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1. HIGHER INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF
THE BRAIN

2. I-MEMORY

3. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

4. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

5. Memory is defined as the ability to
recall past experience

6. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

7. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

12. Memory traces

13. Memory traces
• neural activity → changing the basic
sensitivity of synaptic transmission between
neurons → memories are stored in the brain
Facilitated neuron

14. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

15. Memory
• Definition
• Memory Trace
• Classification of memory

16. Classification
according to time
course of storage
according to
nature of
information that
is stored

17. Classification (according to time
course of storage):

18. Mechanism of different types of memory:
Long-Term Memory

19. Classification
according to time
course of storage
according to
nature of
information that
is stored

20. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative) memory:
Knowledge
conscious
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
Skills
Unconscious (automatic)

21. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

22. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

23. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

24. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

25. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• i. episodic memory: which is the memory of
personal experiences or past events.
• ii. semantic memory: which is memory for
facts, words, rules and language.

26. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

27. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

28. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• highly flexible:
• multiple pieces of information can be linked
and associated under different circumstances.
• It is easily acquired and can be forgotten.

29. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

30. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

31. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• no single long term storage area
• Starts hippcampus & medial temporal lobe
• Then various regions of cortex.

32. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

33. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing (see later)
• Long term Potentiation (see later)
• Working memory

34. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

35. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

36. Working memory:
• Capacity: Working memory storage is very
limited
• a temporarily accessible state
• Duration: a short duration

37. Working memory:
mentally rehearse a phone number just
obtained from an operator.
Verbal working memory

38. Working memory:
Visuospatial working memory

39. Working memory:
Prefrontal cortex

40. Working memory:
• a temporary memory trace
• reverberatory activity
• Dopamine

41. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

42. Classification
according to time
course of storage
according to
nature of
information that
is stored

43. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative) memory:
Knowledge
conscious
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
Skills
Unconscious (automatic)

44. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples

45. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples

46. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Skill
• slowly acquired (repetition, practice).
• It is less likely to be forgotten

47. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Skill
• slowly acquired (repetition, practice).
• It is less likely to be forgotten

48. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples

49. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples

50. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
Memory Areas involved
Memory acquired through
fear
Amygdala
learning motor skills striatum and cerebellum
Memory acquired through
sensitization and
habituation
changes in the sensory and
motor systems involved in
the learning.

51. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples

52. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
• Conscious level
• Characters (Flexible or not?)
• Central areas involved
• Examples: Synaptic plasticity: habituation and
sensitization

53. Role of synaptic
plasticity in
memory:
1- Habituation:
2-
Sensitization:

54. All sensations of our body form
memory traces if stimulated
• Visual
• Auditory
• Taste
• Smell
• Touch

55. Memory traces
• neural activity → changing the basic
sensitivity of synaptic transmission between
neurons → memories are stored in the brain
Facilitated neuron

56. 1- Habituation:
‫تعود‬
• Our brain is occupied with sensory information
from all our senses. If our minds attempt to
remember all this information, the memory
capacity of the brain would be exceeded within
minutes.
• Fortunately, the brain has the capability to learn
to ignore information that is of no consequence.
the resulting effect is called habituation
• (This is a type of negative memory).

57. 1- Habituation:
• Mechanism:
• 1- reduction of the
intracellular calcium
• 2- less release of
neurotransmitters
from the presynaptic
terminals.

58. Role of synaptic
plasticity in
memory:
1- Habituation:
2-
Sensitization:

59. 2- Sensitization:
• Conversely to habituation,
• This is positive memory.

60. 2- Sensitization:
• an enhanced response to a stimulus after the
presentation of another intense or noxious
stimulus.
• example: an animal responds more vigorously
to a mild tactile stimulus after it has received a
painful pinch.

61. 2- Sensitization:
• Stimulation of a facilitator presynaptic terminal causes
serotonin release at the presynaptic ending of the
sensory terminal →
• The released serotonin from facilitatory neuron causes
closure of potassium channels in the presynaptic
ending of the sensory terminal which decreases
potassium efflux →
• Lack of potassium conductance causes a greatly
prolonged action potential in the synaptic terminal →
• The prolonged action potential causes prolonged
activation of the calcium channels →
• These calcium ions cause greatly increased transmitter
release by the synapse, → facilitating synaptic
transmission

62. Memory traces
• neural activity → changing the basic
sensitivity of synaptic transmission between
neurons → memories are stored in the brain
Facilitated neuron

63. 2- Sensitization:

64. 2- Sensitization:
Closure of K+
channels

65. Classification
according to time
course of storage
according to
nature of
information that
is stored

66. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative) memory:
Knowledge
conscious
• B. Implicit (Non-Declarative memory)
Skills
Unconscious (automatic)

67. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

68. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

69. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory) Stages of
processing:
• i. Encoding: receiving, processing and combining of received
information
• ii. Storage: neural mechanisms and sites by which memory is
retained

70. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory) Stages of
processing:
• iii. Consolidation: conversion of short term to long term
memory:
– genes and protein synthesis that give rise to structural changes at
synapses
– makes the temporarily stored and labile information more stable.
• iv. Retrieval recalled.
• N.B. Medial temporal lobe damage affects all four operations
of memory: encoding, storage, consolidation, and retrieval.

71. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

72. Classification (according to type of
information that is stored):
• A. Explicit (Declarative memory):
• Conscious level
• Classification
• Flexible or not?
• Central areas involved
• Stages of processing
• Long term Potentiation
• Working memory

73. Long term potentiation (LTP)
Consolidation
• Hippocampus (in the medial temporal lobe)
(‫)الحصين‬
Greek word: hippos, "horse" and kampos, "sea monster"

74. Site of consolidation
• Hippocampus (‫)الحصين‬
Short term to long term memory

75. Site of consolidation: hippocampal
formation
• It consists of:
– the dentate gyrus,
– the hippocampus proper
– the subiuculum.
– closely connected to the limbic cortex.

76. Mechanism of consolidation & LTP in
hippocampus
lt is initiated by an increase in intracellular Ca++
in the postsynaptic neuron.

77. Mechanism of consolidation & LTP in
hippocampus

78. • NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate)
• AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-
isoxazole-propionate)

79. II – LANGUAGE & SPEECH

80. • Speech centers are located in the categorical,
dominant hemisphere

81. • Speech is two forms:
– a- spoken
– b- written
• Each form is of two aspects:
– a- sensory (receptive speech)
– b- motor (expressive speech)

82. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22

83. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital

84. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)

85. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
angular gyrus
39

86. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
angular gyrus
39
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)

87. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
angular gyrus
39
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)

88. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
primary visual area
17 occipital
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
angular gyrus
39
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Hand muscles

92. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract

93. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.

94. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Sensory aphasia (receptive aphasia)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
auditory aphasia
(word deafness)

95. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Sensory aphasia (receptive aphasia)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
Visual aphasia
(word blindness
or alexia)

96. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Sensory aphasia (receptive aphasia)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
General sensory aphasia

97. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Sensory aphasia (receptive aphasia)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
General sensory aphasia

98. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
Motor aphasia (expressive aphasia)
Vocal aphasia or Broca’s aphasia

99. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Aphasia:
disturbance of speech due to lesions in the
dominant hemisphere in absence of muscle
paralysis and defects of vision or hearing.
Motor aphasia (expressive aphasia)
Agraphia

100. 1ry auditory area
41, 42 temporal
Auditory association area
22
Visual association area
18, 19
Wernicke's area
(general interpretative
area)
primary visual area
17 occipital
angular gyrus
39
Broca's area
(spoken speech
center)
44, 45, frontal lobe
Hand muscles
Exner's area
(writing center)
frontal lobe
motor cortex
(area 4)
Talk
(vocalization,
verbalization)
motor cortex
(area 4)
Pyramidal
Tract
Supramarginal
gyrus (40)
Pyramidal
Tract
Motor aphasia (expressive aphasia)
Dysarthria
a disorder of articulation

101. ROLE OF THE RIGHT
HEMISPHERE IN LANGUAGE
• emotional aspects of language
• emotions behind language
• lesion of the right hemisphere produce speech
that sounds emotionally flat. Fail to DD
sarcasm vs jokes

102. HEMISPHERE SPECIALIZATION
• - That hemisphere for language functions and analytic and
mathematical processes is called the categorical
hemisphere
• the other hemisphere, which is specialized with spatio-
temporal relations i.e. recognition of faces, identification of
objects by form, understanding, and interpretation of
music, is called the representational hemisphere.
• In righted handed individuals the categorical hemisphere is
the left hemisphere. In 95% of people the categorical
hemisphere is the left hemisphere.