Latent Tuberculosis

Latent Tuberculosis
It is very important that patients with both latent TB infections and TB disease receive treatment. The treatments used for latent TB infection are
isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), and rifapentine (RPT). If a patient has TB disease they are to take several drugs for at least 6 to 9 months. There are
10 drugs that are currently approved for treating TB, but the core treatments are isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), and pyrazinamide
(PZA). The completion of treatment depends on how much of the dose was ingested over a certain period of time. (CDC 2011) The treatment of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis takes longer than other types of treatments for bacterial infections. The length of time that a patient receives treatment for
disease ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the United States, the incidence rate per year is less than 4 per a population of 100,000. In other countries such as sub–Saharan Africa and Asia the
incidence rate is much greater, a few hundred per 100,000. This disease is a very important concern for travelers from the US who travel to places
where they might have prolonged exposure to tuberculosis. These travelers or people who plan to spend time in healthcare facilities, correctional
facilities, or homeless shelters should receive a 2–step TB skin test. If a person is infected with TB they are encouraged to not travel by commercial
airplanes for the risk of spreading the infection. (LoBue, 2015) Tuberculosis is still a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in many developing
countries around the globe. Even though there was a declining trend of this disease after the discovery of chemotherapy in the 1940s, this was not the
case for developing countries. Tuberculosis was the first infectious disease to be declared a global health emergency by the World Health Organization.
Asia and Arica constitute for 86% of the cases in 2007, when they were 9.27 million incident cases of tuberculosis, 13.7 million prevalent cases, 1.32
million death due to tuberculosis in people who were HIV–negative, and 0.45 million deaths in people who were HIV–positive. There are 22
high–burden countries and Bangladesh is ranked number 6. The implementation of directly observed therapy short course (DOTS) was a
breakthrough for a way to control TB. It actually covered the whole country of Bangladesh, after being started in 1993. Tuberculosis is also associated
with the poorest parts of communities and the highest rates of TB are actually because of poverty. Conditions like, overcrowding in schools, poor
nutrition, overcrowded living conditions, as well as poor hygiene habits are likely to
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Tuberculosis Essay
Epidemiology Paper: Tuberculosis
Kyle J. Patzner
Grand Canyon University: Concepts in Community and Public Health
January 12, 2014
Tuberculosis has long been a disease that the human culture has been dealing with which entails significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. With
dealing with such a horrific disease over the years, discoveries and evolution on the appropriate ways to contain, diagnose, and challengingly treat the
disease has changed. One of the most concerning complications of this worldwide public health issue is the ability for it to quickly spread in high
populated areas while becoming ever more resistant to forms of treatment not available in all locations around the world. This is a serious public ...
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With the close proximity infection range TB is known for completes the remainder of the epidemiologic triangle. Overcrowded environments are the
coal to the fire of this transmittable disease with outbreaks capable of occurring, infection hundreds. Common symptoms of this active form of
tuberculosis include: weight loss, coughing, fatigue, fever, night sweats, chills, and loss of appetite (MayoClinic, 2014). The Mayo Clinic also states
that it is believed that 2 billion (one third) of the world population is living with Latent TB (2014). This emphasizes the need for public health and
community involvement in order to completely abolish this disease from our planet.
Current treatment of this disease is a complex, long process. Because of TBs notorious background of being resistant to many drugs, treatment usually
consists of an antibiotic regimen lasting upwards of 6–12 months. Treatment also varies from individual to individual. Age, health, TB form, and
location of infection all impact the type of treatment one is given to aide in curing the disease (MayoClinic, 2014). Regardless, treatment of this
disease is not an easy task for many reasons. Compliance and patients tolerance to such a strict medication regimen for a prolonged period of time is a
huge variable which decreases the likeness of successful treatment related to increased occurrences of medication side effects and missed dosages.
According to World Health Organization

Tuberculosis Is An Infectious Disease
World Health Organization estimated one–third of the world's population is suffering with this disease at present even though there is vaccine widely
available, there is still a high morbidity rate in some countries every year. Africa, Western and Southeast Asia are the most affected areas, making
approximately 86 percent of tuberculosis cases in the world. This research paper will discuss, tuberculosis in New Zealand. It will discuss the biology
of the bacterium, risks factors and the importance of immunisation and prevention.
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Marieb, 2012). Tuberculosis is a contagious
infection that begins in the lungs and spread to other organs in the body including the kidneys, brain and bones. Tuberculosis is spread by inhaling
airborne droplets from an infected person. These airborne particles are spread when the infected person sneezes, coughs or laughs. Tuberculosis
cannot be spread, by contact. Tuberculosis is caused by a rod shaped bacterium or bacillus called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These droplets are
discharged into the air by a person with active tuberculosis (Britannica, 2012). The spreading progress is very effective. These droplets can remain in
the air for several hours in addition it only needs ten bacilli to start an infection. When the infected air is breathed in, the bacilli enter the lungs through
the bronchioles and into the alveoli. The bacilli then infect the alveoli

The Epidemiology of Tuberculosis
The purpose of this paper is to discuss tuberculosis (TB), provide a clinical description, and discuss the determinants of health in relation to TB and
the role and tasks of the community health nurse in regards to the disease. Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that
usually affects the victim's lungs and is spread through the air. TB spreads from one community or country to another as people travel or through
immigration to new areas. Today's modern world of travel makes health and healthcare a global issue. Although TB rates are decreasing in the United
States, the disease is becoming more common in many parts of the world. In addition, the prevalence of drug–resistant TB is increasing worldwide....
The health of a population is often determined by the circumstances in which people live, which are conditioned by social policies and economic
forces that are usually beyond an individual's control (CSDH, 2008). Nearly one third of the world's population is infected with TB. It is a leading
infectious cause of death worldwide, causing more than 2 million deaths each year (CDC, 2011f). (Smith 195) Controlling the spread of TB is
globally important because transmission to others can cause devastating consequences of transference to anyone the infected one is around including
healthcare workers. Treatment of TB can be lengthy and require supervision of compliance. Some TB strains are drug resistant and very expensive to
treat. Exposure can occur in clinics where the sick are waiting for healthcare. Nurses have been a part of controlling community disease but initially
were responsible only for prevention through cleanliness and fresh air. Hygiene education was and still is a primary role for the nurse in controlling
communicable diseases. The modern community health nurse has responsibilities in primary prevention methods. Duties include immunizations,
prophylactic measures for risk reduction for persons who have had exposure when a method is available for

Ocular Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis or TB is a widespread, infectious disease caused by different strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis (other species:
bovis, africanum, and microt). It normally affects the lungs but can also spread to other parts of the body. Ocular Tuberculosis refers to the condition
when the infection spreads to any part of the eye (or around the eye); this is a relatively rare occurrence.
Extraocular TB is the infection of the external eye; it is quite rare and relatively easy to diagnose as biopsies can be done to test for the infection.
Intraocular TB, the more common form of Ocular Tuberculosis is much more difficult to diagnose. Posterior uveitis or choroiditis, involving the
inflammation of the choroid, is the most common presentation of intraocular Tuberculosis.
Diagnosis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
PCR or Polymerase Chain Reaction is a Nucleic acid amplification test or NAAT that can be used to diagnose Ocular TB by detecting nucleotide
sequences unique to the bacterium being tested for (e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis). PCR amplifies the signal from the small amount of bacilli
present to make it easier to confirm the presence of TB mycobacteria with the small volumes of ocular fluid that can be obtained.
Treatment
When the presence of the TB bacilli is confirmed and ocular tuberculosis is diagnosed treatment is usually started immediately. Treatment normally
lasts at least 6 months and can sometimes take up to 2 years. Treatment for ocular tuberculosis is the same as for pulmonary tuberculosis: usually four
drug therapy (isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol and

Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Is Caused By The Bacterium...
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, an aerobic non–motile bacillus measuring 3–5Вµm in length and
0.2–0.6Вµm in width (Velayati and Farnia., 2012)
M. tuberculosis cell wall is made of many lipids including peptidoglycan and mycolic acids. Hydrophobic molecules making up Mycolic acids form a
lipid layer surrounding the organism affecting permeability of the cell surface. This layer is responsible for many pathogenic inducing traits of M.
tuberculosis by inhibiting attack from lysosomes, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cationic proteins in phagocytes. Further pathogenesis of the
bacterium is achieved by the presence of other lipids which include cord factor, sulfolipids and phosphatidylinositol ... Show more content on
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Such factors include strategies used by M. tuberculosis in preventing itself getting destroyed in the macrophage, vaccination, a weakened host immune
system, Antimicrobial resistance as well as economic and environmental factors.
The many tactics used by M. tuberculosis to prevent from being destroyed by the alveolar macrophages is its ability to inhibit the fusion of phagosome
with lysosome (Meena and Rajini., 2010)
Using sulfatides as well as inactivating the Ca2+ dependent effector proteins Calmodulin and Calmodulin dependent protein Kinase 2, M. tuberculosis
is able to inhibit the acidification of phagosome by obstructing the Proton ATPase pump on the surface of lysosomes. M. tuberculosis can also produce
high amounts of ammonia resulting in the alkalisation of the lysosomal compartment therefore reducing the effectiveness of lysosomal enzymes.
M. tuberculosis is able to inhibit phagosome maturation by affecting the Rab protein

The And Treatment Of Tuberculosis
The purpose of this project was to educate Cambodian physicians, nurses, and medical technicians about current findings from other countries regarding
the diagnoses and treatment of Tuberculosis ("TB"). In Cambodia many TB cases go undetected or untreated, and insufficient information is being
distributed to the citizens, especially those living in rural areas. This project aims to address the causes, signs, symptoms, and treatment of TB so that
the general population will have a better understanding of this deadly disease. The project will also inform community personnel–such as nuns, monks
and other organizations–about TB since they are the first points of contact with the villagers. Additionally, in the project I trained and updated medical
professionals about developments in the field of drug resistant TB. Trainings included the definition of drug resistance, the causes of drug resistance,
and the ways to prevent the bacterium that cause TB from becoming drug resistant. I believe my project is of great importance, and will provide
citizens with the information that they need about this infectious disease. Hopefully, this project will aid in decreasing the incidence rate of TB. TB is
a disease caused by the bacterium, Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. The TB bacterium is circulated into the air when a person with TB coughs, sneezes,
speaks, or even sings. The disease is spread through the air, and often between those with close, frequent, or prolonged contact with an infected

Tuberculosis Or Tb Is Caused By Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis or TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mycobacteria are aerobic bacteria, which do not form spores and are non–motile. They
are curved, intracellular rods, and have cell walls made of glycolipids and phospholipidglycans that protect them from lysosomal attacks. TB is one
of the world's deadliest diseases. Approximately one out of three people worldwide are infected; in 2014, 9.6 million people were diagnosed with
TB and there were 1.5 million deaths (CDC, 2014). This disease is highly contagious, and although the number of cases reported has decreased, the
decrease was smaller than in previous years. New strains of drug resistant TB pose a threat to the global population as a whole; less than half of those
diagnosed with drug–resistant TB are successfully cured. Humans are the only known carrier of Tuberculosis; it is spread from person to person
through aerosol droplets released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. The infection cannot be spread by: shaking
someone's hand, sharing food or drink, touching bed linens or toilet seats, sharing toothbrushes, or kissing (CDC, 2014). One cough from an infected
individual can produce 3,000 infected droplets and it only takes ten bacilli to initiate an infection (Herchline, 2015). Since the disease is spread through
the air, micro–epidemics are common in closed communities such as hospitals, nursing homes, prisons, submarines, and on transcontinental flights.

The Role Of Tuberculosis In The 1950s
This surgery helped prolong the life of some people. Other treatments included bedrest, special diets, and fresh air through pneumothorax which means
they would collapse a person's lung. In 1921, Calmette and GuГ©rin developed a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which many countries
have used as a vaccine. Another major method to prevent tuberculosis was to treat people with a tuberculous infection without the disease. Many
patients in the 1950s did not receive appropriate treatment because their conditions were never properly diagnosed as tuberculosis. While there was
effective chemotherapy for tuberculosis, patients were diagnosed with untreated tuberculosis. At the turn of the century, it was estimated that 450
Americans died of tuberculosis every day, most between the ages of 15 and 44. Tuberculosis was usually compared to death itself. While tuberculosis
was never completely eliminated, there was a significant drop in cases and death rates, as a result of the BCG vaccine and new anti–tubercular drugs
in the 1950's. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nowadays, medicine is tested and approved before it hits the market. Back in the days a person would pass treatments through word of mouth and
could seriously injure or make the disease worse. People in historical times would believe that illnesses involved certain spiritual, psychological
and social aspects of a person. This was back in the time where there was no scientific evidence that traditional medicine could aid an affected
person. Traditional medicine has been around much longer than modern medicine and they were an important part of recorded history. People back
in the old days had to dispel and challenge folklore with scientific evidence. Doctors back in the old days had to not only find a way to dispel
folklore, but also get ordinary people to listen to them and to help them believe in their practices. Without all of these people, medicine would be
nowhere near as it is

Tuberculosis : The Rate Of Deaths And Cases Of Tuberculosis
Since the 1940s, the rate of deaths and cases of Tuberculosis (TB) has been decreasing in developed countries. However, the disease remains to be
a major health challenge among developing countries, mostly from Asia and Africa. The disease is persistent in these areas due to lack of
inadequate health facilities (Salinas et al., 2016). TB has been worsened by its strong association with HIV. The combination of the two diseases
has led to TB drug resistance breeds that have become a threat to the developing countries and now spreading to the developed countries (Sulis et
al., 2014). According to the WHO report of 2015, the TB mortality rates have fallen by 47% since 1990 with most of the decrement happening
since 2000 when the millennium development goals were set. In effect, a total of 43 million lives has been saved since 2000. The report estimates
that in 2015, 10.4 million were diagnosed with TB with 1.8 million people dying from the disease (Schwartzman, 2004). Over 95% of all TB cases
and 98% of its deaths occur in middle and lower countries. These high numbers are caused by poor public health systems, high poverty levels and
rapidly growing HIV/AIDS incidents in this region (Sulis et al., 2014).. Social and Behavioral determinants associated with TB Malnutrition and food
security, rapid population growth and urbanization, poor housing and environmental conditions are the social determinants of TB. This is the most
social risk factors that TB prevalent in developing

Tuberculosis In The 19th Century
According to a recent article by HealthLifeAndStuff.com, tuberculosis ranks as the second worst disease or infection of all time. How did tuberculosis
establish itself as one of the nastiest, deadliest contagions of all time though? Initially, a rather mysterious and clouded history created an element of
intense fear in the hearts of many Victorian citizens, while England thrived in newfound wealth and prosperity. In addition, an added layer of twisted
suspense rocked the Victorian public as tuberculosis wreaked havoc on the public with few symptoms or definite characteristics. While the disease
spread like wildfire, doctors and scientists discovered new advancements and treatments that positively and punctually progressed the fight against ...
For the longest time, tuberculosis could only be identified by excruciating internal lesions. Confusingly, these lesions varied extremely by patient and
only complicated potential diagnosis. The effects of tuberculosis remained entirely unknown until the astonishing discovery Robert Koch made in 1882
regarding the origin of tuberculosis: "It had thus evaded the medical profession for centuries, and it was not until Robert Koch's identification of the
tuberculosis bacillus in 1882 that its cause and means of transmission finally became known" (Byrne 2). Discovering the mysterious tuberculosis
bacillus bacteria, Robert Koch provided a new foundation and first step towards learning more about the symptoms of tuberculosis. Utilizing Koch's
discovery, scientists and doctors suddenly acquired the ability to further investigate and research the causes and symptoms of tuberculosis, and
therefore discovered that symptoms normally began to appear once a person became infected with small airborne particles. While examining people
with the incompatible illness, they learned that tuberculosis directly affected the lungs, spine and kidney, which often results in bloody urine.
Furthermore, additional symptoms included persistent coughing, chest pain, fever, night chills, and fatigue. Once symptoms

Tuberculosis Essay
Tuberculosis
What is Tuberculosis?
1.Tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial infection which can affect all the organs of the body but most commonly the lungs which is called pulmonary TB.
It is a contagious disease which is spread primarily in the air in moisture droplets from an infected to an uninfected person. Tuberculosis is caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis which is also called TB bacillus. This bacterium is covered in a waxy capsule protecting it from the body's immune system,
heat and drying out which can allow it to remain alive for a long time.
Contributing Factors
Children and the elderly with weakened immune systems are vulnerable as their bodies cannot defend the bacteria due to not being at healthy capacity.
Visitors and immigrants from areas with a high ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Charlotte Maxeke Hospital
They have young doctors who are full of energy and can treat you well and also have inpatient and specialist outpatient services which show that they
treat a wide scope of ailments. Their contacts details are below:
17 Jubilee Road
Parktown
Johannesburg
011 488 4911
Private
1.Donald Gordon Medical Centre
They train and retain specialist and also recruit specialists who stand out in their respective fields which offer cutting edge research and patient care
both in South Africa and internationally. There contact details are as follows:
21 Eton Road
Parktown
Johannesburg
2193
011 356 6000

2.Brooklyn Chest Hospital
This hospital in Cape Town specialises in the treatment of tuberculosis as well as general medical conditions. Here you are able to receive the best
treatment as they know exactly what to look for in terms of treatment plans and are experts as they deal with TB often. Their contact details are below:
Stanberry Street
Rugby
Cape Town
021 508 7400
Bibliography
Definition of tuberculosis
1.Tuberculosis, a bacterial disease
Mind Action Series Grade 11 Workbook and Textbook
J. Grogan and R.

Tuberculosis Is A Disease Caused By Mycobacterium...
Introduction
When looking to educate myself on the most commonly seen health conditions in hospitals, I turned to Mrs. Tonya Simpson RN, a registered nurse at
St. Joseph hospital in New Jersey. Mrs. Simpson informed me that Tuberculosis is a disease that she sees profusely at St. Joseph hospital. During the
interview I gained great insight on why she chose this particular disease, the etiology, the frequency, prevalence, pathophysiology, signs/symptoms,
treatments, and the prognosis of Tuberculosis.
Etiology
During the interview with healthcare provider Mrs. Tonya Simpson, she when in great detail explaining that Tuberculosis is a bacterial disease caused
by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This is a disease that affects the lungs and can be transmitted from person to person by coughing, face–to– face
conversing, sneezing, and even breathing the same air of an infected person can spread the disease. A profuse amount of people have TB, but the
bacteria is not active, which prevents them from being contagious (T. Simpson, personal communication, March 25, 2015). It is only when the disease
is presented to be active that it can be transmitted. Seniors and children have a greater risk to be infected with Tuberculosis due to their weak immune
systems.
Incidence and Prevalence In 2013 Tuberculosis had a total of 9,588 new tuberculosis (TB) cases reported in the United States, with an incidence rate
of 3.0 cases per 100,000 population, a decrease of 4.2% from 2012 (Negar Niki Alami,

Anywhere Is Tuberculosis Everywhere?
"Tuberculosis Anywhere is Tuberculosis Everywhere", this is a slogan used to raise awareness during the annual World Tuberculosis Day, which is
held on March 24th every year. Tuberculosis also known as TB and is in the top ten most deadly diseases. The World Health Organization stated that,
"In 2015, 10.4 million people fell ill with Tuberculosis and 1.8 million died from the disease." There are many symptoms of Tuberculosis and they can
affect your daily life for many years if left untreated.
Tuberculosis is spread and caused by airborne bacteria known as mycobacterium tuberculosis, but there are two forms of the disease. The disease
usually settles in the lungs, this is known as pulmonary Tuberculosis. It can also spread to other parts of your body including you spine, kidney, and...
The Mayo Clinic has reported that, "Tuberculosis also negatively impacts organ function. For instance, an affected liver or kidney loses optimal
capacity to filter waste substances from the blood circulatory system. When Tuberculosis infects the human heart, the organ's capacity to aid in blood
circulation is substantially compromised. If Tuberculosis penetrates the brain, it can cause meningitis: This condition can lead to death due to swelling
of membranes around the brain and spinal column." Again early treatment is the best way to prevent the effects of Tuberculosis.
Dental professionals are constantly dealing with different types of people with different symptoms or illnesses. When someone comes into a dental
office that has Active Tuberculosis, it would be smart to deny treatment for their own safety of contracting the disease. the patient should be
recommended to go see a doctor and to seek further treatment there in a controlled environment. There is a purpose as to why dental professionals
wear proper protective equipment (PPE) in the

Tuberculosis
Introduction:
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease which causes millions of death in humans. In India approximately 500,000 deaths occurs now and then. TB is
an air borne disease which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Apart from M. tuberculosis, there are many strains of Mycobacterial species like
M. bovis , M .africanum , M. microti, M. caprae , M. pinnipedi i, M. canetti and M. mungi. Together these species are known to be M. tuberculosis
complex. The main target of tuberculosis is the lungs (i.e. pulmonary tuberculosis) as well as other parts of the body (i.e. systemic tuberculosis). Most
tuberculosis does not cause infection which is known as latent tuberculosis (i.e. they remain in inactive form). The spread of infection is ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
But in case of mycobacterium it survives the phagolysosome fusion due to chemical derivatives of multiacylated trehalose 2–sulphate13 which is an
inhibitory effect. The effect of IFN–gamma treated human macrophages on the replication of M. tuberculosis.
Signs and symptoms of TB:
Cough
Unintentional weight loss
Fatigue
Fever
Night sweats
Chills
Loss of appetite
Diagnosis of TB Disease:
People suspected to have TB disease should test for the following:
Medical history,
Physical examination,
Test for TB infection (TB skin test or TB blood test),
Chest radiograph (X–ray)
Appropriate laboratory tests
Testing for TB infection:

Tuberculin skin test: Also called the Mantoux tuberculin skin test is done by injecting a small amount of fluid (called tuberculin) into the skin in the
lower part of the arm. A person given the tuberculin skin test must return within 48 to 72 hours to have a trained health care worker look for a
reaction on the arm. If at the site of injection there may be raised, hard area or swelling, its size should be using a ruler. If the size is greater than 5cm
this indicates the positive result for TB.
TB blood tests: TB blood tests (also called interferon–gamma release assays or IGRAs) TB. An IGRA measures how strong a person's immune system
reacts to TB bacteria by testing the person's blood in a laboratory. If the result is positive, it should be

The History of Tuberculosis
INTRODUCTION
Tuberculosis also known as 'Tuber Bacillus' is a deadly, infectious disease which primarily impacts on the lungs which is called pulmonary TB. TB
can also impact on the other parts of the body including the Brain, kidneys and bones which is called non – pulmonary TB. The disease of TB is
caused in humans mainly from a bacterium called Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis was first described by Robert Koch as
unusual with waxy coating on its cell surface. TB can also affect the cattle from a bacterium called Mycobacterium Bovis. Evidences show us that
Tuberculosis has been in our society for at least 15,000 years now. We get to know this by the traces of tuberculosis in mummies. In 460 BC this
disease was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
TREATMENTS
Medication is one of the easiest ways to treat TB. Treating TB takes much longer than other types of bacterial infections. It usually takes about 6–9
months of continuous use of antibiotics. Patients age, overall health and drug resistance, type of TB and where infection is located determines which
drug is suitable for the patient.
Treatments for Latent TB
If the patient is suffering from latent TB it means the patient ha mycobacterium Tuberculosis bacterium in his body, but they are inactivated. To treat
TB infection it is most important that the patient consults their doctor. Most common medicine used for this type of TB is isoniazid (INH. In most of
the cases this medicine would take about 6 months (if taken regularly) to kill all the inactivated bacterium.
Side effects of Isoniazid
Stomach pain, yellow skin or eyes, dark urine, rash, fever, tingling in the fingers or toes, vomiting and loss of appetite.
To prevent these side effects the doctor may give the patient pyridoxine (vitamin B6) tablets.
Treatments for TB disease
Pulmonary TB
To treat TB disease doctors usually prescribe a mixture of four antibiotics. These antibiotics are–
1. Isoniazid
2. Rifampicin
3. Pyrazinamide
4. Ethambutol

At the beginning of the treatment doctors recommend patients to stay at home so they don't pass this disease on to other. But

The Tuberculosis Epidemic
The Tuberculosis Epidemic
When most hear the word "tuberculosis" they will associate it with a time where medicine was very underdeveloped. Many would be amazed to
know that, while reading this sentence, a victim dies of TB (Farrell 113). To First World countries, tuberculosis is not a common disease. This is
because so many of the victims are in developing countries. In reality, TB kills millions a year and should not be ignored just because epidemics other
epidemics affect a more diverse group of people.
Tuberculosis is caused mainly in humans by a bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) (Harvard Medical School). It can also be caused by
Mycobacterium bovis (Bates & Ciment 2013). The tuberculosis bacilli is about two–millionths of a meter long (Farrell 113) and is spread through the
air by coughing. After the tuberculosis enters the body, it quickly spreads (Harvard Medical School). When most bacteria enters the body, it gets
caught in the mucus in the airway. TB bacilli are such tiny droplets that it slips past the mucus and into the lung's air sacs (Farrell 114). It hides in the
lungs since there is plenty of oxygen. TB can also reside in the lymph nodes and appears to be mumps, or in the voice ... Show more content on
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Tuberculosis bacilli that resists isoniazid and rifampin is called multidrug resistant or second line TB. Medicines prescribed will include ethionamide,
moxifloxacin, levofloxacin, cycloserine, and kanamycin. When tuberculosis still continues to resist, it it classified as XDR–TB and the only cure
usually is to remove the dead piece of the lung. Some of the treatments will take 6 years, 2 years, or even 2 weeks. MDR–TB used to cost
fifteen–thousand dollars and was not affordable by many people. Thanks to the World Health Organization, it now cost about 5% of that. In countries
where TB is very common, vaccinations are given at birth (Harvard Medical

Tuberculosis As A Infectious Disease
Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly infectious disease that can harm any organ of the body, especially the lungs. Every year about over a million people die
due to tuberculosis and even more are infected. A person in contact with an infected individual can easily put themselves at risks of getting TB. Due to
the emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis infections commenced to increment more rapidly. A person with HIV has an
impotent immune system which is not able to fight infections such as tuberculosis. There are many ways to diagnose, prevent and treat the further
spread of this disease.
There are many ways to identify and diagnose the presence and severity of tuberculosis. One of the most prevalent ways to test for TB is ... Show more
Sputum tests may be required for testing if the chest x–ray reveals signs of TB.
Tuberculosis can spread by contagious airborne droplets that are passed on easily through close contact with a person who has active or untreated TB.
As a person coughs, sneezes, or interacts, it can relinquish infectious droplets into the air. Once a person inhales the infectious droplet (bacillus), it
settles in the upper airways. "Bacteria in droplets that bypass the mucociliary system and reach the alveoli are expeditiously circumvented and engulfed
by alveolar macrophages, the most abundant immune effector cells present in alveolar spaces" (Knechel, 2009). These macrophages are a component
of the immune system that fights to destroy the mycobacteria to obviate infection. "The outcome is essentially determined by the quality of the host
bulwarks and the balance that occurs between host bulwarks and the invading mycobacteria" (Knechel, 2009). If the alveolar macrophage fails to
overcome the inhaled mycobacteria, the bacteria will replicate until the macrophage lysis. As the monocytes are magnetized to the infection site, it then
separates into macrophages and consumes the free bacilli. The mycobacteria then multiply within the macrophages causing it to become infected. The
infected macrophages may then be transported to the lymph nodes where it can easily reach the blood stream. After two to three weeks of infection,
the helper T cells are

Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Is Caused By Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis which is an acid fast bacterium. M. tuberculosis uses the respiratory tract as the principal
portal of entry. Tuberculosis is spread from person to person through microscopic droplets released into the air. This can happen when someone that has
the active form of tuberculosis in the lungs which has not been treated coughs, speaks, sneezes, spits, laughs, or sings. The majority of active cases
result from reactivation of old dormant infections. Although TB is contagious, it 's not that easy to catch.
You 're much more likely to get tuberculosis from someone you live with or work with rather than from a stranger.
There are two TB–related conditions that exist which are the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
TB can lead to spinal pain and joint destruction, meningitis, impair the liver and kidney's waste filtration functions, cause blood in the urine, and can
impair the heart 's ability to pump blood.
M. tuberculosis enters the respiratory tract where it travels to the lungs deep into the alveoli and is engulfed by macrophages. One of the major
features of M. tuberculosis is its capacity to block the acidification of the phagosome and consequently to disable phagosome– lysosome fusion in
phagocytic cells. After time, the tubercles can change to a cheese like consistency called caseous lesions. When caseous lesions calcify they are called
Ghon complexes which show up on X–ray's. Tubercles can sometimes liquefy and form air–filled tuberculosis cavities which allows the bacteria to
spread. This spreading of the bacteria can affect many parts of body like the bladder, bones, brain, joints, kidneys, lymph nodes, spine, and reproductive
organs. Cell mediated immunity then develops and alerts T cells.
There are two kinds of tests that are used to conclude if a person has been infected with
TB bacteria. These tests are the tuberculin skin test (Mantoux test) and TB blood tests. A positive
TB skin test or TB blood test only tells that a person has been infected with TB bacteria.

The Development of the Tuberculosis Vaccine
Introduction:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of mortality in all over the world. The infection caused by M. tuberculosis is commonly
known as tuberculosis or TB. According to a CDC report, in 2012, approximately nine million patients were infected globally with TB and the fatality
was around 1.3 million1. It is estimated that nearly one third of the global population is infected with TB.
M. tuberculosis was first described by Robert Koch in the year 1882 as the "tubercle bacillus". The bacterium belongs to a special group of
microorganisms that contain a thick, waxy, lipid rich layer of mycolic acid on their cell surface. The mycolic acid makes this bacterium tolerant to a
number of antimicrobials and is one of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
tuberculosis. Whereas in the secondary resistance, the resistance developed during therapy is due to inadequate administration of the antibiotics. Drug
resistance has become such an extensive problem now, that there are multiple categories of drug resistance TB, such as, Multi–drug–resistant TB
(MDR–TB) and Extensively–drug –resistant TB (XDR–TB).
MDR–TB is defined as a form of TB that is resistant to the two most potent TB antibiotics, isoniazid and rifampin. MDR–TB is mostly associated with
secondary resistance 5. MDR–TB spreads in the same manner as sensitive TB from one person to another. MDR–TB arises due to the bacteria starting
to synthesize drug degrading enzymes or drug efflux or due to spontaneous mutations. In order to treat MDR–TB, community–based therapeutic
approaches with programs such as MDR–TB specific Directly Observed Therapy – Short Course (DOTS)–Plus holds promise 6. Another approach
follows therapy with second line antibiotics, however those are more expensive and have notable side effects. MDR–TB is believed to have a mortality
rate of 80%.
XDR–TB is a more aggressive form of TB that has actually arisen from inadequate use or misuse of MDR–TB drugs. This form of TB involves
infection with M. tuberculosis that has acquired resistance to not only the first line of anti–TB antibiotics like isoniazid and rifampin along with any
member of quinolones but also to at least one member of second line of

Tuberculosis Vaccination Research
The decision to vaccinate or to not vaccinate a child against a particular disease is a modern controversial subject. When in regard to the tuberculosis
vaccination, parents in the United States should vaccinate their children. Tuberculosis is a disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most
commonly affects the lungs. The etiologic agent can be expelled from one infected person via a sneeze or a cough, and enter the air and then the body
of another person, leading to another infected person ("Tuberculosis, 2012). According to "What is TB?" (n.d.), someone who has diagnosed
tuberculosis but is not receiving any form of treatment can pass the disease to up to 15 people in on year. Treatment of TB is necessary, so if
symptoms are ignored, an infected person could die. Prevalence of this disease is not as common in the United States as it is in other countries. In
2014, there were approximately 9,421 reported cases; trends show that TB prevalence continues to decreases each year. Of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Since 1921, this vaccination had been used in prevention of TB infections and in present day is the only licensed vaccine in use as a prevention tool for
tuberculosis. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of BCG is not very high, as there is still close to 9 million people every year globally being infected
by tuberculosis. The vaccination has about an 80% effectiveness in prevention of tuberculosis for 15 years, but as people get older, BCG seems to be
decreasingly effective. One of the more crucial prevention techniques for avoiding tuberculosis is simply by having a healthy and non–compromised
immune system. Adults who are considered to have a healthy immune system are automatically at an advantage; their immune systems will most likely
be able to kill Mycobacterium tuberculosis on its own. About 6/10 of all adults will have immune systems that are powerful enough to do so ("What is
TB?",

Essay On Tuberculosis
For some years now TB was considered as a "cured" malady in the USA and it subsidizes apportioned for checking and detailing was redistributed to
different territories of need. By 1993. Americans living in distant areas that is the minorities and the other sectors across in various parts of the country
were at risk with the elevated level of TB with both the dynamic and idle structures in confirming. The American Lung Association led the requirement
for assets to be redistributed for revealing, cure, and training of this previous "remedied" illness. Albeit more elevated amounts of infection events
were being followed, not to the levels of recorded noted in the country and, Healthy People 2020 supported the lessening of the illness. The... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So, when the infection compromised with an HIV/AIDES host, quiet the indications, the entanglements create in different ranges of human system.
(Maurer and Smith 2009). It is conceivable to have the illness in different organs however just a medical practitioner could attest and to confirm
that kind of disease (CDC 2013). The episodes of TB are on the decrease in the country. According to Maurer and Smith 2009. It is not yet
decreasing among the minorities who were born in a different country before becoming citizens of the USA. The Healthy people recommended the
predominance to be of 1% of every 100.000, however the TB rate is higher than 3% of every 100,000. (CDC 2014). The predominate mortality of the
illness is quickly cared for the presence of one or more additional diseases or disorders co–occurring when it is diagnosed early and care is taken. Thus,
it does not spread to the other areas of the human organs or the human system. The above occurrences that is the presence of one or more additional
diseases or disorders co–occurring shows why most of the minorities in the USA are mostly affected by the illness.
Determinants of Health for Tuberculosis
Today there are some group of people who were born in a foreign country that experience the ill effects of TB. The biggest faction is those American
born in a different country for the most part Asian and they have access to

Tuberculosis In Hama
The rate of tuberculosis is increasing according to a medical source from the Syrian city of Hama. In support of this statement, the internal medicine
doctor, Kamal Al–Taqi, confirmed the rates are rising, and there have been multiple deaths due to the resistance of the antibiotic treatment. As the
evidence shows, these events take place in the both Hama and northern Syrian regions. Throughout the city, numerous deaths of small children and the
elderly are caused tuberculosis (International Society for Infectious Diseases, [ISID], 2017). Similarly, there are cases like those in Hama and
Northern regions occurring in Aleppo, considering the poor are highly susceptible to diseases due to their social status and they do not have the money
for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Additional city populations include Aleppo (4.2 million), Homs (1.6 million), Hama (1.6 million), Lattakia (1 million). The climate is particularly
desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along the coast (Nationsonline.org, 2017).
Tuberculosis, also known as (TB), has been around for decades and is still active across the globe. This infectious disease is caused by the bacterium
called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria are commonly found in the lungs, but it can spread to other organs such as the kidneys, spine, and
brain. As expected, many people believe that everyone who is exposed to TB will become ill, however this not true. Regarding this, there are two
TB–related conditions exist: latent TB infection (dormant) and TB disease (active). As evidence shows, you can die from the disease if you do not
seek treatment in a timely manner (CDC, 2017a). Anyone can become infected with TB if they breathe in the bacteria that is spread by tiny air
droplets when a person coughs or speaks (CDC, 2017b). Further testing, such as a chest x–ray and a sample of sputum (mucus), is necessary to see
whether the person has TB disease (CDC, 2017c).
According to the World Health Organization, one of the top infectious killer worldwide is Tuberculosis. In 2015, 10.4 million people contracted TB
and while another 1.8 million died from the disease (including 0.4

Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Is Caused By The Bacterium...
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the Bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis also called tubercle bacilli which is an aerobic non–motile bacillus which
are approximately 2–4 micrometers in length and 0.2–0.5 um in width.
M. tuberculosis cell is made of peptidoglycan which is attached to galactofuran which in turn is attached to arabinofuran which is finally attached to
mycolic acids. Hydrophobic molecules making up Mycolic acids form a lipid layer surrounding the organism therefore influencing permeability of the
cell surface. This layer has been found to be the cause of many pathogenesis inducing traits of M. tuberculosis. They inhibit attack from lysosomes,
reactive oxygen species and cationic proteins in phagocytic granule as well as protecting extracellular layer from damage. Further pathogenesis of the
bacterium is achieved by the presence of other lipids which include phthiocerol dimycocerosate, cord factor/dimycolyltrehalose, the sulfolipids and
phosphatidylinositol mannosides. (Brennan., 2003)
TB is spread via inhalation of droplet nuclei containing tubercle bacilli. Transmission occurs when an infected individual sneezes, coughs or even talk
to an uninfected individual.
Once the tubercle bacilli are inhaled they travel to the alveoli of the lungs where they are ingested by the alveolar macrophages. Most bacilli are
destroyed or inhibited. Alveolar macrophages are also able to form a barrier shell called a granuloma around the bacilli. This keeps the

The Tuberculosis ( Mtb )
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is an infection that about one–third of the population has. MTB, which is an airborne infection, can infect nearly
any organ of the body. Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV also has an impact on the world. In 2011, it was estimated that around 34 million
people were living with HIV. This virus is contracted by the exchange of blood or bodily fluids whether it be from sexual contact or sharing needles or
syringes used for drugs. In addition, HIV is a retrovirus specifically attacking the CD4 T lymphocytes. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is
the disease caused by already having the HIV infection. The possibility of having both diseases has gradually diminished due to the improvements
made in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The rest of her examinations deemed normal. He white blood cell count was 7500/ВµL (normal range being 4,800–10,800/ВµL with seventy–five
percent neutrophils. Her hematocrit test (the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood) was thirty–four point three percent. Along with her
urinalysis, serum electrolytes, and liver function tests, the patient was ruled completely normal.
Treatments that were provided during her stay were empiric intravenous vancomycin and piperacillin/tazobactam, along with oral fluconazole, which
was added due to oral candidiasis. Azithromycin 1200mg weekly was added for MAC prophylaxis and since she was at a lower risk for the
nosocomial pathogens, the antibiotics given were reduced to amoxicillin instead.
The patient had tests ran such as an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) which stated the esophagus was estimated average. No granuloma or
acid–fast bacilli(AFB) were seen, her duodenum was normal, but atrophic gastric mucosa was seen and enlarged folds with friable mucosa with lacy
reticular pattern was found in gastric fundus. Therefore, an upper endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) was conducted. This showed that the patient had a
3.1cm x 1.8 cm heterogeneous mass lesion coming from the submucosa in the fundus with small anechoic spaces. Viscous serosanguinous liquid was
obtained by fine needle aspiration. A gram stain confirmed negative of aspirate yet the AFB showed an excess

Tuberculosis Essay examples
Tuberculosis is one of the major causes of death from many infectious diseases (3). Out of 9 million people who are infected with mycobacteria, about
2 million deaths occur from tuberculosis every year (3). Unfortunately, the prevalence of tuberculosis is in a continuous increase due to increased
number of Human immunodeificnecy virus (HIV) patients, bacterial resistance to anti–tuberculous drugs, and growing number of recreational drug
users (3). The pathogen responsible for bacterial infection, potentially causing tuberculosis, is mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) (2). Persons with
adequate immune system can control the bacterial infection so mycobacteria remain dormant for a long time (11). In a typical tuberculous granuloma,
mature ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This paper will illustrate the transmission dynamics, life cycle, and mechanisms of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a pathogen, which its physiology is directly linked to features of tuberculosis that it causes. The crucial feature for a
mycobacteria's survival is its unique cell wall structure. The insoluble cell wall core of MTB is formed by a large variety of lipid–containing
molecules, such as mycolic acid, that are covalently attached (6). This hydrophobic cell wall provides a physical protection from the host immune
response and serves as a barrier against many toxic insults (2). Further, the complex MTB cell wall is impermeable to both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
molecules, resulting in inherent resistance of MTB to most common antibiotics (8). Lipoarabinomannan is an antigen on the outside of the organism.
This antigen is another important component of the cell wall because it inhibit the fusion of Mycobacterium–containing phagosomes with lysosomal
compartments (4). Lipoarabinomannan hinders the fusion of phagosome with lysosome by impairing Ca2+/calmodulin pathway and inactivates
macrophages (8). Therefore, this cell–surface component of MTB is able to facilitate the survival of mycrobacteria within macrophages (8). Also,
MTB is able to survive the harsh environment of the host tissues by utilizing any available

Tuberculosis, A Dangerous Pathogen Caused By Mycobacterium...
Tuberculosis and its Role in Research
Erica Lin July 7th, 2015
I. Background
Abstract
Tuberculosis, commonly referred to as TB or consumption, is a dangerous pathogen caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). It is the
second–highest cause of death, killing off 1.5 million each year. TB victims are normally infected in the lungs by airborne pathogens and fluids, but
other organs can be targeted. There are two types of TB: active, in which victims are infectious and show symptoms, and latent, where victims do not
show any signs at all, making TB a silent threat that could manifest in the body without warning.
Epidemiology Tuberculosis is the second–highest cause of death worldwide, and over one and a half million people ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
tuberculosis complex (MTBC). When these bacteria enter our body, adverse effects could result in potentially lethal consequences. Tuberculosis is
normally an airborne infection, although it can also be transmitted through the bloodstream and tissues. Viral TB culminates when mycobacteria enter
the airstream and attack the body, particularly the pulmonary alveoli, invading cells and replicating themselves. Although macrophages attempt to
engulf the bacteria and destroy them through phagocytosis in a process called autophagy, the bacteria's lipid outer coating allow them to survive and
eventually utilize the nutrients originally intended for the cell to sustain replication within the host macrophage. If the mycobacteria find their way in
through damaged tissue, they can move throughout the body and infect different areas. Inside of the body, phagocytes and T cells in the body will
clump together to surround and attack infected macrophages, but this supposedly beneficial bodily response is actually exploited by mycobacteria,
who use clumping to block all of the macrophages at once and ultimately avoid host immune response.
TB is usually transmitted through exposure to others with active tuberculosis infections. If the infector has active pulmonary TB and performs any
action that expels out salivary or mucous material, that material can transmit the bacteria to others. The bacteria then

Tuberculosis : Causes And Treatment Of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, also known by the abbreviation "TB", is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria usually attacks the lungs, but tuberculosis
bacteria can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. Although tuberculosis has not been a major concern in recent years; the
disease is now increasing and there are now multiple drug resistant strains that have emerged that many believe may be a massive risk to society with
the necessity of routine screenings and new vaccines.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the cause of tuberculosis in humans. The only known carrier of this particular bacterium is humans. Mycobacterium
bovis is the etiologic agent of TUBERCULOSIS that's found in cows but found rarely in humans, but ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When TUBERCULOSIS occurs outside your lungs, signs and symptoms vary according to the organs involved. For example, tuberculosis of the spine
may give you back pain, and tuberculosis in your kidneys might cause blood in your urine. The Department of Respiratory Medicine and Allergology
at Aarhus University Hospital has released a study on an interferon–gamma release assay test that has performed well in routine screening for
tuberculosis. A positive interferon–gamma release assay, also known as IGRA, is regarded proof of latent mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. They
concluded an evaluation of the IGRA test "T–SPOT:T3" to test its performance during clinical routine use by analyzing the positivity rate and odds, as
well as the effect of the season and sensitivity. The T–Spot. tuberculosis performs well in routine screening prior to TNFО± treatment as well as in
control investigation procedures. Furthermore, it is a useful diagnostic aid in low–incidence settings. Test performance is influenced by the age of the
patient and by the season of the year in which the test is performed, but mostly in terms of the occurrence of inconclusive results. In majority of
inclusive cases, a subsequent test can provide a conclusive result. One false negative result was recorded. Therefore, a negative T–SPOT. Tuberculosis
should never overrule the judgment of

Tuberculosis Is Caused By A Bacterium
1– A) Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium which mainly attacks the lungs. The surveillance report by the CDC concerning the updated counts
starting 1993 and ending in 2013 showed that there was a decrease in the incident total count of Tuberculosis. However, a significant increase was
seen among foreigners who have immigrated to the United States between 1993 and 2013 (CDC, 2013). Asians and Latin Americans are among the
group that has seen an increase in cases of TB in the United States (CDC, 2013). This may be due to the process of immigration. From 1993 to 2013,
the united States have seen an increase in people emigrating from these regions whether legally or illegally. Moreover, these people come from regions
with high prevalence... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the United States, local and state health departments are usually in charge of TB prevention and control as they are in charge of protecting the
community health. However, health care department needs to collaborate with hospitals, policy makers, HIV clinics, and correctional facilities in order
to report and treat new cases and treat them promptly (Rubin, 2014). Moreover, the health department needs to work in collaboration with these
agencies in order to enforce treatment for those with active tuberculosis. The first step to an effective TB prevention program is identifying and treating
people with active TB. This means tracking people with active TB and ensuring that they complete treatment. The second step is to screen people who
may have come in contact with a person with active TB. The third step is to screen high risk population. To achieve all these goals, local and state
health departments should collaborate with health care providers from several communities and organizations (Nardell & Churchyard, 2011).
2) Learning Objectives are the building block for an effective teaching curriculum. Group learning objectives should be well worded. To construct
effective group learning objectives, the wording should be carefully selected (Lin, Volk, Penderis, Tipold, & Ehlers, 2015). Group learning objectives
should use wording that

Mycobacterial Disease: Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease that affects the lungs and can often be serious when not treated quickly and properly. Tuberculosis is a
miserable illness to have and is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis being spread through the air. Symptoms include severe coughing
that can last for longer than three weeks, coughing up blood, chest pain, pain when breathing or coughing, weight loss, fatigue, fever, night sweats,
chills, and lack of appetite. This illness can also affect other organs or body parts, which lead to additional symptoms. When it occurs outside the lungs
the symptoms correspond to the place it occurs. Examples include back pain when it occurs in your spine and blood in urine when it occurs in the...
When combined they shortened the duration of therapy to nine months, and when pyrazinamide is added it shortens the duration to six months.
When there is resistance to isoniazid during the treatment, ethambutol or streptomycin are used instead. This may extend the duration of the therapy,
but it will still be successful. When there is a resistance to isoniazid and rifampicin, the patient is in a critical condition. An extended duration of
therapy will be required because the loss in early bactericidal action is significant. Treatment is done in a laboratory so there is an increased amount
of laboratory support if there is an issue with the treatment. Patients showing a resistance to both have a significantly lower chance at being cured
than the patients showing a resistance to one. The chances of being cured are about fifty percent. A resectional surgery is being performed to enhance
the cure rates. It has proven to increase the cure rate; however, it is highly complicated and must be performed very precisely by a highly skilled
surgeon. Treatments and medications are being invented every day, and hopefully one day there will be an official way to control

Tuberculosis Essay
Abstract
Tuberculosis is a deadly disease that is now affecting our world and the people living in it in a horrible way. Due to many factors such as poverty,
HIV/AIDS, and lack of health care, many third world and developing countries have been left very vulnerable to tuberculosis. It is affecting a large
part of these countries and is leading them deeper into poverty and sickness. The effort to help these countries against tuberculosis has only been slightly
effective against this widespread and destructive disease.
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that affects one third of the world's population. The most infected areas are developing counties or third worlds
countries such as Africa, India, Pakistan, and East Timor.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the top three reporting states (California, New York, and Texas), the 1998
––2003 decrease in cases among U.S.–born people (32.2%; from 3,179 to
2,155) was four times larger than the reduction among foreign born people (7.6%; from 4,420 to 4,086) (Trends in Tuberculosis Page 1– United States).
Africa has the highest rate of tuberculosis per capita, although it changes within the African countries from 17.8% in Cameroon to 70% in
Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Africa only has 11% of the world's population, but it accounts for more than a quarter of people infected with
tuberculosis. It has an estimated 2.4 million tuberculosis cases and 540,000 tuberculosis deaths annually (WHO declares TB an emergency in Africa
Para 4). In Zambia, which has a population of 11 million, 64% lives on less than one dollar a day. There are now 680 cases per 100,000 people of TB
in Zambia. The TB epidemic has been made worse by the HIV epidemic in Zambia. It has an HIV prevalence rate of 17% and more than 70% of TB
patients in Zambia are also infected with HIV/AIDS (Projects in Africa Para 1). In Malawi, which has a population of 12 million, 42% live on less
than one dollar a day. In addition to this, Malawi is one of the worst infected HIV/AIDS countries and TB is a foremost cause of death among

Tuberculosis In Canada
Canada has had many events where tuberculosis was having an outbreak in 1924 through 1948, but since then it has been decreasing. We have dealt
with this problem back in 2012 where an outbreak of tuberculosis infected 8% of the individuals in the extremely small Northern Quebec community
of Kangiqsualujjuaq. After the outbreak The Public Health Agency of Canada is running over to discover the origin of the outburst its spread.
Officials are also bringing up more additional resources to the place, such as a mobile x–ray machine. Tuberculosis is a disease caused by bacteria that
travel from person to person. A person who is infected with tuberculosis, but does not show any symptoms at all may have dormant tuberculosis and
can still transmit ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A resolution was introduced by the Minister of Health "Through this Framework, the federal government will focus its efforts on reducing the burden
of tuberculosis within those populations by: Optimizing and enhancing current efforts to prevent and control active tuberculosis disease, facilitating the
identification and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection for those at high risk of developing active tuberculosis disease, and championing
collaborative action to address the underlying risk factors for tuberculosis." (The Honourable Rona Ambrose, P.C., M.P Minister of Health). In 2004,
total tuberculosis–related expenditures in Canada were estimated at $74 million dollars, with the average cost of treating a case of active tuberculosis
being approximately $47 thousand dollars. Treatment for latent TB infection, on the other hand, is estimated to be less than $1000 per

Tb, Or Tuberculosis, And Tuberculosis
TB, or Tuberculosis, is a chronic or acute contagious disease caused by a bacterial infection. TB is the leading cause of death from a single infectious
disease, accounting for over a quarter of avoidable deaths among adults. It can affect several organs of the human body, including the brain, the kidneys
and the bones, but it predominately manifests itself in the lungs where it is called "Pulmonary Tuberculosis".
According to the WHO, TB infection is currently spreading at the rate of one person per second. It kills more young people and adults than any other
infectious disease and is the world 's biggest killer of women. Researchers have calculated that 8–10 million people catch the disease every year, with
three million dying from it. It causes more deaths worldwide than AIDS and Malaria combined. The WHO predicts that by 2020 nearly one billion
people will be newly infected with TB, of them 70m will die. TB black spots include Eastern Europe with 250,000 cases a year, South East Asia; three
million cases a year and sub–Saharan Africa with two million cases a year.
Tuberculosis, a sometimes crippling and deadly disease, is on the rise and is revisiting both the developed and developing world. The global epidemic
is growing and becoming more dangerous. The breakdown in health services, the spread of HIV/AIDS and the emergence of multi drug–resistant TB
are contributing to the worsening impact of this disease. Overall, one–third of the world 's population is currently

What is Tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis
Over the past century, tuberculosis has taken the lives of more than one hundred million people. Today, roughly two billion people are infected with
the bacteria that causes Tuberculosis and five to ten percent develop active tuberculosis within their lifetime. All in all, Tuberculosis resides to be one
of the most fatal diseases in the world and is the top ranked killer amongst bacterial diseases. Almost two million people pass away from the infection
each year (Furlow, 2010). Approximately thirteen percent of people that are infected withtuberculosis also have HIV, they are closely associated with
one another (Tomford, 2010).
Tuberculosis, commonly known as TB, is caused by a bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
tuberculosis, M.bovis, M.africanum, M.microti, and M. canettii. M. tuberculosis is responsible for the vast majority of TB cases in the United States"
(p.4).
According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2012), there are two kinds of tests that are used to conclude if a person has been
infected with Tuberculosis bacteria: the tuberculin skin test and blood tests. A positive skin test or blood test only shows that a person has been
exposed with Tuberculosis bacteria, it does not tell what stage of tuberculosis they may have. In order to confirm the person has active tuberculosis
more tests, such as a chest x–ray and a sample of sputum, are needed. The Tuberculin skin test also known as the Mantoux is done by injecting a
small amount of fluid called tuberculin into the skin in the lower part of the arm. The person will then have to return to the clinic within 48 to 72
hours to have a health care personal look for a raised hard area, or swollen reaction on the arm. A Positive skin test means the person had a reaction on
their arm and had been infected with the bacteria. If the person's arm did not have any reaction, that then correlates to a negative test result which
means that they were not exposed to the tuberculosis bacteria (2012).
Blood tests that are preformed to test for tuberculosis, are also called interferon–gamma release assays or IGRAs. It is an intravenous blood draw that
determines how the person's immune system responds to the

Tuberculosis : Tuberculosis And The World Health Organization
Tuberculosis Epidemiology
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2014, 9.6 million Americans were infected with the Tuberculosis (TB) disease.
Over the years many programs and initiatives have been implemented to decrease the occurrences of TB disease in America. As long individuals are
educated on the prevention of tuberculosis fatal complications can be prevented through early treatment. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the
description of Tuberculosis and the demographic of interest, determinants of health and how determinants contribute to the development of
Tuberculosis, epidemiologic triangle, role of the community health nurse, and the World Health Organization that works to address... Show more
Furthermore, the mode of transmission with TB disease is through air borne droplets that are released into the air when a TB infected individual
coughs, sneezes, or sings (CDC, 2012). It is important to treat individuals with the Latent TB infection with isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), rifapentine
(RPT) to prevent the development of Tuberculosis disease. In like manner, with Tuberculosis disease individuals are treated with isoniazid (INH),
rifampin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), and pyrazinamide (PZA) for six to nine months of treatment. The incidence of TB disease in the United States are
within the African– American, Hispanic, Asian communities, international travelers, younger children, correctional facilities, individuals with HIV, and
the homeless (CDC, 2012).
Determinants of Health and how they Contribute to the Development of Tuberculosis The social determinants of health can play a major role in the
development of Tuberculosis. To demonstrate a social determinant of health it is where people live, work, age, and play. There is healthcare access,
parks, transportation, social support, job opportunities, public safety, quality of education, availability to healthy foods, safe housing, and technology
(HealthyPoeple.gov, 2016). On the other h.and, the determinants of TB disease include poor nutrition, lack of homes, poor ecological conditions,

Tuberculosis In Prisons
The tuberculosis in the United States increased by 20 percent between 1985 and 1992 due to the following reasons: "(1) Inadequate funding for TB
control and other public health efforts, (2) the HIV epidemic, (3) increased immigration from countries where TB is common, (4) the spread of TB in
certain settings (for example, correctional facilities and homeless shelters), and (5) the spread of multidrug–resistant TB (MDR TB)" (CDC).
Meanwhile, as what is evident in Dr. Trudeau's experiment, the factors for Tuberculosis to thrive are due to inadequate–lacks–in–nutritional–value food
supply, and poor environmental conditions. In like manner, incarcerated populations resemble that situation. Thus, one of the many reasons that
TB can be higher in prisons, is that most prisons are not kept that clean and sanitary. Even though they may sweep and mop thinking they are
getting rid of TB, there is a form of Tuberculosis called latent TB which lie dormant for days or even many years that can actually reactivate
(CDC), and spread the disease between prisoners. A second reason that TB is high in prisons is due to overcrowding. The prisoners are in such
close proximity of each other on a daily basis, that there is no way of separating themselves from getting TB. A third reason, the prisoners could have
easily gotten Tuberculosis from each other due to small areas. Since some forms of Tuberculosis is spread by airborne droplets (Mayo Clinic) it
would make sense why prisoners get it so much easier. Other factors in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Self–
Study Modules on Tuberculosis. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/education/ssmodules/pdfs/module2.pdf. Last accessed: 07/6/17.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC). https://www.ndhealth.gov/Disease/TB/Documents/Fact%20Sheets/LTBIandActiveTB.pdf. Last
accessed: 07/7/17.
Mayo Clinic. http://history.mayoclinic.org/timelines/history–timeline.php. Last accessed:

Tuberculosis Essay
Tuberculosis
Forms of tuberculosis have been present in the human population since ancient times. Fragments of spinal columns from Egyptian mummies dating
back to 2400 BC show definite pathological signs of tubercular decay. Around 460 BC Hippocrates wrote on the subject of a disease which we now
know as tuberculosis. In his article he warned his colleagues against visiting cases in the late stages of the disease, because the patient's inevitable death
might damage the reputations of the attending physicians. The world's population remained totally defenseless to the lethal effects of tuberculosis for
thousands of years. Then, around the 17th century scientists began to hypothesize about the nature of the disease and began to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Marten's insight proved to be another enormous step towards the understanding and prevention of tuberculosis. In the 19th century Hermann Brehmer,
a Silesian botany student whom was suffering from tuberculosis, was instructed by his physician to move to a healthier climate. Brehmer traveled to
the Himalayan mountains mainly to pursue his botanical studies. What he didn't know at the time was that this journey would be attributed to curing
his disease. When Brehmer returned home he began to study medicine. In 1854, he wrote his dissertation titled, "Tuberculosis is a Curable Disease."
He hypothesized that his recovery was directly related to the healthier environment found in the Himalayan mountains. Brehmer built an institution in
Gorbersdorf where his patients received a nutritious diet and spent great amounts of time on their balconies where they were exposed to continuous
fresh air. This clinic was the first step towards the development of a sanatorium. Sanatoria, could now be found throughout Europe and the United
States. A sanatorium provided two functions. They isolated the ill from the rest of the public while enforcing rest and a healthy diet. Tuberculosis is
caused by an organism called Mycobacterium

Tuberculosis Is The Infectious Disease
Tuberculosis is the infectious disease, that cause mortality worldwide and is the actual issue for worldwide health system. Tuberculosis (TB) is a
communicable disease, that may presented in an active or a latent form. It affects a various body systems, but mostly a respiratory system. This disease
is triggered by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is transmitted through the air; therefore, a person gets infected by an inhaled bacterium
from a person with active form of TB, and who is presented with cough and sneezing. Person with a latent form usually asymptomatic, whereas the
bacteria is inactive in the lungs. On another hand, a person with an active form of TB may show following symptoms: severe cough longer than two
weeks, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, any shift in one of the factors causes a change in person's health status equilibrium (Epidemiological triangle, n.d.). So, access to normal
housing, lack of clean water, diseases like HIV and diabetes and other chronic diseases, the prevalence of drug–resistant TB contribute to higher risk of
developing the tuberculosis.
Additionally, the significant influence on tuberculosis development has the social health determinants. Social determinants of health are the terms in
the surrounding settings in which people are born, live, learn, work, play, and age that impact health, capabilities, quality of life outputs and health
risks. Thus, the age, global inequalities in social and economic fields, living and environmental conditions, lack of access to healthy and nutritious food,
low financial status, geographic and cultural burdens to health care access contribute to tuberculosis incidents within the international communities
(Hargreaves et al., 2011).
To promote adequate monitoring and treatment, a population infected with TB has to be isolated if the TB in active form, should follow medication
regimen, and be compliant with physician treatment plan. Also, the significance of the community nurses' role shouldn't be underestimated in
prevention and in controlling TB. According the CDC (2017) 70% of case detection occurs due to nurses' involvement. The community nurses are
primary service in

Know About Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is most of the feared and widespread that has harassed humans. Tuberculosis is a disease that affects the lungs and other organs too. This
is a very serious disease that can cause death and the worse part is that this disease travels to one person to another. In the book, Know about
Tuberculosis, a boy who has tuberculosis sneezed on another boy named Kevin who did not automatically catch tuberculosis, but the terms have taken
root. According to the book, Know about Tuberculosis, "In the United States, about ten to fifteen million people are infected with this disease, but only
ten percent of people are infected; however doctors assume that the battle against tuberculosis is increasing around the world." Tuberculosis is among
the major concerns for the World Health Organization due to its contagious nature.
According to the book, Know about Tuberculosis, scientists dicovered tuberculosis was the most contauious disease in Egypt that led to spreading to
other countries. Columbus and European explorers were blamed for being tuberculosis to the New World.Scientists also noticed that the bones of
Egyptian mummies had been damaged, as a result of tuberculosis. Records show that one in five deaths occurred by the middle of the seventeenth
century, even millions of people died in British Isles, Europe, North and South America... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Now, scientists are warning signs of risks of tuberculosis and share information about bacterias and viruses. Today, when a new germ is known, they
have a better chance of learning how to cure and fight it. Volunteers take the time to help in laborites in the United States, South America, Central
America, and Asia. The World Health Organization reports that third of the world's population is infected and eight million people get sick from
tuberculosis that is identified to be helped by medicine from spreading the disease to

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