PRACTICAL MANUAL OF VEGETABLE SCIENCE

1. PRACTICAL MANUAL OF VEGETABLE SCIENCE
1. IDENTIFICATION OF VEGETABLE SEEDS
-Pavan kumar naik
Objective
● To impart knowledge of prominent characteristics to identify seeds of vegetable crops.
Introduction: It is important for them to identify the seeds of different vegetable crops. There
are many crops with great similarity in their seed characters e.g. cole crops. For identification
of seeds, the morphological characters such as shape, size, colour, glossiness etc are the
parameters to be taken into consideration. Therefore, knowledge of specific seed characters is
essential. Perfection in identification can be attained by practice, interest and keen
observation. Some of the morphological characters which are useful in identification of seeds
are as under.
Seed coat: The testa or outer covering of the seed is known as seed coat which may be hard,
thick, thin, papery or brittle and is developed from the integuments of the ovule.
Size: Seeds are identified as small, medium, or large (big or bold) e.g. seeds of cole crops are
small and that of okra are medium sized whereas French bean and pea has bold or large
seeds.
Shape: The shape of different seeds varies to a great extent. The shape may be spherical,
oval, elliptical, rod like, flat, elongated, disc like, kidney shaped etc. This is a very important
character in identification.
Surface: The surface of the seed may vary from smooth and glossy to dull or rough. There
may be some wrinkles, reticulate markings, coloured spots etc. The surface may also be
covered with some out growths in the form of spines, hooks etc. Presence of such marks on
the surface makes the identification easy.
Colour: All parts of the spectrum may be represented in the colour of the seeds. The seed
may be uniform in colour or may be mottled, streaked or spotted. The colour may be white,
brown, dark brown, reddish brown, cream, amber, purple, yellow, tan, green, purple, black,
brightly coloured or dull.
Hilum: It is a scar like structure where the seed breaks off from the funicle. Funicle is a short
stalk which attaches the seed to the pod. In legume vegetables, it may be small, circular,
oblong, cleft or wedge shaped. It is prominently visible in pea and bean seeds.
Some important morphological characteristics of seeds of different vegetable crops
1. Solanaceous vegetables:
a) Tomato: Seeds of tomato are yellowish in colour, flat and kidney shaped. Round with
wavy flat body.

2. b) Brinjal: Seeds are small flattened pale brown, kidney shape with leathery seed coat.
c) Peppers: A rounded, flat, wavy seed that is paper thin, light vanilla coloured.
2. Cole vegetables:
a) Cauliflower: Seeds are small, round, rose-coloured and very hard.
b) Cabbage: Seeds are brown to deep red or black that are small and round in shape. There is
a small dent down the entire seed.
c) Broccoli: Perfectly round, hard and dark brown to reddish in colour.
Cucurbits:
a) Cucumber: Seeds of cucumber are whitish to pale tan in colour, long skinny flat in shape
with smooth outer surface and tapering at both the ends.
b) Bitter gourd: Seeds of bitter gourd are golden brown in colour, flat in shape and has
indents on the surface, one end has pointed edge and the other end is flat.
c) Bottle gourd: A long seed (7-20 mm), compressed with two flat facial ridges rather
irregular and rugose/wrinkled.
d) Muskmelon: A long skinny seed (5 mm long), covered with a sticky gelatinous coating
with a smooth light brown skin.
e) Pumpkin: A large seed with flat body, larger than a squash seed but otherwise very similar,
uniform tan coloured.
f) Watermelon: A long skinny seed with a shinning black coat.
g) Su mmer squash: Seeds are large with flat body with distinct edges. Uniform light tan in
colour with yellowish opening.
4. Root vegetables:
a) Carrot: A very fragrant seed, small and thin, have rough skin, light brown in colour.
Mature seeds have one side flattened with five longitudinal ribs bearing bristly hair. The hairs
are usually removed by abrasion during milling and cleaning.
b) Radish: The seeds are oval-shaped, slightly flattened, and reddish brown.
c) Turnip: Seeds are round in shape, blackish or reddish-brown in colour, 1.5–2 mm in
diameter.
5. Onion: Small and very black in colour, embryo is endospermic, and crescent shaped.
6. Leafy vegetables:

3. a) Amaranthus: Seeds of amaranth are very small (1-1.5 mm in diameter), spherical,
lenticular, shiny, white, yellow, golden red, pink or black depending upon the variety of the
plant.
b) Fenugreek: Seeds are brownish in colour, small and stony, oblong, rhomboidal, with a
deep furrow dividing them into two unequal lobes. Fenugreek seeds have a strong aroma and
bitter taste.
c) Spinach: Seeds are straw colored. Seed shape varies from round, smooth to prickly,
pointed.
7. Legumes:
a) Garden pea: Seeds of garden pea are dicotyledonous. They are greenish, whitish or
yellowish in colour depending upon the variety. They may be round, dimpled and wrinkled in
shape.
b) French bean: Seeds are more or less kidney shaped, elongated or nearly globular or
somewhat compressed; white, brown, red, purple blackish or mottled in appearance.
c) Cowpea: Seeds are variable in size and shape, square to oblong and variously coloured,
including white, brown, maroon, cream and green.
d) Guar or cluster bean: Mature seeds are white or grey.
8. Okra: Spherical or ovoid seeds bearing minute warts in concentric rows.
9. Lettuce: Small seed with a pungent odour, long and very thin with a uniform blackish
colour.

4. 2. PREPARING VEGETABLE NURSERY BEDS
Objective
Preparation of nursery bed by following scientific techniques to raise quality and disease free
vegetable seedlings.
Introduction:
As we know that seed propagating
vegetable crops are either directly sown
in the field or transplanted in the field by
raising the seedlings in the nursery beds.
A nursery could be considered as a
location where plants are cared for during
the early stages of growth by providing
optimum conditions for germination and
subsequent growth until they become
strong enough for planting in the open
field conditions. The seeds of
solanaceous vegetables, cole crops, onion etc. are first sown in the nursery.
Factors to be taken into consideration for raising nursery
Location of the nursery:
●Nursery should be situated near the main field for transplanting
● Nursery area should receive sunlight right from morning till evening i.e. south-west aspect
is most suitable as this aspect is very sunny.
● Area must be free from water stagnation i.e. proper drainage must be provided.
● Well protected from stray animals and strong winds.
● The area should be near the water source for continuous supply of good quality water
Soil
● Soil should have good organic matter.
● Soil texture should be neither too coarse nor too fine.
● Soil should be sufficiently porous and adequately aerated.
● It should have a fair degree of water holding capacity.
● Soil pH of nursery bed should be in the range of 6 to 7.
● Acidic and alkaline soils are not suitable for raising nursery rather, neutral soils are
suitable.
● Soil should normally be rich in all essential nutrient elements. Preferably soil testing of
nursery area should be done so as to mix additional nutrients accordingly for improving its
soil fertility status.

5. Procedure
Nursery bed preparation:
● The soil of the nursery area should be fine and
fertile with good water holding capacity. For the
preparation of beds, the field should be ploughed and
levelled well. Soil should be worked to obtain a fine
textured soil free of clods and debris.
● Prepare raised beds to facilitate proper drainage of
excess water. The level of the bed surface is also
made little slanting on the two sides.
● The length of nursery bed should be 3-5 m but it can be increased or decreased according to
the availability of land and requirement of plants but the breadth of the beds should not be
more than 1-1.2 m and the beds should be 15-20 cm raised from the ground surface.
● The standard size of nursery bed is 3m × 1m × 15 cm.
● A space of 20 - 25 cm should be left between two beds. This space can be utilized to
perform intercultural operations such as weeding, disease and insect-pest management and
also for draining out the excess rain water from the nursery beds.
● Add 20-25 kg well rotten farmyard manure in each standard size nursery bed along with
200g single super phosphate and 15-20 g each of fungicides and insecticides such as
mancozeb and dusts like methyl parathion.
● The number of nursery beds depends on the particular crop, season and growing area of
crop for transplanting.
● The beds should be prepared in the east and west direction and lines/rows for sowing of
seeds should be made from north to south direction on the beds.

6. 3. RAISING VEGETABLE SEEDLINGS IN NURSERY BED AND PROTRAYS
Objective:
● Sowing of seeds in nursery beds and after care for raising quality and disease free vegetable
seedlings.
Introduction
With awareness among people regarding
benefits of eating vegetables, the consumption
of vegetables has increased manifold, and thus
the demand for quality seed and seedlings has
increased manifold throughout the country in the
recent past to produce quality vegetables.
Availability of quality nursery has great scope
for enhancing the production and profitability of
vegetable crops in the country as non-
availability of quality planting material lead to
complete failure, reduction in the quality of
vegetable produce, low yield, fluctuations in production etc. Nursery management is a
technical and skill oriented job which require proper attention at different stages for the
production of quality seedlings. It needs lot of planning, expertise and efficient management.
Errors done during raising a nursery cannot be rectified at later stages which also reduce the
returns along with wastage of time and energy. Therefore, technical knowledge and careful
planning are prerequisite to raise seedlings of vegetable crops.
Procedure:
Seed Sowing
● Treat the seed with fungicides like bavistin or thiram or captan @ 3g/kg of seed to check
the infection of soil borne diseases.
● Make rows at a spacing of 5 cm.
● Sow the seeds at 1 cm depth. The general rule for sowing depth is 2-3 times of the
thickness of seed.
● Mix a little of sand in the seed for uniform distribution in the rows and cover it with soil or
farmyard manure.
● Avoid broadcasting seeds in the nursery-bed. Thick sowing or sowing with broad casting
also leads to increase in the incidence of damping off disease.
● If seeds are sown too deep nutrient reserves will be exhausted before the plant emerges or
emerging plants will be weak or liable to die. If sown too shallow then it is likely to be eaten
by birds or washed away by the splash of rains or irrigation water.

7. Application of mulch
● After sowing, cover the seed bed with a layer of dry grass.
● Apply water over the grass so that seed do not come up on the surface of the bed.
● Mulching maintains the soil moisture and temperature for seed germination.
● It protects the growing seeds/seedlings from direct sunlight and raindrops.
● It protects seeds against bird damage.
Removal of mulch
● Due attention is given to remove the covered mulch from the seedbed.
● After three days of sowing, observe the seed beds daily.
● As and when the white thread like structure is seen above the ground, remove the mulch
carefully to avoid any damage to emerging plumules.
● Always remove mulch in the evening hours to avoid harmful effect of bright sun on newly
emerging seedlings.
Protecting young seedlings from extreme weather conditions
● After seed germination during the
seedling growth, if there is very high
temperature (> 30° C), cover the
nursery bed with 50% or 60% shedding
nets (green or green + black coloured)
about 60 - 90 cm above ground by
providing suitable support.
● During winter season, cover the
nursery bed over night with polythene
sheet about 60-90 cm above ground by
providing suitable support. Remove the sheet in the morning before the temperature rises.
This technique protects young seedlings from severe winter frost or low temperature injury.
Vegetable seedlings or raised bed.
● During rainy season also, cover the nursery bed with polysheet by providing proper
support.
Application of water
● The nursery beds require light irrigation with the help of rose can till the seeds germinate.
• During summers, irrigate the beds twice, once in the morning and once in the evening.

8. ● During winters, irrigation once in a day is sufficient.
● Keep beds moist but not wet otherwise “damping-off of seedling” may appear.
● Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be drained out from the nursery bed otherwise
plants may die due to excess of water.
● Watering in the beds depends upon the weather condition. If temperature is high, irrigation
is applied whereas irrigation is not needed during rainy days.
Thinning
● It is an important operation to remove weak, unhealthy, diseased, insect-pest damaged and
densely growing plants from the nursery beds keeping distance of about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from
plant to plant.
● The thinning facilitates balanced light and air to each and every plant. It also helps in
monitoring the disease and insect pest infestation.
Interculture and weed management
● Timely weeding in nursery is very important to get healthy seedlings. If there are some
weeds in the seed bed, remove them manually either by hand or by hand hoe (thin forked
khurpi).
● Pre emergence herbicides can also be sprayed soon after seed sowing to control the weeds.
Stomp @ 3 Vegetable seedlings in plastic tunnel 39ml/litre of water should be sprayed on the
nursery beds after the seed sowing and covering with mixture of farmyard manure, soil and
sand.
● For good quality seedlings, spray urea @ 0.3 per cent when the plants are 8-10 cm tall.
Pest management
● Adoption of plant protection measures in the nursery against the incidence of insect pest
and diseases is very important task to get the healthy seedlings.
● Damping off is a very serious disease affecting seedlings in the nursery. Timely care for
controlling diseases and insect-pests is essential.
● Treat the seed with bavistin or thiram or captan @ 2.5g per kg of seed.
● If the disease appears after the seed emergence, drench the nursery beds with 0.1% solution
of brassicol or 0.7% captan or thiram after germination.
● It will be better to remove and dispose off the affected seedlings from the beds to avoid
further spread of pests and diseases.
Hardening of seedlings in the nursery

9. ● Withhold irrigation in the nursery beds 4-5 days before the date of transplanting but on the
day of transplanting, first apply water to the nursery beds and then take out the plants for
transplanting.
● Hardening should be gradual to prevent or check the growth.
● Warm season crops like tomato, brinjal and chillies cannot withstand favour severe
hardening.
● Hardened plants withstand unfavourable weather conditions like hot day winds or low
temperature more efficiently than non-hardened seedlings.
Transplanting
● After 4-6 weeks of sowing, the plants
become 10-15 cm tall and are ready for
transplanting. Hardening of seedling
● Select healthy plants for transplanting and
always transplant in the afternoon.
● Before transplanting, the seedlings should
be dipped in a solution of 0.25 per cent
mancozeb and 0.05 per cent carbendazim.
● Fix the plants well in the open field and
water them daily till they establish well.
Important attributes of quality planting material:
● Nursery plants should be true to type and should be raised from healthy, disease free and
quality seed procured from a reliable source.
● Nursery seedlings should attain an appropriate height of 12-15 cm which is most suitable
for transplanting with minimum mortality rate.
● Nursery plants should be healthy and free from diseases and insect-pests (thoroughly check
the lower side of leaves).
● Before uprooting the seedlings, it is essential to ensure that the seedlings have been
properly hardened
● Root system of nursery seedlings should be well developed and there should be no damage
while uprooting the plants from nursery. So, apply irrigation 2-3 hours before uprooting the
seedlings.
● Rigorous inspection of nursery plants before sale to ensure the supply of only healthy and
disease free plants to the growers.
Selection of planting material

10. While selecting quality planting material, the following points should be taken into
consideration:
● An easy technique to identify the best quality planting material is that a particular variety
has distinct uniform leaf characteristics. Any variation observed among the seedlings can be
adjudged as off-type or poor quality planting material. Always discard such material.
● Select healthy, stocky and medium-sized seedlings with vigorous root system. The material
should be free from insect-pests and diseases and should never be over aged.
● After uprooting the seedlings, provide soil ball to cover the roots and wrap it with any
material like polythene or net to keep the soil ball intact. Keep soil ball moist by sprinkling
water on it.
● Keep plants in containers in a way that the plant and root system remains intact.
Packaging:
● Packaging should be strong enough to withstand handling and shipment.
● Planting material normally should be packaged in a filling compound, in a manner to
minimize desiccation, movement, and damage during transport, and to allow adequate
ventilation.
● Seedlings should not be enclosed in airtight containers.
Transportation
● Generally, healthy seedlings should be transported.
● It should be the consignor's responsibility to ensure that adequate advance arrangements are
made to care for the seedlings until the consignee takes them into his charge.
● All possible precautions should be taken in advance to ensure that shipment containers are
not exposed to desiccating conditions, and that they are not left exposed to the sun, extreme
heat, or freezing conditions (temperatures).
● Plants should be stored in such a manner that they have adequate ventilation.
● The estimated time of arrival of the plant specimen should be notified in advance to the
consignee.

11. 4. METHODS OF SOWING
Sowing or seeding is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in
the field. A perfect seeding gives correct amount of seed per unit area, correct depth at
which seed is placed in the soil and correct spacing between row-to-row and plant to
plant.
Methods of sowing
There are different methods of sowing such as Broadcasting, Dibbling, Drilling, Seed
dropping behind the plough, Transplanting, Hill dropping and Check row planting.
i)Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the process of
random scattering of seed on the
surface of seedbeds.
It can be done manually or
mechanically both. When
broadcasting is done manually,
uniformity of seed depends upon
skill of the man.
Soon after broadcasting the seeds are covered by planking or some other
devices.
Usually higher seed rate is obtained in this system. Mechanical broadcasters are
used for large-scale work.
This machine scatters the seeds on the surface of the seedbed at controlled rates.
ii)Dibbling
Dibbling is the process of placing seeds
in holes made in seedbed and covering
them.
In this method, seeds are placed in holes
made at definite depth at fixed spacing.
The equipment used for dibbling is
called dibbler. It is a conical instrument
used to make proper holes in the field.
Small hand dibblers are made with
several conical projections made in a
frame.
This is very time consuming process, so it is not suitable for small seeds.
Mostly vegetables are sown in this way.

12. iii)Drilling
Drilling consists of dropping the seeds in furrow
lines in a continuous flow and covering them
with soil.
Seed metering may be done either manually or
mechanically. The number of rows planted may
be one or more.
This method is very helpful in achieving proper
depth, proper spacing and proper amount of
seed to be sown in the field.
Drilling can be done by
(1) Sowing behind the plough
(2) Bullock drawn seed drills
(3) Tractor drawn seed drills.
iv)Seed dropping behind the plough
It is very common method used in villages. It is used for seed like maize, gram,
peas, wheat and barley.
A man drops seeds in the furrow behind the plough. Sowing behind
the plough can be done by a device known as malobansa.
It consists of a bamboo tube provided with a funnel shaped mouth. One man
drops the seeds through the funnel and other man handles the plough and the
bullocks.
This is a slow and laborious method.
v)Transplanting
Transplanting consists of
preparing seedlings in nursery
and then planting these
seedlings in the prepared field.
It is commonly done for
vegetable and flowers. It is very
time consuming operation.
Equipment for placing plants in the soil is called transplanter.

13. vi)Hilldropping
In this method, seeds are dropped at fixed spacing and not in a continuous
stream.
Thus the spacing between plant to plant in a row is constant.
In case of drills, the seeds are dropped in continuous stream and the spacing
between plant to plant in a row is not constant.
vii)Checkrowplanting
It is a method of planting, in which row-
to-row and plant-to-plant distance is
uniform.
In this method, seeds are planted
precisely along straight parallel furrows.
The rows are always in two
perpendicular directions.
A machine used for check row planting is called check row planter.

14. 5. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION – TOMATO
Origin
Tomato is originated in Peru of South America.
Botany
Tomato is a true diploid with 2n=24. Plant is annual with herbaceous prostrate stem having
determinate or indeterminate growth habit. In the determinate growth, terminal bud ends in a
floral bud and further growth in arrested resulting in dwarf and bushy stature. In
indeterminate growth, terminal bud is a leafy bud and terminal and lateral buds continue to
grow and there are less production of flowers and fruits on mains tem. Flowers are borne in
racemose cyme and flower cluster is known as „truss‟ ands its position is extra axillary.
Flowers are hermaphrodite, pendulous, pentamerous and hypogenous. Stamens are six in
number and inserted on throat of corolla tube and anthers are convent around style.

15. Varieties
Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka Alok.
Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Uphar, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadhabahar.
Climate
Tomato is a day neutral warm season crop, which cannot tolerate frost. Cool and dry weather
is preferred by the crop and optimum temperature is 21-28o C during day and 15-20o C
during night.
Based on night temperature requirement for fruit set, tomato varieties are classified into three.
a) Normal set varieties: Set fruits at 15-20o C.
b) Hot set varieties: Set fruits above 20o C – eg : Philipine, Punjab Tropic, Pusa hybrid 1.
c) Cold set varieties: Set fruits below 15o C – eg : Pusa Sheetal, Avilanche.
Sowing time and seed rate

16. Under mild climatic conditions, where there is no danger of frost, three crops can be raised in
a year. In the hills, seeds are usually sown in March-April. In plains is grown during June to
November.
Seed rate
Open pollinated variety: 400-500 g / ha
Indeterminate F2 hybrid: 125-175 g / ha
Main field preparation and transplanting
Seedlings are transplanted on raised beds or on sides of ridges. Field is ploughed 4-5 times
and raised beds of 80-90 cm width or ridges and furrows are prepared. Spacing depends on
the growth habit (determinate, indeterminate or semi determinate) of variety and various
spacing followed are 60 x 30-45cm, 75 x 60cm and 75 x 75 cm. Usually closer spacing
results in early and higher yield, but it may effect size of fruits.
Manures and fertilizers
15-20 tonnes of FYM, 100-125 kg, N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 50-60 kg K2O are recommended
for one hectare. Recommendation for F1 hybrid is 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha.
Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is the most common method in tomato and the crop require adequate
moisture throughout growth period. Frequency of irrigation depends on the climatic and soil
conditions. During summer, crop should be irrigated at 3-4 days interval.
Inter-cultivation
Field should be kept weed free by frequent weeding, hoeing and earthing up. Application of
pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) as pre emergence spray along with one hand weeding at 45
DT is ideal for tomato variety Pusa Ruby. Oxyfluorfen (0.25 kg a.i. / ha) Goal (0.25 kg
a.i./ha) and Basalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) were also ideal as pre emergence application. Post
emergence spray of Sencor (0.5 kg a.i./ha) was also effective at the All India Coordinated
trials. Mulching with straw or plastic is also effective for weed control and for regulating soil
temperature.
Training and pruning
All indeterminate varieties are trained with wires, strings or stacks to prevent lodging and
loss of fruits by coming in contact with soil. It is done by providing individual stack or by
erecting 2-2.5 m long poles on either side of ridges for stretching G1 wire. Branches of plants
are supported on poles or strings with twine.

17. Pruning is also generally followed in indeterminate varieties to improve size, shape and
quality of fruits. It is removal of unwanted shoots to enhance vigor of plants.
Harvesting
Crop starts yielding by 70 days after planting. Usually fruits are harvested with hand by a
gentle twist so that the stalk is retained on plant. Intervals of harvests depend on season and it
is twice in a week during summer and weekly during winter and rainy days. Harvesting
maturity depends on the purpose whether for fresh market, processing, long distance transport
etc. Following maturity standards are recognized in tomato:
• Mature green: Fruits fully grown, fruit colour changes from green to yellowish and cavity
filled with seeds surrounded by gelly like substance. Harvested for long distance market.
• Turning or breaker stage: Fruits firm, 1/4th portion of fruit changes to pink in colour, but
the shoulder still yellowish green. Harvested for long distance market.
• Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit surface turns pink colour. Harvested for local market.
• Light red: Entire fruit surface is red or pink but the flesh is firm. Harvested for local
market.
• Red ripe or hand ripe: Fully ripened and coloured. Flesh becomes soft. Harvested for
processing and for seed extraction.
Yield
Open pollinated varieties : 20-25 t/ha.
F1 hybrids : 50 t/ha.
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION – BRINJAL
Origin
Brinjal is originated in Indo- Burma region (Vavliov, 1926).
Flower biology and pollination
Though reported as a self pollinated crop,
cross pollination to varying degree has been
reported in brinjal. Cross pollination is due to
its heteromorphic flower structure and is
mainly by honey bees and bumble bees.
Depending on length of style in relation to
position of anthers, four types of flowers –
heterostyly are available.

18. Long styled – stigma well above the anthers
Medium styled – stigma and anthers at same level
Short styled – style short
Pseudoshort styled – style rudimentary
Fruit set in long styled flowers ranges from 60 to 70% whereas in medium styled flowers it is
12.5 to 55.6%. Short styled and pseudoshort styled flowers act as male flowers and there is
no fruit.
Climate
Brinjal is warm season day neutral plant and is susceptible to severe frost. A long and warm
growing season with a temperature range of 21-270C is ideal for its production.
Soil
Brinjal is a hardy crop and is cultivated under a wide range of soils. Since a long duration
crop with high yield, well-drained and fertile soil is preferred for the crop. Crops grown in
sandy soils yield early and those grown in clayey soils yield more. Ideal pH for cultivation of
crop is 5.5-6.6.
Varieties
Local cultivars like Banaras Giant, Wayanad Giant, Mukthakeshi and Manjiri Gota are grown
in specific areas
Arka Kusumakar, Arka Sheel, Arka Neelkanth.
Pusa Kranti, Pusa Purple Cluster, Pusa purple long.
Season
In hills, brinjal is sown during March and transplanted during April. In,lains there are three
seasons for growing brinja.
Sowing
Seeds are sown in nursery bed and transplanted to main field after four weeks during summer
and after 7 to 8 weeks during winter, when it is 8 - 10 cm tall. Depending on growth of
varieties and seasons of cultivation, 300 to 3:500 g seeds are required for one hectare. Since
brinjal seedlings grow fast, sufficient care must be taken to sow seeds as thin or loose as
possible. Hardened seedlings withstand transplanting shock better and establish well in main
field.
Manures and fertilizers

19. 25 tonnes of FYM/ha may be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing.
7.6 kg N, 1.4 kg P and 17.3 kg K/ha are required to produce one tonnes of fruits.
Irrigation
Though brinjal cannot tolerate water logging, timely irrigation is essential especially for fruit
set and development. In plains, irrigation is required at every third or 4th day during summer
while in winter it should be at 10-15 days interval.
Intercultivation
It is essential to keep the field free of weeds especially at initial stages of crop growth and is
usually done by 2-3 light hoeing or earthing up. This facilitates better aeration to root system
and gives support to plants. Application of fluchloralin @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha as a preemergent
weedicide, applied one week after transplanting seedlings, followed by one hand weeding at
30 days after planting controls a broad spectrum of weeds. Use of black polythene mulches is
also efficient for suppression of weeds and for better growth of plants.
Harvesting
Brinjal fruits are harvested at immature stage after attaining full size, but before loosing its
glossy appearance. Dullness of fruit indicates over maturity. Usually fruits are harvested
along with its stalk with a slight twist by hand. In some varieties, a sharp knife is also used
for harvesting fruits along with fleshy calyx and a portion of fruit stalk. The harvested fruits
are Production Technology of Vegetables & Flowers www.AgriMoon.Com 60 graded and
packed in baskets or in loose gunny bags. Care should be taken to remove the fruits affected
by Phomopsis blight.
Yield
Early short duration varieties: 20-30 t/ha
Long duration varieties: 35-40 t/ha FI hybrids: 55-80 t/ha
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION – BHENDI
Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa.
Taxonomy and botany
Cultivated bhendi belonging to Malvaceae was earlier
placed under Hibiscus esculentus L. Since its calyx,
corolla and staminal column are fused together and
fall down at anthesis (caduceus), it was renamed as
Abelmoschus esculentus L. in Hibiscus, calyx is
persistent. Cultivated bhendi is an annual herb with
duration of 90-100 days. Flowers are bisexual and
often cross-pollinated. Time of anthesis is 8.00-10.00

20. a.m. Dehiscence of anthers occurs 15-20 minutes after anthesis and is completed in 5-10
minutes. Pollen fertility is maximum in the period between one hour before and after
opening of flower. It takes 2 to 6 Production Technology of Vegetables & Flowers
www.AgriMoon.Com 65 hours for fertilization after pollination. Stigma is receptive at
opening of flower and hence, bud pollination is not effective in okra. Fruit is a capsule.
Usually fibre development starts from fifth to sixth day.
Most of cultivated varieties are amphidiploids with 2n=130.
Varieties
Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika
Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani
Climate
Bhendi is a typical tropical or sub-tropical crop and cannot tolerate frost. Performance is also
adversely affected by drought, low night temperature and shade.
Similarly flowers drop when day temperature exceeds 42o C.
Soil
Okra prefers loose, well drained and rich soil. The ideal pH for growth of plants is 6-8.
Season
In areas where winter is mild, bhendi is grown throughout the year. Since it cannot tolerate
frost and low temperature, only two crops are taken in plains of North India.
Seed rate and spacing
During summer, vegetative growth is relatively less and seeds are sown at a closer spacing of
45 x 20 cm or even less. Seed rate required is 18-20 kg / ha.
During kharif - wider spacing of 60 x 30 cm for branching types and 45 x 30 cm for non-
branching types.
Land preparation and sowing
Field is ploughed thoroughly for 2-3 times for making soil to a fine tilth. Ridges and furrows
or raised beds are prepared and dibbling on sides of ridges or on raised beds sows seeds. Soak
seeds for 6-12 hours before sowing to enhance germination during summer.
Manuring and fertilizer application
Apply 20-25 t of farmyard manure as basal dose at the time of final ploughing. A dose of 150
kg each of N, P2O5 and K2O is recommended for Pusa Sawani in the coordinated trials.

21. Application of Fertilizers
Apply FYM 25 t/ha, N 20 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal and 20 kg N/ha 30 days after
sowing. Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha mixed in 100 kg of FYM
before sowing.
Irrigation
Water stress at flowering and fruiting stages will drastically influence growth of plants, size
of fruits and yield. Immediately after sowing, field is irrigated.
Interculture
Weed growth should be under control till crop canopy covers fully. This is achieved by
frequent hoeing, weeding and earthing up. Used of weedicides like Lasso (2 kg a.i./ha) or
fluchloralin (1.5 kg/ha) or Metolachlor (1.0 kg a.i./ha) and one hand weeding at 45 days after
sowing was very effective and financially viable under the All India Co-coordinated trials.
Harvesting and yield
Harvest fruits when they attain maximum size but still tender. Fruits of 6-8 cm long are
preferred for export purposes. This is usually attained by 5-6 days after opening of flower.
Harvesting is done in alternate days with a knife or by bending pedicel with a jerk. For
harvesting, cotton cloth hand gloves should be used to protect fingers from stinging effect. It
is advisable to harvest in morning hours since fruit hairs will be soft. Sprinkling water on
pods during night will keep them cool and fresh for market.
Yield
6.0 – 8.0 t / ha for spring-summer crop
10 – 12.5 t / ha for kharif crop.

22. 6. Weed management in vegetables
SEED BEDS
Many vegetables are grown in seed beds to develop suitable seedlings for transplanting in the
field. Soils dedicated to seed beds are usually light, with good tilth, and fertilized to obtain a
good plant emergence.
Stale seed beds
Stale („false‟) seed beds are sometimes used for vegetables when other selective weed-control
practices are limited or unavailable. Success depends on controlling the first flush of emerged
weeds before crop emergence, and on minimal disturbance, which reduces subsequent weed
flushes. Basically, this technique consists of the following:
1. Preparation of a seedbed 2-3 weeks before planting to achieve maximum weed-seed
germination near the soil surface.
2. Planting the crop with minimum soil disturbance to avoid exposing new weed seed to
favourable germination conditions.
3. Treating the field with a non-residual herbicide to kill all germinated weeds (William et
al. 2000) just before or after planting, but before crop emergence.
Solarization
It is an effective method for the control of soil-borne diseases and pests that can control also
many weeds.
The soil must be clean, surface-levelled and wet, previously to being covered with a thin (0,1-
0,2 mm) transparent plastic and very well sealed. The soil must be kept covered during the
warmer and sunnier months (30-45 days). Soil temperatures must reach above 40° C to exert
a good effect on various soil-borne pests, including weed seeds
Some species can tolerate solarization (e.g. deep rooted perennials: Sorghum halepense,
Cyperus rotundus, Equisetum spp. and also some big weed seeds such as legumes).
Chemical control in seed beds
There are even less registered herbicides for seed beds than for planting crops.
Some of the recommended herbicides are

23. Selective pre-emergence and early post-emergence herbicides for vegetable seedbeds.
a) Pre-emergence
Herbicide Dose (kg a.i./ ha) Crop
Clomazone 0.18 - 0.27 Pepper, cucumber
DCPA 6.0 - 7.5 Onion, cole crops, lettuce
Metribuzin 0.15 - 0.5 Tomato
Napropamide 1.0 - 2.0 Tomato, pepper, eggplant
Pendimethalin Proanide 1.0 - 1.6 1.0 - 2.5 Onion, garlic Lettuce
Propachlor 5.2 - 6.5 Onion, cole crops
b) Post-emergence (crops with at least 3 leaves)
Clomazone 0.27 -0.36 Pepper
Ioxinil 0.36 Onion, garlic, leek
Linuron 0.5 - 1.0 Asparagus, carrots
Metribuzin 0.075 - 0.150 Tomato
Oxifluorfen 0.18 - 0.24 Onion, garlic
Rimsulfuron 0.0075 -0.015 Tomato

24. 7. Pest And Disease Management
Pest management:
1. Biologival control – Eradication and suppression of insects by their natural enemies such
as parasites, predators and disease causing organisms.
Diamond backmoth is controlled successfully by spore farming bacteria Bacillus
thuringiensis and virus Bergoldia virulenta.
2. Mechanical control – use of manual labour and mechanical devices. This method includes
collection and destruction of pests by erecting mechanical barrier or trap followed by
destroying the trapped insects mechanically.
Mechanically control is achieved by:
Hand picking of pests and destruction – Citrus butterfly and Epilachna beetles damaging
solanaceous and cucurbitaceous vegetables.
Collection of infested plant parts and destruction – shoot and trunk borers, fruit flies etc.
can be destroyed by this method.
Banding of fruit trees – this method is useful in controlling mango mealy bug. Polythene
band is applied on stem to avoid climbing of the insect on the tree.
3. Physical control – This method utilizes physical factors for controlling insects-pests.
Heat – high and low heat of sun is used to control pestd. This technique is especially useful
in controlling pests under storage. At 54 – 65 degree Celsius temperature, the insect can be
minimised.
Moisture – High humidity favours the attack of the pests. If the moisture content of stored
product is reduced to 10%, the normal activity of most of the storage pests is reduced.
Light - light directly does not kill insects, the change in the behaviour of insects is exploited
and the insects are attracted towards light trap.
4. Cultural control - it is very simple method to control, pests through chemicals.
Selection of seeds –treating the seed helps in getting rid of seed borne pathogens.
Tillage operation – tillage operations besides opening the soil for sowing of seeds, also helps
in damaging soil dwelling pests. Summer ploughing.
Time and method of sowing/transplanting
Plant density
Manuring and fertilization
Harvesting

25. Crop rotation
5. Chemical control – by using various chemicals that bring about control of pets either by
toxic properties or by other effects like changing the behaviour, imparting sterility or causing
metabolic disorder to the pest.the chemical used to control pests are called insecticides.
Chloropyriphos, Diazinon, Dichlorovos, Dimethoate, Demeton, Malathion, Monocrotophos,
Phorate.
Disease Management:
Escape from the pathogen
Preventing entry of inoculum
Eradication
Biological control
Chemical control – Thiram, Ziram, Ferbam, Bordeaux mixture, glyotin, capton.

26. 8. IRRIGATION
Artificial application of water to plants for growth and development.
Methods
Check-basin method
In this system in between 2 rows of trees, an
irrigation channel is prepared. The channel is then
joined through square or rectangular shapes beds.
The beds contain more than one tree.
Furrow method
This system is practised in newly planted orchards.
Taking the plants in the centre, an irrigation
channel of 20 cm depth and 60 cm width is prepared. There is water saving in this system, as
only limited area is wetted.
Ring basin method
A circular ring in the periphery of the plant is
prepared to irrigate the plants. While preparing,
care is taken that ring is prepared away from
tree trunk towards outer periphery of the tree.
The water flows through central channel and
move ahead naturally after flooding 2 ring
basins at a time. This is very suitable method of
irrigating grown up trees in the orchards.
Flood system
Simple and easiest method to practise. The
water allowed for irrigation without making
any beds, basins or any other configuration as

27. in other methods. The water floods the entire field.
Pitcher system
This system is especially a boon in arid regions in view of
limited water supply. The pitcher filled with water is
buried in the periphery of individual tree where feeding
roots are confined. The water is released slowly and
slowly with the micropores available in the wall of
pitcher.
Drip irrigation system
This is a system of irrigation which
supplies water to the plants equivalent
to its consumptive use. This is highly
water use efficient system of irrigation
having very less irrigation water
requirement.