The document outlines the scientific method used in sociological research. It discusses defining the problem, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and developing conclusions. It also covers research designs such as surveys, experiments, ethnography, and use of existing sources. Ethical considerations in research like informed consent and confidentiality are addressed. New developments in methodology, like feminist methodology and queer theory, are mentioned.

1. Sociological
Research 2
3rd edition
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
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Sociology in Modules
Richard T. Schaefer

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What Is the Scientific Method?
• Scientific method: a systematic,
organized series of steps that ensures
maximum objectivity and consistency in
researching a problem
– Defining the problem
– Reviewing the literature
– Formulating the hypothesis
– Selecting the research design
and collecting and analyzing data
– Developing the conclusion

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Defining the Problem
• Operational definition: explanation of
an abstract concept that is specific
enough
to allow researchers to assess the concept

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Reviewing the Literature
• Literature reviewed is relevant scholarly
studies and information
– Refine the problem
– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data
– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes

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Formulating the Hypothesis
• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors
known as variables
• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic
subject to change under different conditions
– Independent variable: variable hypothesized
to cause or influence another
– Dependent variable: action depends on
influence of the independent variable

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Formulating the Hypothesis
• Causal logic: involves relationships
between a condition or variable and a
particular consequence, with one event
leading to the other
• Correlation: exists when change in one
variable coincides with change in another
– Correlation does not necessarily indicate
causation

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Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample
– Sample: selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that population
– Random sample: when every member of
a population has the same chance of being
selected
– Snowball or convenience samples:
participants recruited through word of
mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

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Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Ensuring Validity and Reliability
– Validity: degree to which the measure reflects
the phenomenon being studied
– Reliability: extent to which the measure
provides consistent results

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Developing the Conclusion
• Supporting Hypotheses
– Sociological studies do not always generate
data that support original hypothesis
• Controlling for Other Factors
– Control variable: factor held constant to
test the impact of the independent variable

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In Summary:
The Scientific Method
• Defining the problem
• Reviewing the literature
• Formulating a hypothesis
• Collecting and analyzing data
• Developing the conclusion

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Figure 5-1: The Scientific Method

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Figure 5-2: Educational Level and
Household Income in the United States

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Figure 5-3: Causal Logic

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Figure 5-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

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Major Research Designs
• Research design: detailed plan or
method for obtaining data scientifically
– Surveys
– Ethnography
– Experiments
– Existing sources

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Surveys
• Survey: study that provides sociologists
with information about how people act or
think
– Interview: researcher obtains information
through face-to-face or telephone questioning
– Questionnaire: researcher uses printed or
written form to obtain information from
respondent

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Surveys
• Quantitative research: collects and reports
data primarily in numerical form
• Qualitative research: relies on what is
seen in field and naturalistic settings; often
focuses on small groups and communities

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Table 6-1: Top Reasons Why Men and Women Had Sex

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Ethnography
• Collecting information through direct
participation and/or by closely
watching a group or community
– Ethnography: efforts to describe
an entire social setting through
extended systematic observation
– Observation: sociologist joins group to
get accurate sense of how it operates; the
basic technique of ethnography

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Experiments
• Experiment: artificially created situation
that allows researcher(s) to manipulate
variables
– Experimental group: exposed to
independent variable
– Control group: not exposed to
independent variable
– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence
of observers or experiments on subjects

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Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary analysis: research techniques
that make use of previously collected
and publicly accessible information and
data
• Content analysis: systematic coding and
objective recording of data, guided by
some rationale

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Table 6-2: Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research

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Table 6-3: Major Research Designs

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Ethics of Research
• Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
– Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
– Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
– Protect subjects from personal harm
– Preserve confidentiality
– Seek informed consent
– Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
– Disclose sources of financial support (1999)

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Confidentiality
• Rik Scarce: doctoral candidate in
sociology, jailed for refusing to divulge
what he knew about a 1991 raid on a
university lab by animal rights activists

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Conflict of Interest
• Money given in support of basic research
can come with strings attached
• Example: Exxon Corporation’s support for
research on jury verdicts

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Value Neutrality
• Investigators have ethical obligation to
accept research findings even when the
data run counter to their personal views, to
theoretically based explanations, or to
widely accepted beliefs

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Developments of Methodology
• Feminist Methodology
– Feminist perspective had a great impact on
current generation of researchers
• See work and family as closely integrated
• Recently interested in self-injury
• Other studies tend to overlook women
• New impact on global research
• Tend to involve and consult
subjects more than other researchers

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Queer Theory and Methodology
• Queer theorists challenge the sexual
orientation generalizations inherent to
much research
– “Veiled reporting” technique may result in
underreporting of gays and lesbians in
research due to wording of survey or interview
questions and the manner in which they are
asked

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The Data-Rich Future
• Massive increases in available data allow
sociologists to undertake new research
– H1N1 flu strain
– Crime patterns
– Increased data raises concern about
individual privacy

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Figure 8-1: Seeing Boston’s Housing Issues

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Social Policy and Sociological Research:
Studying Human Sexuality
• Looking at the Issue
– Important to increase scientific understanding
of human sexuality
• Privacy concerns
• Preconceptions
• Myths
• Beliefs
– Many people oppose research on human
sexuality

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Social Policy and Sociological Research:
Studying Human Sexuality
• Applying Sociology
– Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual
behavior in U.S.
– Government funding for studies of sexual
behavior is controversial
– Federal government is major source of funding
for sociological research
– Weber’s ideal of value neutrality: sociologists
must remain free to reveal information that is
embarrassing or supportive of government
institutions

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Social Policy and Sociological Research:
Studying Human Sexuality
• Initiating Policy
– Sociologists developed the National Health
and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) to better
understand sexual practices of adults in U.S.
• Private funding
• NHSLS data allow interest groups
to address public policy issues

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Figure 8-2: Median Age of First Sex

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6-1: Surveying Cell Phone Users
– Are you a cell phone-only user? If so, do
you generally accept calls from unknown
numbers? What problems might result
from excluding cell phone-only users from
survey research?
– Which of the problems that arise during
telephone surveys might also arise during
Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys
involve some unique problems?
Our Wired World

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6-2: Gender Messages in Scouting
– Did you participate in scouting as a
child? If so, were you aware of the
gender messages you were receiving
as part of the scouting experience?
How did you react?
– If you were a Scout leader yourself,
what kind of gender model would you
attempt to be? How would you
become that kind of model?
Research Today

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8-1: Lying for Love Online
– Have you tried using an online dating
service? If so, were you truthful in
describing yourself online? Did the
people you were matched with turn
out to be truthful?
– Why do you think online daters
engage in deception if they are
hoping eventually to meet someone
face-to-face?
Our Wired World

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Dave Eberbach, Associate Director,
Iowa Institute for Community Alliances
– Do you know what you want to be
doing 10 years from now? If so, how
might a knowledge of statistics help
you in your future occupation?
– What kinds of statistics, specifically,
might you find in the Human Service
Planning Alliance’s data warehouse?
Where would they come from?
Taking Sociology to Work

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Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs
• Using Statistics
– Percentage: shows portion of 100
– Mean: average; sum of a series of values
divided by the number of values
– Mode: single most common value in a series
of values
– Median: midpoint that divides a series of
values into two groups with equal numbers
of values

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Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs
• Reading Graphs
– Tables and figures allow social scientists to
display data and make it easier to develop
conclusions
• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two
or more variables
• Graphs are often easier for public to understand

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Figure A-2: Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

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Figure A-3: People Who Favor
Legalization of Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age

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Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report
• Finding Information
– Check textbooks
– Use library catalog
– Use computerized periodical indexes
– Examine government documents
– Use newspapers
– Ask people, organizations, and agencies
– Consult instructor

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Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report
• Writing the Report
– Focus on topic
– Develop an outline
– Work ahead of deadline
– Read paper aloud
– Must cite all references