 -0.101 -0.066 0.001 -0.047 -0.079 0.045 0.054 0.078 0.088 -0.037 -0.063 (0.016) (0.023) (0.138) (0.217) (0.157) (0.256) (0.063) (0.098) (0.090) (0.162) (0.100) (0.163) (0.092) (0.140) Post 0.014 0.016 -0.119 -0.070 -0.488 -0.440 0.143 0.133 0.076 0.087 0.105 0.097 -0.119 -0.112 (0.009) (0.009)* (0.141) (0.154) (0.153)*** (0.167)** (0.067)** (0.066)* (0.045) (0.044)* (0.110) (0.113) (0.042)** (0.042)** Treatment*Post 0.046 0.064 0.373 0.426 0.647 0.867 0.138 0.195 -0.030 -0.045 -0.329 -0.456 0.162 0.224 (0.022)** (0.030)** (0.269) (0.361) (0.279)** (0.392)** (0.098) (0.140) (0.099) (0.128) (0.132)** (0.173)** (0.076)** (0.109)* p-values wild boot (0.049) (0.186) (0.034) (0.180) (0.769) (0.024) (0.024) lower bound 0.049 0.074 0.031 0.047 0.344 0.529 0.112 0.172 -0.155 -0.237 0.109 0.148 0.131 0.187 Observations 1,432 1,432 755 755 958 958 879 879 1,196 1,196 926 926 1,354 1,354 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results A look at the mechanisms, employment ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Unpaid Outcome = ln(Size) ln(Paid Employment) ln(Co-owners) employment) ln(Hours per week) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Treatment -0.018 0.054 -0.008 -0.015 0.013 0.048 -0.023 -0.038 0.185 0.533 (0.023) (0.088) (0.038) (0.058) (0.027) (0.041) (0.022) (0.038) (2.954) (4.654) Post 0.025 0.071 0.056 0.045 0.132 0.155 0.196 0.202 -1.070 -1.047 (0.053) (0.059) (0.033) (0.038) (0.059)** (0.068)**(0.053)***(0.054)*** (1.828) (1.894) Treatment*Post -0.001 -0.040 0.016 0.034 -0.201 -0.281 0.188 0.255 3.481 4.293 (0.127) (0.172) (0.061) (0.089) (0.085)** (0.118)** (0.097)* (0.134)* (3.663) (5.446) p-values wild boot (0.996) (0.800) (0.031) (0.070) (0.356) lower bound 0.003 -0.045 -0.027 -0.079 -0.075 -0.140 0.223 0.332 -0.347 -0.645 Observations 1,432 1,432 755 755 958 958 879 879 1,068 1,196 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary Results point towards positive effects on profits (35%), revenues (25%) and clients (20%) Importantly accounting practices are changing, lowering costs, more goods variety, changes in the ownership structure, more hours worked (insignificant) Quitting behavior is mixed, but then so it should (treatment versus selection), however the bottom 2% of treated disappears while not the same for the controls (in terms of baseline profits) Business death rates are very high in this context (50%) so that the market is operating towards some constrained optimum
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: within and between variation ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.079 -0.117 -0.128 -0.186 -0.050 -0.074 -0.109 -0.165 -0.072 -0.110 -0.047 -0.072 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.161) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) (0.143) Post 0.066 0.066 0.319 0.319 0.074 0.074 0.133 0.133 -0.072 -0.072 -0.021 -0.021 (0.066) (0.066) (0.068)*** (0.068)*** (0.061) (0.061) (0.096) (0.096) (0.064) (0.064) (0.032) (0.032) Treatment*Post 0.286 0.390 0.193 0.273 0.134 0.192 0.245 0.352 0.187 0.260 0.135 0.191 (0.089)*** (0.132)*** (0.099)* (0.137)* (0.137) (0.203) (0.124)* (0.183)* (0.150) (0.219) (0.066)* (0.102)* p-values wild boot (0.026) (0.396) (0.266) (0.090) (0.586) (0.202) lower bound 0.070 0.104 0.089 0.137 0.048 0.074 0.088 0.135 0.084 0.129 0.069 0.106 Observations 1,411 1,411 1,324 1,324 1,515 1,515 1,469 1,469 1,355 1,355 1,795 1,795 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary It seems that the distribution of profits is shifting to the right for invitees in the post period Overall quitting and attrition behavior is mixed, but then so it should (treatment versus selection), however the bottom 2% of treated disappears while not the same for the controls (in terms of baseline profits) Business death rates are very high in this context (50%) so that the market is operating towards some constrained optimum
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: ITT Distribution Baseline Post .4 .4 .3 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld kdensity ln_profit_ld .2 .2 .1 .1 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 x x Controls Treated Controls Treated
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: Natural Mortality Controls .4 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld .1 .20 0 2 4 6 8 10 x Baseline Post
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: (Un)natural Mortality Treated .4 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld .1 .20 0 2 4 6 8 x Baseline Post
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Conclusions We find large, positive and significant effects: profits, revenues and #clients These are both short (6 months) and medium run results (30 months) The big question is which ones are the mechanisms? Better accounting, lower costs, more sales and clients, more goods (also higher registration rate) Death of the left tail (both selection and treatment) Ownership and employment structure Credit doesn’t seem is the big part of the story Can it all be measurement? It seems that many outcomes, measured differently, are pointing in one direction.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Comparison with Other Studies Table 9: Impacts on Business Profits and Sales Profits Revenues Study Gender % increase 95% CI % increase 95% CI Berge et al. (2012) Male 5.4% (-20%, +38%) 31.0% (-4%, +79%) Female -3.0% (-23%, +22%) 4.4% (-23%, +22%) Bruhn and Zia (2012) Mixed -15% (-62%, + 32%) n.r. n.r. Calderon et al. (2012) Female 24.4% (-1%, 56%) 20.0% (-2%, +47%) De Mel et al. (2012) Current Enterprises Female -5.4% (-44%, +33%) -14.1% (-68%, +40%) Potential Enterprises Female 43% (+6%, +80%) 40.9% (-6%, +87%) Drexler et al. (2012) "Standard" Mostly Female n.r. n.r. -6.7% (-24.5%, +11.2%) "Rule-of-thumb" Mostly Female n.r. n.r. 6.5% (-11.4%, +24.4%) Giné and Mansuri (2011) Mixed -11.4% (-33%, +17%) -2.3% (-15%, +13%) Male -4.3% (-34%, +38%) 4.8% (-14%, +27%) Female n.r. (a) n.r. n.r. (a) n.r. Glaub et al. (2012) Mixed n.r. n.r. 57.4% (c) n.r. Karlan and Valdivia (2011) Mostly Female 17% (b) (-25%, +59%) 1.9% (-9.8%, +15.1%) Mano et al. (2012) Male 54% (-47%, +82%) 22.7% (-31%, +76%) Valdivia (2012) General training Female n.r. n.r. 9% (-8%, +29%) Training + technical assistance Female n.r. n.r. 20.4% (+6%, 37%) Notes: 95% CI denotes 95 percent confidence interval. Impacts significant at the 10% level or more reported in bold. n.r. denotes not reported.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (no X s) ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) Standardized Outcomes 1[Accounting] (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) Treatment ‐0.079 ‐0.117 ‐0.128 ‐0.186 ‐0.050 ‐0.074 ‐0.109 ‐0.165 ‐0.072 ‐0.110 ‐0.047 ‐0.072 ‐0.032* ‐0.035 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.162) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) (0.143) (0.017) (0.020) 1{Wave=2} ‐0.055 ‐0.055 0.214** 0.214** 0.038 0.038 0.181** 0.181** ‐0.065 ‐0.065 ‐0.013 ‐0.013 0.002 0.001 (0.072) (0.072) (0.094) (0.094) (0.068) (0.068) (0.083) (0.083) (0.080) (0.080) (0.033) (0.033) (0.013) (0.011) 1{Wave=3} 0.169* 0.169* 0.394*** 0.394*** 0.126 0.126 0.244*** 0.244*** ‐0.066 ‐0.066 ‐0.042 ‐0.042 0.083*** 0.087*** (0.089) (0.089) (0.082) (0.082) (0.082) (0.082) (0.078) (0.078) (0.074) (0.074) (0.051) (0.051) (0.019) (0.019) Treatment*1{Wave=2} 0.340*** 0.462*** 0.217 0.304* 0.065 0.096 0.215 0.313 0.251 0.337 0.130* 0.185 0.052 0.033 (0.108) (0.156) (0.130) (0.173) (0.129) (0.193) (0.145) (0.218) (0.148) (0.210) (0.072) (0.110) (0.034) (0.021) Treatment*1{Wave=3} 0.279* 0.383* 0.203 0.288 0.191 0.262 0.140 0.206 0.159 0.226 0.143 0.200 0.073 0.059 (0.152) (0.210) (0.157) (0.220) (0.171) (0.245) (0.177) (0.244) (0.208) (0.294) (0.102) (0.146) (0.066) (0.083) Observations 1,407 1,407 1,320 1,320 1,536 1,536 1,471 1,471 1,358 1,358 1,795 1,795 1,844 1,844 Treatment*1{Wave=2}= Treatment*1{Wave=3} 0.752 0.772 0.936 0.946 0.396 0.411 0.763 0.752 0.619 0.635 0.908 0.921 0.790 0.784 Notes:   ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. 
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results Pooled (no X s) ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Standardized  Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) Outcomes 1[Accounting] (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) Treatment ‐0.079 ‐0.117 ‐0.128 ‐0.186 ‐0.050 ‐0.074 ‐0.109 ‐0.165 ‐0.072 ‐0.110 ‐0.047 (0.143) ‐0.035* ‐0.035 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.161) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) ‐0.072 (0.019) (0.020) Post 0.029 0.029 0.279*** 0.279*** 0.082 0.082 0.207*** 0.207*** ‐0.066 ‐0.066 ‐0.024 ‐0.024 0.032*** 0.034*** (0.069) (0.069) (0.078) (0.078) (0.061) (0.061) (0.061) (0.061) (0.065) (0.065) (0.032) (0.032) (0.010) (0.010) Treatment*Post 0.320*** 0.437*** 0.218* 0.306* 0.116 0.166 0.183* 0.266 0.193 0.268 0.136* 0.192* 0.062 0.040 (0.091) (0.132) (0.115) (0.158) (0.131) (0.196) (0.103) (0.157) (0.160) (0.231) (0.066) (0.102) (0.040) (0.026) P‐value: Random Inference [0.028] [.001] [.16] [.05] [.369] [.2] [.165] [.035] [.168] [.044] [.067] [.013] [.073] [.105] Observations 1,407 1,407 1,320 1,320 1,536 1,536 1,471 1,471 1,358 1,358 1,795 1,795 1,844 1,844 Notes:   ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. Permutation test two‐sided p‐values within [brackets] for the treatment effect, based on 5000 replications.
Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (with X s) ITT on STD Outcomes TT on STD Outcomes Randomization Inference (5000 reps) Randomization Inference (5000 reps) 5 5 4 4 kdensity BETA15 kdensity BETA16 3 3 2 2 1 1 BETA=.136 BETA=.192 90% 90% 0 0 -.4 -.2 0 .2 .4 -.4 -.2 0 .2 .4 x x

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11.29.2012 - Marta Vicarelli
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11.08.2012 - Lori Beaman
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10.25.2012 - Craig McIntosh
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10.11.2012 - Saumitra Jha
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09.27.2012 - Santosh Anagol
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09.13.2012 - Seema Jayachandran
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08.30.2012 - Brian Dillon
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08.23.2012 - Karthik Muralidharan
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08.09.2012 - Pascaline Dupas
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12.06.2012 - Giacomo de Giorgi

  • 1.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results BUSINESS LITERACY AND DEVELOPMENT: EVIDENCE FROM A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL IN RURAL MEXICO Gabriela Calderon 1 Jesse Cunha2 Giacomo De Giorgi3 1 Stanford 2 NPS and UC-Santa Cruz 3 Stanford and Columbia, BREAD, CEPR and NBER December, 2012
  • 2.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Motivation Self employment is prevalent in the developing world In 2002, the % of self-employed non-agricultural workers is above 60% in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, North Africa, Latin America, and Asia Small businesses are often badly managed and rarely have any formal accounting [DeMel et al., 2008 and 2009; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011; Bloom et al., 2012]. In particular low returns to capital for females [DeMel et al., 2008] As a consequence small businesses might be unprofitable and destined to fail Do those businesses lack managerial capital? Most of the discussion has focused on credit [Morduch and Karlan, 2009], also mis-allocation of capital [Banerjee and Duflo, 2012]
  • 3.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Introduction In early 2008 we designed a business literacy intervention in partnership with a newly founded Mexican NGO: CREA Previous designs had the provision of business training attached to microfinance operations [Field et al., 2010; Karlan and Valdivia, 2011; Drexler et al., 2011]. This makes it harder to identify the parameter of interest [DeMel et al., 2012]. Bloom et al. (2012) is an exception on managerial capital in large Indian firms. See MacKenzie and Woodruff (2012) for a survey. We use a two-stages randomization which helps us identifying ITE s [Miguel and Kremer, 2004; Angelucci and De Giorgi, 2009] and deal with GE effects Provision of business classes in late 2009 for 6 weeks (48 hours in total) Baseline data summer 2009, first follow-up late summer/fall of 2010, Second follow-up in the spring of 2012
  • 4.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Preview of the Results We find large, positive and significant effects on: Profits, Revenues, and # of clients. Importantly on formal accounting These results are confirmed both in the short and medium run, i.e. 6 and 30 months after the intervention Also some evidence of ITE s. Important for policy and the evaluation and the intervention. Results on revenues, costs and profits seem confirmed if we compute them or simply use the reported measures Better accounting, lower costs, higher mark-up and to some extent lower prices seem part of the picture Death of the (far) left-tail (for the “treated”)
  • 5.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Related Literature De Mel, McKenzie and Woodruf (2008), provided capital (RCT design) to entrepreneurs. They find very low return on capital for females Karlan and Valdivia (2008), business training added to microfinance program in Peru. 30 to 60 minute class during the repayment meetings (supposed to last 22 weeks). Some effects on revenues and business knowledge Field et al. (2010): cultural (norms) barrier to high returns. Sample from microfinance. Bloom et al. (2012): large textile firms (300+) in India, management consulting at the plant level. Improvement in productivity, decentralization of decisions, use of computers for data recording. Informational barriers seem the issue. Drexler et al. (2010): micro-entrepreneurs in the Dominican Republic (linked to microfinance). 2 treatment arms: (i) rule-of-thumb (separate business from personal accounts) produced positive effects on accounting practices. (ii) Basic accounting, no effects. Both have no effects on profitability and investment behavior. Public good providers McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) have a detailed survey of the papers out there
  • 6.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Accounting Accounting Practices at Baseline .8 .6 Fraction .4 .2 0 Personal Notes None Formal Accounting Other accounting
  • 7.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Sectors 40 30 Percent 20 10 0 Ready-to-eat food Prepared food Clothing General grocery Handicrafts Other resale sector
  • 8.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Size 60 40 Percent 20 0 0 4 8 12 2 6 10 14 size
  • 9.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results CREA (www.crea.org.mx) We are involved with the Business Skills Course (6 topics, 2 classes per topic): - Simple business accounting - How to set prices - Taxes and legal issues - Business organization and choice of products - Marketing - Sales
  • 10.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Classes Free (no tuition). 6 weeks, two 4-hour classes per week. about 25 women per class, 2 teachers per class (professors, graduate and undergraduates students). Strong emphasis on practical examples related to own business. Assign and collect homeworks related to attendees’ businesses. Incentives: - completion certificate from CREA, the Institute for Women of Zacatecas (government agency) and the Autonomous University of Zacatecas - Raffle every week conditional on attendance and completion of homework - Future CREA courses based on regular attendance
  • 11.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Course Structure For each one of the six courses, a handout of 30 pages was circulated Each handout contained: - The definition of a concept (revenues, total costs, unitary costs, profits). - Importance of understanding a concept. - Examples on how to compute it. - Exercises in class, so that the women compute it by themselves. - Homeworks, on material taught in class, applied to attendees’ businesses. Attendees have to hand in the homework on the second class of the specific section. Teachers give feedback on the homeworks.
  • 12.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Comparison with Other Studies Table 3: Key Characteristics of Training Delivery Training content Course Length Participant Actual Attendance Study Training Provider new or established? (hours) Cost (USD) Cost (USD) Rate Berge et al. (2012) Training professionals New 15.75 0 $70 83% Bruhn and Zia (2012) Training organization New 6 0 $245 39% Calderon et al. (2012) Professors & Students New 48 0 n.r. 65% De Mel et al. (2012) Training organization Established (ILO) 49-63 0 $126-140 70-71% Drexler et al. (2012) "Standard" Local instructors New 18 0 or $6 $21 50% "Rule-of-thumb" Local instructors New 15 0 or $6 $21 48% Field et al. (2010) Microfinance credit officers New (a) 2 days 0 $3 71% Giné and Mansuri (2011) Microfinance credit officers New (b) 46 0 n.r. 50% Glaub et al. (2012) Professor New 3 days 0 $60 84% Karlan and Valdivia (2011) Microfinance credit officers Established (FFH) 8.5-22 (c) 0 n.r. 76-88% Klinger and Schündeln (2011) Training professionals Established (Empretec) 7 days 0 n.r. n.r. Mano et al. (2012) Local instructors New (d) 37.5 0 $740 87% Premand et al. (2012) Govt. office staff New 20 days + 0 n.r. 59-67% Sonobe et al. (2011) Tanzania Training professionals New (d) 20 days 0 >$400 92% Ethiopia Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 75% Vietnam - Steel Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 39% Vietnam - Knitwear Training professionals New (d) 15 days 0 59% Valdivia (2012) Training professionals New 108 (e) 0 $337 (f) 51% Notes: (a) Shortened version of existing program + new content on aspirations added. (b) Adapted from ILO's Know About Business modules
  • 13.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Example Suppose that Belen has a store that sells beauty products. She sells makeup, hair products, and products for nails. Below is a list of articles that she sold today: Beauty Items Quantity Item Unit Price Subtotal 3 Nail polish $10 $30 1 Shampoo $30 $30 2 Eyeshadows $20 $40 Total $100 (EXPLANATION) As we can see in this bill of sale, Belen sold 3 nail polish for $10 pesos each (3 x $10), generating a revenue of $30 pesos, 1 anti-dandruff shampoo for $30 pesos (1 x $30) gererating a revenue of $30 pesos, and 2 eye shadows for $20 pesos each (2 x $20) generating a revenue of $40 pesos. In total, Belen had revenues of $100 pesos today. After each example attendees go through a similar problem by themselves
  • 14.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Exercise 2: Leticia sells in her grocery store pineapple candy that she produces herself. Leticia needs your help to calculate her revenues from September 17th. Below is a list of products that she sold. Please calculate the revenue for each item and then calculate her total revenues. ABARROTES LETY Ventas del dia Quantity Item Unit Price Subtotal 20 Dulces de pina $3.50 5 Kilos de tomate $6 10 Kilos de cebolla $5 4 Kilos de naranja $10 Total
  • 15.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Exercise: Accounting How to determine revenues, costs and profits of their business: - Revenues: List all the products/services you sell and multiply by the price. Add up and calculate total revenues. - Costs: List all the costs that your business incurs. Determine which are fixed costs and variable costs. Calculate your unitary costs. - Profits: Calculate your profits based on the revenues and costs obtained. Class problem: Determine prices - Costs: Calculate the unitary costs. - Competitors: Identify competitors, and their prices. - Consumers: Identify who are their consumers, and how much they are willing to pay for their product. The exercise emphasized the importance of these 3 factors in order to determine prices and not incur in losses.
  • 16.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Class Exercise Section 10 Exercise Now we are going to do an exercise, but I want to let you know that the numbers are invented, as is the example. If you have any questions, please ask me. If they do no answer of don't want to answer, STOP and leave , the other parts blank. Part 1: Imagine that you produce 5 tablecloths every week and that each tablecloth costs 10 pesos. Suppose the first week you sell 1 tablecloth The second week you sell 2 tablecloths The third week you sell 2 tablecloths and the fourth week you sell 5 tablecloths a) How many tablecloths do you have left over at the end of the month? b) What is your income for this month? Part 2: Each week, you spend 5 pesos for cloth and 5 pesos in salaries in order to make tablecloths. Each month has 4 weeks. c) How much are your profits at the end of the month? That is, how much money do you earn this month? d) If your profits were to be zero for this month, what price should you have set for your tablecloths?
  • 17.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Experimental Intervention Two stage randomization: - village level (hold classes in village or not) - within treated villages (classes offered to some women and not to others). Randomization procedure: multivariate matching algorithm (at both village and within village level) Design allows for identification of spill-over effects ITE s within villages (we also collected socio-economic networks data), and a “cleaner” policy evaluation since treated and controls operate in the same marketplace. Sample of villages includes: - within 2 hours drive of Zacatecas City - have between 100 and 500 women entrepreneurs (identified by 2005 Mexican census). - In practice, this only excludes the smallest hamlets and the 3 largest cities. Zacatecas is high altitude, dry, and agricultural. Most villages are surrounded by farmland. Good road access to villages, but isolated none-the-less.
  • 18.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Experimental Intervention Within village: - Women entrepreneurs identified by knowledgeable locals found the “diputado” or “commisiario” (mayor-like position), and asked him to get at least 3 knowledgeable women to list all women entrepreneurs - Included in baseline if (i) worked for herself and (ii) sold a good, rather than a service. - The universe of women within chosen villages fitting this category were included in baseline. Baseline survey includes: - 17 villages - about 50 female entrepreneurs per village
  • 19.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Los Ramírez, Río Grande, México - Google Maps http://maps.google.com/ Experimental villages The placemark has been moved. Undo RSS View in Google Earth Print Send Link Where in the World Game ©2010 Google - Map data ©2010 Google, INEGI - To see all the details that are visible on the screen, use the "Print" link next to the map.
  • 20.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Businesses map within a village
  • 21.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (1)
  • 22.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (2)
  • 23.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Entrepreneurs (3)
  • 24.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Down scaling - We originally selected 25 villages (10 treatment). However, for budgetary reasons and given that CREA was unable to implement the classes in all treatment localities - We scaled down the initial selection to 17 villages (7 Treatment and 10 Control) before the intervention - We then invited 25 randomly selected women to attend the classes in those 7 villages
  • 25.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Timing Baseline survey: July-August 2009. Entrepreneurs invited to classes: early October 2009. Classroom sessions: late October to December 2009. First Follow-up survey: late July to September 2010. Second Follow-up survey: late March to May 2012. - 65% take-up rate for the classes (107 over 164 invitees). We focus on ITT s - We asked other participants to nudge them. We also sent someone from the team and extended a second invitation
  • 26.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Attendance was recorded and homeworks were required. Outcomes of Interest: Profits, revenues, the # of clients, accounting practices, costs, mark-up, employment Inference would be pretty straightforward with a large sample size and many villages. Unfortunately we have neither. Then wild bootstrap (Cameron et al., 2008) and Randomization Inference (due to the small number of clusters (17)). Also attrition...bounding exercises and rematch.
  • 27.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Intensity of treatment .15 15 10 .1 homeworks Density .05 5 0 0 1 13 attendance Density homeworks ® About 50% of the women attended at least six classes and handed-in at least 6 homeworks
  • 28.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Balance Table Entire sample (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Treatment Control p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 132.24 154.92 0.42 10.00 300.00 760 (16.06) (22.61) Weekly profits 364.39 400.79 0.36 25.00 1000.00 731 (26.28) (33.71) Knows daily profits 0.87 0.91 0.48 1.00 1.00 848 (0.06) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.83 0.89 0.34 0.00 1.00 843 (0.06) (0.03) Daily revenue 456.16 405.96 0.90 1.00 0.00 874 (55.18) (35.89) Weekly revenue 1,311.55 1,291.49 0.81 0.00 84.00 628 (110.95) (95.53) Number of daily clients  16.99 17.61 0.22 6.00 240.00 875 (2.04) (1.33) Total number of workers, including owner  1.58 1.65 0.22 1.00 3.00 865 (0.05) (0.04) Keeps formal business accounts 0.01 0.04 0.09 0.00 0.00 873 (0.01) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 39.43 39.19 0.95 6.00 84.00 866 (3.19) (1.65) Age of business (months) 81.24 91.47 0.37 4.00 240.00 874 (10.10) (7.75) Replacement value of business capital 8,062.61 9,238.82 0.30 0.00 12200.00 875 (1,009.51) (1,023.20) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 2,986.29 2,974.28 0.94 1000.00 5000.00 696 (92.06) (140.90) Maximum loan available if needed 8,703.94 9,016.38 0.89 500.00 20000.00 689 (1,079.86) (1,951.88) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 5.48 6.43 0.17 0.08 10.00 506 (0.62) (0.32) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.39 0.47 0.10 0.00 0.75 864 (0.04) (0.03) Years of education 5.96 6.07 0.72 2.00 9.00 846 (0.32) (0.13) Age 46.04 45.67 0.60 28.00 65.00 869 (0.48) (0.53) Roof is made of temporary material 0.33 0.32 0.92 0.00 1.00 844 (0.09) (0.05) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
  • 29.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Eligible: Attendees vs. Non-attendees Among those assigned to treatment Did not  (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Attended attend p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 110.83 177.91 0.34 10.00 300.00 141 (28.90) (43.62) Weekly profits 286.11 536.22 0.13 25.00 1000.00 131 (44.80) (107.25) Knows daily profits 0.90 0.81 0.17 1.00 1.00 164 (0.04) (0.10) Knows weekly profits 0.86 0.79 0.22 0.00 1.00 163 (0.04) (0.10) Daily revenue 337.85 690.53 0.18 1.00 0.00 164 (75.24) (243.80) Weekly revenue 1,018.70 1,897.25 0.74 0.00 84.00 130 (173.77) (462.05) Number of daily clients  16.61 17.73 0.37 6.00 240.00 164 (1.99) (3.56) Total number of workers, including owner 1.64 1.48 0.37 1.00 3.00 159 (0.06) (0.13) Keeps formal business accounts  0.01 0.02 0.72 0.00 0.00 164 (0.01) (0.02) Weekly hours worked by the owner 37.84 42.43 0.36 6.00 84.00 162 (4.02) (4.03) Age of business (months) 80.18 83.23 0.86 4.00 240.00 164 (7.92) (19.53) Replacement value of business capital 7,441.43 9,228.68 0.45 0.00 12200.00 164 (1,310.72) (1,819.19) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 3,064.04 2,808.85 0.50 1000.00 5000.00 128 (140.02) (271.85) Maximum loan available if needed 8,479.91 9,190.24 0.79 500.00 20000.00 130 (1,595.83) (1,792.58) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 5.94 4.38 0.15 0.08 10.00 101 (0.64) (1.07) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.39 0.38 0.79 0.00 0.75 164 (0.05) (0.06) Years of education 6.07 5.76 0.57 2.00 9.00 161 (0.41) (0.44) Age 46.98 44.25 0.32 28.00 65.00 163 (0.91) (1.80) Roof is made of temporary material 0.38 0.22 0.03 0.00 1.00 160 (0.11) (0.07) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
  • 30.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Attrition Attrition in 2nd Follow‐up (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Attrited Present p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 125.38 155.65 0.23 10.00 300.00 760 (15.47) (21.78) Weekly profits 441.46 384.72 0.40 25.00 1000.00 731 (66.29) (28.59) Knows daily profits 0.87 0.90 0.32 1.00 1.00 848 (0.03) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.87 0.88 0.70 0.00 1.00 843 (0.04) (0.03) Daily revenue 359.27 426.92 0.32 1.00 0.00 874 (29.59) (35.86) Weekly revenue 1,532.55 1,246.13 0.81 0.00 84.00 628 (265.15) (71.28) Number of daily clients  17.14 17.57 0.04 6.00 240.00 875 (1.83) (1.14) Total number of workers, including owner  1.52 1.66 0.04 1.00 3.00 865 (0.07) (0.03) Keeps formal business accounts 0.03 0.03 0.84 0.00 0.00 873 (0.02) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 42.57 38.57 0.19 6.00 84.00 866 (2.84) (1.57) Age of business (months) 86.35 90.20 0.78 4.00 240.00 874 (11.73) (7.98) Replacement value of business capital 8,072.53 9,209.35 0.55 0.00 12200.00 875 (1,426.11) (1,097.91) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 3,223.48 2,927.60 0.43 1000.00 5000.00 696 (324.63) (132.60) Maximum loan available if needed 8,262.71 9,101.00 0.69 500.00 20000.00 689 (1,035.06) (1,921.05) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 6.87 6.11 0.21 0.08 10.00 506 (0.42) (0.36) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.44 0.46 0.64 0.00 0.75 864 (0.04) (0.03) Years of education 6.44 5.97 0.04 2.00 9.00 846 (0.23) (0.14) Age 45.41 45.81 0.75 28.00 65.00 869 (1.29) (0.41) Roof is made of temporary material 0.32 0.32 0.92 0.00 1.00 844 (0.07) (0.05) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
  • 31.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Quitting Quit Business in 2nd Follow‐up (1)=(2) 10th  90th  Quit No Quit p‐value percentile percentile N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Business Characteristics Daily profits 125.48 185.82 0.14 10.00 300.00 636 (12.64) (39.23) Weekly profits 335.44 433.36 0.09 25.00 1000.00 608 (34.57) (43.78) Knows daily profits 0.91 0.89 0.30 1.00 1.00 705 (0.03) (0.03) Knows weekly profits 0.88 0.88 0.78 0.00 1.00 699 (0.03) (0.04) Daily reveune 390.83 462.28 0.07 1.00 0.00 727 (49.98) (54.37) Weekly revenue 1,073.08 1,418.66 0.94 0.00 84.00 518 (86.81) (137.43) Number of daily clients  17.64 17.49 0.25 6.00 240.00 728 (1.64) (1.40) Keeps formal business accounts 1.62 1.71 0.25 1.00 3.00 719 (0.04) (0.06) Total number of workers, including owner 0.02 0.04 0.27 0.00 0.00 727 (0.01) (0.01) Weekly hours worked by the owner 37.46 39.65 0.33 6.00 84.00 721 (2.34) (1.39) Age of business (months) 78.58 101.60 0.04 4.00 240.00 727 (9.19) (10.04) Replacement value of business capital 8,423.58 9,978.04 0.18 0.00 12200.00 728 (1,257.23) (1,220.67) Personal Demographics Reservation wage, monthly 2,729.23 3,128.03 0.14 1000.00 5000.00 581 (152.15) (211.34) Maximum loan available if needed 9,615.53 8,566.25 0.78 500.00 20000.00 571 (3,482.60) (1,294.74) Monthly interest rate on a potential loan 6.12 6.11 0.97 0.08 10.00 422 (0.49) (0.40) Score on math exercise (percent correct) 0.45 0.46 0.69 0.00 0.75 719 (0.03) (0.03) Years of education 6.26 5.69 0.02 2.00 9.00 702 (0.16) (0.18) Age 44.36 47.22 0.00 28.00 65.00 723 (0.66) (0.53) Roof is made of temporary material 0.40 0.24 0.00 0.00 1.00 701 (0.06) (0.04) Notes: (1) Sample includes all women interviewed in the baseline survey. (2) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. (3) All monetary variable are measured in Mexican Pesos (~13 pesos / 1 U.S. dollar). (4) Reservation wage is the minimum stated monthly wage a women would accept in order to quit her business.
  • 32.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary A sobering picture emerges: i. micro firms (1.6 size), ii. low profits (30USD per week), iii. low schooling (6 years), iv. basically no formal accounting, v. unable to do simple math and “optimal” pricing calculations Invitees and controls are not statistically different, but... Here attrition is defined as people who dropped from the sample and we couldn’t re-interview (∼ 15% at first follow-up). Smaller for the treated (13%). Virtually all of the attrited women either moved out of the village or were not available on the day of the interview. A further 10% attrition by the 2nd follow-up Amongst the non-attriters, 21% of the sample quit their business by the first follow-up, and 50% had quit by the second follow-up. Quit rates are indistinguishable across treatment groups in both the first follow-up (p-value=0.70) as well as at the second follow-up (p-value=0.47). Not surprisingly, quitters have lower profits and revenues at baseline than non-quitters, are about three years younger, and are poorer in terms of the one indicator of wealth that we observe (the roof of their house is made out of a temporary material).
  • 33.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Empirics ITT is identified (with no spill-over effects), γ : 3 3 yit = α + βTi + δt WAVEt + γt (Ti ∗ WAVEt ) + it (1) t=2 t=2 yit = α + βTi + δPOST t + γ(Ti ∗ POSTt ) + it (2) i is individual, and t time (pre and post intervention). With spill-over within village, γ is biased (we can estimate this), we then use between village variation (Hp. no spillover or GE to control villages). TT is identified, γ, by the IV estimate of the effect of attendance where the IV is the invitation T. yit = α + βAi + δPOST it + γ(Ai ∗ POSTit ) + it (3) by instrumental variables. Ai equals 1 if the woman attended classes, and zero otherwise, and Ti , Ti ∗ POSTit are used as instruments for Ai , Ai ∗ POSTit respectively. Focus on between village variation, controlling for baseline X s (precision)
  • 34.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results Table : Main results between village ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.075 -0.040 -0.102 -0.145 -0.005 0.018 0.005 0.008 -0.016 -0.009 -0.010 -0.001 (0.115) (0.206) (0.117) (0.174) (0.138) (0.221) (0.095) (0.173) (0.118) (0.181) (0.085) (0.139) Post 0.057 0.082 0.255 0.288 0.026 0.061 0.062 0.085 -0.062 -0.056 -0.051 -0.027 (0.075) (0.071) (0.092)** (0.087)*** (0.065) (0.070) (0.115) (0.120) (0.053) (0.055) (0.030) (0.031) Treatment*Post 0.390 0.423 0.295 0.337 0.172 0.211 0.304 0.436 0.161 0.193 0.166 0.202 (0.097)*** (0.143)*** (0.113)** (0.158)** (0.127) (0.180) (0.127)** (0.199)** (0.144) (0.208) (0.063)** (0.091)** p-values wild boot (0.001) (0.019) (0.195) (0.029) (0.279) (0.019) lower bound 0.131 0.118 0.148 0.171 0.089 0.096 0.144 0.172 0.062 0.093 0.091 0.111 Observations 1,411 1,411 1,324 1,324 1,515 1,515 1,469 1,469 1,355 1,355 1,795 1,795 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
  • 35.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (without X s) Table : Main results between village ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Weekly Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.039 -0.058 -0.131 -0.191 -0.034 -0.051 -0.082 -0.123 -0.070 -0.106 -0.034 -0.051 (0.143) (0.213) (0.143) (0.206) (0.166) (0.249) (0.145) (0.220) (0.154) (0.236) (0.112) (0.171) Post 0.056 0.056 0.294 0.294 0.090 0.090 0.105 0.105 -0.057 -0.057 -0.026 -0.026 (0.076) (0.076) (0.082)***(0.082)*** (0.074) (0.074) (0.119) (0.119) (0.073) (0.073) (0.033) (0.033) Treatment*Post 0.297 0.397 0.219 0.307 0.118 0.169 0.273 0.387 0.172 0.240 0.140 0.195 (0.104)** (0.153)** (0.125)* (0.176) (0.131) (0.194) (0.144)* (0.212)* (0.170) (0.247) (0.072)* (0.112) p-values wild boot (0.052) (0.134) (0.392) (0.086) (0.350) (0.114) lower bound 0.080 0.121 0.115 0.176 0.033 0.050 0.116 0.177 0.069 0.106 0.074 0.114 Observations 1,114 1,114 1,051 1,051 1,164 1,164 1,163 1,163 1,063 1,063 1,389 1,389 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level.
  • 36.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results A look at the mechanisms, accounting ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Monthly Profits ln(Monthly Revenues ln(Mark-up good-by- Outcome = 1{Account} good-by-good) good-by-good) good) ln(Mean Prices) ln(Mean Costs) ln(# goods) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) Treatment -0.024 -0.034 -0.083 -0.101 -0.066 0.001 -0.047 -0.079 0.045 0.054 0.078 0.088 -0.037 -0.063 (0.016) (0.023) (0.138) (0.217) (0.157) (0.256) (0.063) (0.098) (0.090) (0.162) (0.100) (0.163) (0.092) (0.140) Post 0.014 0.016 -0.119 -0.070 -0.488 -0.440 0.143 0.133 0.076 0.087 0.105 0.097 -0.119 -0.112 (0.009) (0.009)* (0.141) (0.154) (0.153)*** (0.167)** (0.067)** (0.066)* (0.045) (0.044)* (0.110) (0.113) (0.042)** (0.042)** Treatment*Post 0.046 0.064 0.373 0.426 0.647 0.867 0.138 0.195 -0.030 -0.045 -0.329 -0.456 0.162 0.224 (0.022)** (0.030)** (0.269) (0.361) (0.279)** (0.392)** (0.098) (0.140) (0.099) (0.128) (0.132)** (0.173)** (0.076)** (0.109)* p-values wild boot (0.049) (0.186) (0.034) (0.180) (0.769) (0.024) (0.024) lower bound 0.049 0.074 0.031 0.047 0.344 0.529 0.112 0.172 -0.155 -0.237 0.109 0.148 0.131 0.187 Observations 1,432 1,432 755 755 958 958 879 879 1,196 1,196 926 926 1,354 1,354 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
  • 37.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results A look at the mechanisms, employment ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ln(Unpaid Outcome = ln(Size) ln(Paid Employment) ln(Co-owners) employment) ln(Hours per week) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Treatment -0.018 0.054 -0.008 -0.015 0.013 0.048 -0.023 -0.038 0.185 0.533 (0.023) (0.088) (0.038) (0.058) (0.027) (0.041) (0.022) (0.038) (2.954) (4.654) Post 0.025 0.071 0.056 0.045 0.132 0.155 0.196 0.202 -1.070 -1.047 (0.053) (0.059) (0.033) (0.038) (0.059)** (0.068)**(0.053)***(0.054)*** (1.828) (1.894) Treatment*Post -0.001 -0.040 0.016 0.034 -0.201 -0.281 0.188 0.255 3.481 4.293 (0.127) (0.172) (0.061) (0.089) (0.085)** (0.118)** (0.097)* (0.134)* (3.663) (5.446) p-values wild boot (0.996) (0.800) (0.031) (0.070) (0.356) lower bound 0.003 -0.045 -0.027 -0.079 -0.075 -0.140 0.223 0.332 -0.347 -0.645 Observations 1,432 1,432 755 755 958 958 879 879 1,068 1,196 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
  • 38.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary Results point towards positive effects on profits (35%), revenues (25%) and clients (20%) Importantly accounting practices are changing, lowering costs, more goods variety, changes in the ownership structure, more hours worked (insignificant) Quitting behavior is mixed, but then so it should (treatment versus selection), however the bottom 2% of treated disappears while not the same for the controls (in terms of baseline profits) Business death rates are very high in this context (50%) so that the market is operating towards some constrained optimum
  • 39.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: within and between variation ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) ln(Standardized) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Treatment -0.079 -0.117 -0.128 -0.186 -0.050 -0.074 -0.109 -0.165 -0.072 -0.110 -0.047 -0.072 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.161) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) (0.143) Post 0.066 0.066 0.319 0.319 0.074 0.074 0.133 0.133 -0.072 -0.072 -0.021 -0.021 (0.066) (0.066) (0.068)*** (0.068)*** (0.061) (0.061) (0.096) (0.096) (0.064) (0.064) (0.032) (0.032) Treatment*Post 0.286 0.390 0.193 0.273 0.134 0.192 0.245 0.352 0.187 0.260 0.135 0.191 (0.089)*** (0.132)*** (0.099)* (0.137)* (0.137) (0.203) (0.124)* (0.183)* (0.150) (0.219) (0.066)* (0.102)* p-values wild boot (0.026) (0.396) (0.266) (0.090) (0.586) (0.202) lower bound 0.070 0.104 0.089 0.137 0.048 0.074 0.088 0.135 0.084 0.129 0.069 0.106 Observations 1,411 1,411 1,324 1,324 1,515 1,515 1,469 1,469 1,355 1,355 1,795 1,795 Notes: ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. P-values of wild bootstrap to account for small number of village clusters (Cameron, Gelbach and Miller, 2008). Lower bounds estimated using a matching procedure described in the text. In all regressions we control for baseline: size, sector, business age, replacement value, lack of business skills, risk aversion, age, education, # of rooms, exercise score, and dummy indicators for missing controls.
  • 40.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Summary It seems that the distribution of profits is shifting to the right for invitees in the post period Overall quitting and attrition behavior is mixed, but then so it should (treatment versus selection), however the bottom 2% of treated disappears while not the same for the controls (in terms of baseline profits) Business death rates are very high in this context (50%) so that the market is operating towards some constrained optimum
  • 41.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: ITT Distribution Baseline Post .4 .4 .3 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld kdensity ln_profit_ld .2 .2 .1 .1 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 x x Controls Treated Controls Treated
  • 42.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: Natural Mortality Controls .4 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld .1 .20 0 2 4 6 8 10 x Baseline Post
  • 43.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results: (Un)natural Mortality Treated .4 .3 kdensity ln_profit_ld .1 .20 0 2 4 6 8 x Baseline Post
  • 44.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Conclusions We find large, positive and significant effects: profits, revenues and #clients These are both short (6 months) and medium run results (30 months) The big question is which ones are the mechanisms? Better accounting, lower costs, more sales and clients, more goods (also higher registration rate) Death of the left tail (both selection and treatment) Ownership and employment structure Credit doesn’t seem is the big part of the story Can it all be measurement? It seems that many outcomes, measured differently, are pointing in one direction.
  • 45.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Comparison with Other Studies Table 9: Impacts on Business Profits and Sales Profits Revenues Study Gender % increase 95% CI % increase 95% CI Berge et al. (2012) Male 5.4% (-20%, +38%) 31.0% (-4%, +79%) Female -3.0% (-23%, +22%) 4.4% (-23%, +22%) Bruhn and Zia (2012) Mixed -15% (-62%, + 32%) n.r. n.r. Calderon et al. (2012) Female 24.4% (-1%, 56%) 20.0% (-2%, +47%) De Mel et al. (2012) Current Enterprises Female -5.4% (-44%, +33%) -14.1% (-68%, +40%) Potential Enterprises Female 43% (+6%, +80%) 40.9% (-6%, +87%) Drexler et al. (2012) "Standard" Mostly Female n.r. n.r. -6.7% (-24.5%, +11.2%) "Rule-of-thumb" Mostly Female n.r. n.r. 6.5% (-11.4%, +24.4%) Giné and Mansuri (2011) Mixed -11.4% (-33%, +17%) -2.3% (-15%, +13%) Male -4.3% (-34%, +38%) 4.8% (-14%, +27%) Female n.r. (a) n.r. n.r. (a) n.r. Glaub et al. (2012) Mixed n.r. n.r. 57.4% (c) n.r. Karlan and Valdivia (2011) Mostly Female 17% (b) (-25%, +59%) 1.9% (-9.8%, +15.1%) Mano et al. (2012) Male 54% (-47%, +82%) 22.7% (-31%, +76%) Valdivia (2012) General training Female n.r. n.r. 9% (-8%, +29%) Training + technical assistance Female n.r. n.r. 20.4% (+6%, 37%) Notes: 95% CI denotes 95 percent confidence interval. Impacts significant at the 10% level or more reported in bold. n.r. denotes not reported.
  • 46.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (no X s) ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) Standardized Outcomes 1[Accounting] (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) Treatment ‐0.079 ‐0.117 ‐0.128 ‐0.186 ‐0.050 ‐0.074 ‐0.109 ‐0.165 ‐0.072 ‐0.110 ‐0.047 ‐0.072 ‐0.032* ‐0.035 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.162) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) (0.143) (0.017) (0.020) 1{Wave=2} ‐0.055 ‐0.055 0.214** 0.214** 0.038 0.038 0.181** 0.181** ‐0.065 ‐0.065 ‐0.013 ‐0.013 0.002 0.001 (0.072) (0.072) (0.094) (0.094) (0.068) (0.068) (0.083) (0.083) (0.080) (0.080) (0.033) (0.033) (0.013) (0.011) 1{Wave=3} 0.169* 0.169* 0.394*** 0.394*** 0.126 0.126 0.244*** 0.244*** ‐0.066 ‐0.066 ‐0.042 ‐0.042 0.083*** 0.087*** (0.089) (0.089) (0.082) (0.082) (0.082) (0.082) (0.078) (0.078) (0.074) (0.074) (0.051) (0.051) (0.019) (0.019) Treatment*1{Wave=2} 0.340*** 0.462*** 0.217 0.304* 0.065 0.096 0.215 0.313 0.251 0.337 0.130* 0.185 0.052 0.033 (0.108) (0.156) (0.130) (0.173) (0.129) (0.193) (0.145) (0.218) (0.148) (0.210) (0.072) (0.110) (0.034) (0.021) Treatment*1{Wave=3} 0.279* 0.383* 0.203 0.288 0.191 0.262 0.140 0.206 0.159 0.226 0.143 0.200 0.073 0.059 (0.152) (0.210) (0.157) (0.220) (0.171) (0.245) (0.177) (0.244) (0.208) (0.294) (0.102) (0.146) (0.066) (0.083) Observations 1,407 1,407 1,320 1,320 1,536 1,536 1,471 1,471 1,358 1,358 1,795 1,795 1,844 1,844 Treatment*1{Wave=2}= Treatment*1{Wave=3} 0.752 0.772 0.936 0.946 0.396 0.411 0.763 0.752 0.619 0.635 0.908 0.921 0.790 0.784 Notes:   ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. 
  • 47.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results Pooled (no X s) ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE ITT TTE Standardized  Outcome = ln(Daily Profits) ln(Weekly Profits) ln(Daily revenues) ln(Weekly revenues) ln(Daily Clients) Outcomes 1[Accounting] (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) (7) (8) Treatment ‐0.079 ‐0.117 ‐0.128 ‐0.186 ‐0.050 ‐0.074 ‐0.109 ‐0.165 ‐0.072 ‐0.110 ‐0.047 (0.143) ‐0.035* ‐0.035 (0.128) (0.194) (0.111) (0.161) (0.149) (0.223) (0.119) (0.183) (0.134) (0.206) (0.093) ‐0.072 (0.019) (0.020) Post 0.029 0.029 0.279*** 0.279*** 0.082 0.082 0.207*** 0.207*** ‐0.066 ‐0.066 ‐0.024 ‐0.024 0.032*** 0.034*** (0.069) (0.069) (0.078) (0.078) (0.061) (0.061) (0.061) (0.061) (0.065) (0.065) (0.032) (0.032) (0.010) (0.010) Treatment*Post 0.320*** 0.437*** 0.218* 0.306* 0.116 0.166 0.183* 0.266 0.193 0.268 0.136* 0.192* 0.062 0.040 (0.091) (0.132) (0.115) (0.158) (0.131) (0.196) (0.103) (0.157) (0.160) (0.231) (0.066) (0.102) (0.040) (0.026) P‐value: Random Inference [0.028] [.001] [.16] [.05] [.369] [.2] [.165] [.035] [.168] [.044] [.067] [.013] [.073] [.105] Observations 1,407 1,407 1,320 1,320 1,536 1,536 1,471 1,471 1,358 1,358 1,795 1,795 1,844 1,844 Notes:   ***p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. (1) Robust (s.e.) clustered at the village level. Permutation test two‐sided p‐values within [brackets] for the treatment effect, based on 5000 replications.
  • 48.
    Introduction Baseline Intervention Data Empirics Results ITE s Results Results (with X s) ITT on STD Outcomes TT on STD Outcomes Randomization Inference (5000 reps) Randomization Inference (5000 reps) 5 5 4 4 kdensity BETA15 kdensity BETA16 3 3 2 2 1 1 BETA=.136 BETA=.192 90% 90% 0 0 -.4 -.2 0 .2 .4 -.4 -.2 0 .2 .4 x x