41. How it works: in theory
Under the War Powers Resolution, has to notify Congress,
and the use of force must be terminated within 60 days if
Congress does not approve. However, Congress has never voted
to terminate military action, and most presidents have argued that
the act is unconstitutional.
42. No-fly zone? No-fly zone! No-fly zone.
Let’s meet. Meanwhile... Congress should know.
America should know. So what do you think? Well...
Nope. And we’re out.
How it works: in practice
Foreign policy is full of controversial questions. For example, should America provide air strikes against militant groups such as ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, pictured here)? Should America’s ground forces be deployed against these groups? Debate over these issues intensified during the 2016 election as Republican Donald Trump’s campaign emphasized criticisms of the Obama administration’s foreign policy.
Internationalists argue that America is the only nation with the will and the resources needed to address humanitarian crises throughout the world, such as providing food aid to people in Syrian refugee camps.
Idealists believe in the merits of nation building. While realists would suggest that the Syrian civil war is not a direct threat to U.S. interests, idealists are concerned by their brutality and the moral obligation to support civilians whom the Syrian government is oppressing.
When the United States acts multilaterally in foreign policy, it often works through organizations such as the UN. Here, President Barack Obama addresses a session of the UN General Assembly. @UN #UnitedNations
“Entangling alliances” were a real concern in the early American republic. Recall that Federalist partisans were often accused of conspiring to reunite with the British Crown, while Democratic-Republicans (like Jefferson) were thought to be sympathetic to and even in league with France.
Realists consider it a great strategic advantage that the United States is flanked by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Although modern times have made oceans no longer an insuperable barrier, the U.S. neighbors of Canada and Mexico also present no strategic threat.
Still, foreign policy was not 100 percent isolationist:
After World War I, President Wilson kept America involved in foreign affairs with a 14-point plan for peace, which culminated in the Treaty of Versailles.
The League of Nations that was created under the treaty was never joined by the United States.
Panama Canal, Central American conflicts, and so on
It’s also worth noting that America’s “domestic” expansion, such as fighting the Mexican War, settling the West, and “54’ 40 or fight!” border disputes cannot easily be counted as a nonaggressive, mind-your-own-business, isolationist foreign policy.
America’s entry into World War I—a conflict between alliances of European powers to which the United States had no obligation—was decidedly interventionist. World War I ended with the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed harsh conditions of debt repayment on Germany. This, in turn, was the fertile soil for the ascendance of Hitler’s regime.
The “iron curtain” split Eastern and Western Europe as the East was under Soviet domination. Containment was the idea that America should use military, diplomatic, and economic strategies to prevent the communist Soviet Union from expanding its influence.
Today, containment more generally describes efforts, short of war, to rein in rogue leaders of other nations. The Marshall Plan, International Monetary Fund, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and NATO all developed during this time. Depending on how one looks at it, this was a high point for liberal internationalism and global institutions. Another way to look at it is to say that the post–World War I period was the zenith of American leadership.
The Korean War was officially a mere police action, as America had no more appetite for war after the two world wars.
The Cold War created the threat of mutually assured destruction in the event of a nuclear war.
It is interesting that the arms race characterized a Cold War that is more fully described by the term tense peace.
Although Americans and Soviets were on high alert for the possibility of nuclear war for a half-century, instead we got nuclear peace.
Realists believe that this is a sort of proof that “containment works.”
In 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall, which separated West Berlin from communist East Berlin, provided a powerful symbol of the end of the Cold War. With just one superpower—the United States—left, many predicted that democracy would spread and peace would prevail. However, new foreign policy challenges quickly emerged.
The recent (2014) crisis in Ukraine and the Georgia crisis of 2009 show that the remnants of the Cold War continue to affect foreign policy today.
The Al Qaeda terrorist organization headed by Osama bin Laden was the driving force behind many terrorist attacks on Americans, including the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In 2011, American forces killed bin Laden, but the group, along with newer organizations such as ISIL, remains a significant threat.
Recall that the president is both head of government (a domestic leader) and head of state (the representative of the United States to the outside world).
Intelligence agencies are interesting for many reasons. For one, their budget is secret, plus there’s the covertness and intrigue of their cloak-and-dagger operations. In foreign countries, they are often accused of sowing political discord, planning opposition to the ruling regime, or even organizing and staging coups. This is not without reason, of course; the United States did overthrow governments in Iran in 1953 and in Guatemala in 1954, and numerous assassination attempts were made against Fidel Castro, etc.
For this reason, there is extreme alarm when the identity of a U.S. spy is revealed, as happened to Valerie Plame.
President Obama’s trip to Vietnam in 2016 illustrates that one type of important foreign policy decision involves deciding which countries the president should visit and whom they should shake hands with while there.
The House and Senate each have an Intelligence Committee that oversees the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National security Agency (NSA), and covert operations more generally.
Congressional influence over foreign policy:
Power of the purse
Senate’s power to approve treaties and confirm appointments of the president’s foreign policy team
Declare war
Only five wars in the nation’s history
War Powers Resolution
Important Supreme Court cases that impacted foreign policy include:
New York Times Co. v. United States (1974)
Rasul v. Bush (2004)
Rumsfeld v. Padilla (2004)
Boumediene v. Bush (2008)
Secretary of State John Kerry was the official spokesperson for the United States in foreign relations and was often one of the most powerful and influential members of the president’s Cabinet during the Obama administration. @StateDept
Groups representing foreign groups typically use the same strategies domestic interest groups use to influence policy: they work with legislators, they provide policy expertise, and they may seek to mobilize the public to put pressure on lawmakers.
These data reveal a marked lack of geographic knowledge among Americans. Despite the considerable media attention given to Russia’s annexation of a portion of Ukraine, in a 2014 survey only a small fraction can locate Ukraine on a map (more accurate dots are red; less accurate dots are blue). What might explain this lack of geographical knowledge?
In instances of shuttle diplomacy, the United States explains each country’s proposals and counterproposals to the other country.
The United States has moved to lower barriers and stimulate free trade, following the recommendations of most economists. While there are losers in free trade, particularly industrial jobs that have been replaced with lower wage laborers abroad, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) have facilitated economic growth.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) facilitates trade negotiations and intervenes when one country believes tariffs have been inappropriately applied. The United States has granted most favored nation status to several countries and to all members of the WTO.
This figure illustrates the importance of trade to the U.S. economy. In recent years imports and exports have accounted for almost 40 percent of U.S. economic activity, and the percentage is increasing over time. Based on these data, what arguments would you make for lowering or increasing barriers to trade?
One of the most conflictual issues involving international trade is the enforcement of copyrights on movies, music, and computer software. The Chinese government’s refusal to enforce American copyrights has been a source of tension between the two nations. @CopyrightOffice
The United States has moved to lower barriers and stimulate free trade, following the recommendations of most economists. While there are losers in free trade, particularly industrial jobs that have been replaced with lower wage laborers abroad, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) have facilitated economic growth.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) facilitates trade negotiations and intervenes when one country believes tariffs have been inappropriately applied. The United States grants most favored nation status to several countries and to all members of the WTO.
The American military delivered food and medical supplies to Haiti after a devastating earthquake in 2010.
This figure shows foreign aid contributions expressed as a percentage of gross national income (GNI). Do these data imply that America is less generous than other nations in its willingness to donate aid?
Bilateral agreements are treaties between the United States and one other country.
Multilateral agreements are treaties between the United States and multiple countries (see Nuts and Bolts 17.1).
Globalization has transformed economics and society in the United States and abroad. Brands such as KFC have spread around the world. In recent years, more KFC restaurants have opened in China than in the United States.
One of the effects of globalization is outsourcing—moving jobs to different countries, usually to take advantage of lower wages and looser restrictions on manufacturing practices. Here, workers in China assemble electronic products for a foreign company.
As the Gallup poll here indicates, a substantial percentage of Americans worry that they or members of their family will be the victims of a terrorist attack—in fact, these concerns even predate the September 11 attacks. Are these fears justified? How great is the risk? What do the numbers say?
North Korea has one of the world’s least predictable and most isolated political regimes. Their nuclear capabilities and large military make North Korea a threat to the stability of the region. However, because of the poor state of the country’s economy, economic sanctions are unlikely to foster changes toward democracy and openness.
The Marshall Plan, which helped European nations rebuild their economies after World War II, was part of America’s strategy to build alliances against the Soviet Union.
U.S. politicians and government officials regularly speak at AIPAC events; Hillary Clinton is shown here addressing AIPAC’s annual convention. However, it would be a mistake to conclude that the attention paid to this or other interest groups automatically translates into U.S. government support for the groups’ policy proposals. @AIPAC
Diplomacy often involves protracted negotiations and many participants. The nuclear deal with Iran was negotiated by the government of Iran and representatives from China, Russia, the European Union, and the United States. @TheIranDeal #IranDeal
The use of drones is controversial. Here, a protester in Yemen holds a sign denouncing the practice.
One of the United States’ strategies to increase stability in Afghanistan is to train the Afghan National Army and police in order to provide the Afghan government a greater level of control over the region.
