data presentation

1. Data Collection
Methods

2.  Methods of data collection:
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Observations
 Physiological and psychological measures

3.  Questionnaires:
 Is a paper and pencil, self report
instrument
 Purposes: to measure knowledge levels,
opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings,
and perceptions and factual information
about respondents

4. A questionnaire in influenced by:
 The overall appearance
 Language and reading level of
questions
 Length of questionnaire and
questions

5. Advantages/disadvantages of
questionnaires
Disadvantages
Advantages
Mailing may be costly
Quick and inexpensive
May provide socially
acceptable answers
Less time consuming than
interviews and observation
Low response rate
Can obtain data from
geographically widespread
areas
May fail to respond to some
items
Easiest to test for reliability
and validity of instrument

6. Advantages/disadvantages of
questionnaires
No opportunity to clarify
misunderstood items
Anonymity of participants
Need literate respondents
Provide honest answers
because of its anonymity
Respondents must have no
physical disabilities
Respondents may not be
representative of
population

7.  Interviews:
 Face to face
 Telephone interview

8.  Types of interviews:
 Structured
 Unstructured
 Semi structured

9.  Influence of interviewers on
respondents:
 In face to face interviews, non
experimental research it is called
Rosenthal effect
 In experimental research it is
called experimental effect

10. Advantages/disadvantages of
interviews
Disadvantages
Advantages
Need training for interviewers
Reponses can be obtained
from a wide range of subjects
Time consuming and
expensive
Response rate is high
Need arrangement
Data obtained is usable
Respondents may produce
socially acceptable responses
Provide In-depth responses

11. Advantages/disadvantages of
interviews
Subjects may be anxious/
due to recording
Non verbal and verbal
mannerisms can be
observed
Subjects may be
influenced by
interviewers
characteristics
Interviewers may
misinterpret nonverbal
behavior

12.  Observation Methods:
 Gathering data through visual
observation
 Structured (Checklist) and
unstructured observations
 Interrater reliability

13.  Relationship between observer and
subjects:
 Non participant observer- overt
 Non participant observer- covert
 Participant observer- overt
 Participant observer- covert

14.  Physiologic measures: collection of
physical data from subjects
 They are more objective and accurate
 Example: measuring BP , ECG

15.  Attitude scales: Self report data collection
instruments that ask respondents to report
their attitudes or feelings on a continuum
 Types:
 Likert scale: SD D U A SA
 Semantic: Friendly ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
unfriendly

16. Psychological tests: personality
inventories

17.  Visual Analog Scale: A straight line
that represent extremes of a
phenomenon
 Pain
0-------------------------------------100mm
Can be a horizontal or vertical line

18.  Pre existing data; Using data that is
available and that has not been
collected for research purposes,
patients’ records

19.  attitude scales
 Self-report data collection instruments
that ask respondents to report their
attitudes or feelings on a continuum.
 close-ended questions
 Questions that require respondents to
choose from given alternatives.
 contingency questions
 Questions that are relevant for some
respondents and not for others.

20.  Delphi technique
 A data collection method that uses several
rounds of questions to seek a consensus on a
particular topic from a group of experts on the
topic.
 demographic questions
 Questions that gather data on characteristics of
the subjects (see demographic variables).
 demographic variables
 Subject characteristics such as age,
educational levels, and marital status.
 double-barreled questions
 Questions that ask two questions in one.

21.  Likert scale
 An attitude scale named after its developer,
Rensis Likert. These scales usually contain five
or seven responses for each item, ranging from
"strongly agree" to "strongly disagree."
 nonparticipant observer-covert
 Research observer does not identify herself or
himself to the subjects who are being
observed.
 nonparticipant observer-overt
 Research observer openly identifies that she or
he is conducting research and provides
subjects with information about the type of data
that will be collected.

22.  observation research
 A data-collection method in which data are
collected through visual observations.
 open-ended questions
 Questions that allow respondents to answer in their
own words.
 participant observer-covert
 Research observer interacts with subjects and
observes their behavior without their knowledge.
 participant observer-overt
 Research observer interacts with subjects openly
and with the full awareness of those people who
will be observed.

23.  personality inventories
 Self-report measures used to assess the
differences in personality traits, needs, or values of
people.
 preexisting data
 Existing information that has not been collected
for research purposes.
 probes
 Prompting questions that encourage the
respondent to elaborate on the topic that is
being discussed.


24.  Projective technique
 Self-report measure in which a subject is asked
to respond to stimuli that are designed to be
ambiguous or to have no definite meaning. The
responses reflect the internal feelings of the
subject that are projected on the external
stimuli.
 Q-sort (Q methodology)
 A data-collection method in which subjects are
asked to sort statements into categories
according to their attitudes toward, or rating of,
the statements.

25.  questionnaire
 A paper-and-pencil, self-report instrument
used to gather data from subjects.
 semantic differential
 Attitude scale that asks subjects to
indicate their position or attitude about
some concept along a continuum between
two adjectives or phrases that are
presented in relation to the concept that is
being measured.

26.  semi structured interviews
 Interviewers ask a certain number of
specific questions, but additional
questions or probes are used at the
discretion of the interviewer.
 structured interviews
 Interviewers ask the same questions in
the same manner of all respondents.
 structured observations
 The researcher makes the determination
of behaviors to be observed before data
collection. Usually some kind of checklist
is used to record behaviors.

27.  telephone interviews
 Data are collected from subjects through
the use of phone calls rather than in face-
to-face encounters.
 unstructured interviews
 The interviewer is given a great deal of
freedom to direct the course of the
interview; the interviewer's main goal is
to encourage the respondent to talk freely
about the topic that is being explored.

28.  unstructured observations
 The researcher describes behaviors as they are
viewed, with no preconceived ideas of what will
be seen.
 visual analogue scale
 Subjects are presented with a straight line that
is anchored on each end with words or phrases
that represent the extremes of some
phenomenon, such as pain. Subjects are asked
to make a mark on the line at the point that
corresponds to their experience of the
phenomenon.