This document discusses key aspects of learning design and theories of learning. It covers: 1. An introduction to learning design, copyrights, motivation theories, instructional design, and economics of learning design. 2. Why learning objects are created, which is to fill educational needs when existing learning objects are unsuitable. Common barriers to creating learning objects include lack of technical skills, pedagogical issues, copyright problems, workload, and determining appropriate scope. 3. For learning objects to be effective, they must be relevant, usable, culturally appropriate, supported by infrastructure, accessible through multiple means, and appropriately sized relative to delivery method and learner access. Design considerations like motivation theories, aligning activities to outcomes

1. First Floor
Learning Design
& Theories of Learning
1

2. Structure
• Introduction to learning design
• Copyrights
• Motivation Theories
• Instructional Design
• Economics of Learning Design

3. Why do we create DLOs?
• Created by:
– Faculty, technology support staff, instructional designers,
and other professionals
• That have an educational goal in mind but cannot find
an existing learning object that suits their needs
– Few objects on the topic,
– Poor quality ones, or
– Do not mesh with a professor’s teaching style
• If the educational goal is compelling enough, and a
person is prepared to put in the time and effort, he or
she may decide to create a new learning object.

4. What stands in the way?
• Lack of technical experience
• Incorporating effective pedagogy into the
learning object
– Although it seems obvious that learning should
occur when a student uses a learning object, that
is not always the case
• Intellectual property and copyright issues
– The problems get more complicated as more
materials, or assets, are incorporated into a
learning object

5. What stands in the way?
• Author workload
– Creating a high-quality learning object is a serious
undertaking, requiring time to plan the project
• Scope
– It can be difficult to decide how much content to
include in a single learning object, but the
decision will have a major impact on the results.

6. Usability of Learning Objects (1/4)
• Relevance: For a digital object to be effective
in an online course, it must be relevant to the
course content, and must materially
contribute to the achievement of outcomes
• Usability: The digital object should be usable
in the platform or delivery system in use, and
it must be accessible by the users

7. Usability of Learning Objects (2/4)
• Cultural appropriateness: The digital object
should be appropriate culturally, and the
meanings that it communicates within a cultural
context should reinforce learning objectives
• Infrastructure support: Objects, whether large
or small, simple or complex, should be housed
and delivered on a system that is sufficiently
robust to handle surges in traffic, bandwidth
usage, and storage of large files

8. Usability of Learning Objects (3/4)
• Redundancy of access: It is important to make
digital objects accessible through more than one
means of delivery
• Size of object: Large objects are sometimes
unusable if the users are distributed in remote
location where access is poor and/or slow.
Optimizing the size of the object, particularly
images and audio files is important

9. Usability of Learning Objects (4/4)
• Relation to the infrastructure / delivery: If
the object is easily integrated into the
learning management system, it is treated
differently than a large, complex object, that
might be run in conjunction with the learning
management system. It may be necessary to
modify the delivery system and/or rationale

10. Before you take the leap, ask…
• What educational problem are you trying to
solve?
• How do you envision your learning object
being used?
• What rights issues can you identify?
• What resources do you have available for
development?

11. Educational Problem
• Identify your learning goal – keep your focus to it!
– Is there a concept that is troublesome for learners using
traditional methods?
– Is it that you have supplemental resources you wish to
share, but don’t have time in class to show them all?
• Think about whether there is a clear advantage to
using your planned learning object to reach the
educational goal you have named.
– Can learners easily get an equivalent experience in some
other way?
• Ask yourself whether your solution is worth the time
and effort involved.

12. Envisaged Use (1/2)
• List the most common ways you envision
learners using it.
• Think of uncommon ways that your learning
object might be used.
• The activities described in the second list
begin to open up new possibilities for learner
interaction.
– You may come up with ideas in this second list
that you cannot implement due to restrictions

13. Envisaged Use (2/2)
• Check your lists against your written educational
goal; do the activities support the goal?
– Keep these lists in mind throughout the development
process
• Consider how your learning object will relate to
other existing learning objects and to other
educational materials you are aware of.
– The same is true for other companion materials that
are not digital learning objects
– When you publish your learning object, you might
suggest that it be used in company with the other
objects or materials you have identified

14. Copyrights (1/2)
• If you are using materials created by someone else in
your learning object, you must obtain permission and
provide correct attribution.
• Copyright clearance. Make sure you have copyright
clearance for each asset you use, and make sure that
clearance specifically covers use of the asset in a digital
learning object like the one you will create.
• Fair use. Fair use refers to a portion of copyright law
that deals with commentary, criticism and parody. Fair
use does not give unlimited license for use and
distribution even if the purpose is purely educational

15. Copyrights (2/2)
• Creative Commons. Creative Commons allows
authors and artists to select licenses for their
works that specify how they can be used
• “Open” & “closed” learning objects. Learning
object formats may be either open or closed with
regard to whether assets can be extracted
– Website (open) VS java simulation (closed)
• Your own rights issues. You should also consider
your own rights and those of the organization for
which you work

16. Available Resources
• Are you the sole developer, or do you have staff to assist
you?
• What technical experience do you and/or your staff have?
• What software is available to you for creating or digitizing
assets, and who knows how to use it?
• What software will you use to create your learning object?
• Do you have access to assets already digitized?
• Major obstacles to creating learning objects are:
– Lack of time;
– Lack of technical expertise

17. Motivation Theories
Relevant for e-Learning

18. Cognitive Evaluation
• Cognitive Evaluation plays an important role
in an individual’s belief about whether or not
he or she can succeed in a task. Before
engaging in a task, individuals analyze it in
order to determine whether or not they have
a high probability of success. If they predict
success, they are likely to embark on the task,
and are likely to be motivated to complete the
task (high persistence probability).

19. …for Learning Objects
• Learning objects should be developed with
the abilities and levels of the users in mind.
Mastering the tasks builds confidence and
increases self-concept. If not, the users /
learners will be frustrated and demotivated.

20. Consistency Theory
• Consistency Theory: Individuals become
demotivated when there is a lack of
consistency of behavior, values, and belief,
and that such a condition can result in
cognitive dissonance. Inconsistency in online
learning occurs when instructor behavior does
not align itself with expectations, or when the
learning objects do not function in a
predictable, practical way.

21. …for Learning Objects
• Making certain that the learning object uses
terminology and instructional strategies that
are consistent with those of the online course,
and that they are congruent with the texts
used is very important.

22. Goal-setting Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory: The key to achieving a
goal is to set one that has the following
attributes: attainable and accessible. In order
to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that
are: Clear (not vague) and understandable;
Challenging, to assure stimulation and avoid
boredom; and, Achievable, to minimize the
chance of failure.

23. …for Learning Objects
• Learning objects should be selected so that
they can be incorporated in the learner’s goal-
setting system. Learning object-driven
instructional activities should be clear and
easy to conceptualize, but also challenging
enough to maintain intellectual engagement.

24. Affiliation Needs
• Affiliation Needs: Power, affiliation, and
achievement are basic motivators. In an online
environment, affiliation needs are often
satisfied by means of an interactive discussion
board or chat area. Instant messaging also
often satisfies that need.

25. …for Learning Objects
• Any learning object that helps improve
collaboration and interactivity among learners
is likely to help a learner or user achieve
affiliation needs. Further, any learning object
that encourages learners to want to identify
with the identity of the institution, and to
improve self-concept through affiliation is also
likely to increase an individual’s sense of
power and achievement.

26. Self Actualization
• Self-Actualization: This approach is based on
Alderfer’s (1972) model of Existence,
Relatedness and Growth (ERG). All needs in
Alderfer’s equation hinge upon the notion of
selfconcept, and the basic core idea that
anything that helps an individual develop a
better sense of self will be motivating.

27. …for Learning Objects
• Reinforce notions that a learner might hold about
himself or herself, such as, “I am a successful student,”
or, “I accomplish tasks in a timely manner, and I do it
effectively.”
• Learning objects can help the learner self-actualize
with respect to the subject matter and skills included in
the learning activities of the distance-delivered course.
At the same time, they can help self-actualization in
terms of technology by helping gain a sense of mastery
in multiple modes: via personal computer-based online
programs, mobile learning, video game-based learning
programs, audio and video.

28. Instructional Design
8 pointers to creating high-quality
Digital Learning Objects

29. 1. Motivation Theories
• Keep motivation theories in mind when
selecting objects.
– If learning objects are selected without keeping in
mind certain theories about how humans are
motivated, or demotivated, the courses that
incorporate them are likely to be ineffective.

30. 2. Align outcomes & activities
• Align outcomes with instructional activities that
incorporate learning objects.
– Review how the object is intended to be used,
– How it is used in actual practice.
– Assess the learners to gain an appreciation of their
values, needs, and interests,
– Articulate how the learning objects are intended to be
used,
– How their use will affect outcomes
– Conduct a post-course review to see how the objects
were actually used and what kinds of outcomes were
achieved

31. 3. Technological Issues
• Resolve potential technological issues.
– What platform will be used?
– Will a learning management system be used?
– Will this be a live web-based course?
– What kinds of access will the students have?
– Will it be offered in CD-ROM format?
– Will you use PDAs or hand-held computers?
• These have to be considered because it is very
difficult to retrofit an object once it is
incorporated into a learning module

32. 4. Delivery Modes
• Maintain multiple delivery modes
– Online, blended, mobile, video game-based
simulation
– Design objects so that can be reused or easily
repurposed for the modes the learner will be
using, and for the actual conditions of delivery.
– A needs assessment is important for this

33. 5. User Needs & Capabilities
• Remember real user capabilities and needs
– Learning objects vary in size, use, and complexity.
– Some, require an extensive repertoire of skills,
and the ability to work within a number of plug-
ins.
– Others are static and very easy to use.
• Although these are easy to use and download, they
may not be appropriate if the learner is using a small
screen hand-held computer

34. 6. Culture
• Sociological Factors
– Understanding the cultural beliefs and values is
critical in developing an instructional strategy
– Understand the values and how one might
unintentionally offend a learner
– Understand cultural values in order to use objects
in a way to reinforce self concept and to motivate

35. 7. Psychology
• Psychological Factors
– Motivation, self-concept, self-efficacy, and basic
beliefs about how the mind makes meaning are very
important
– Understand how learning objects can make
connections between the learner’s experience and the
concepts presented in the course in order to achieve
learning goals
– Learning objects can enhance learner self-efficacy and
self-concept, as well as to improve learner self-
regulation in the quest for effective, flexible, and
adaptable learning strategies

36. 8. Disabilities
• Implement learning objects, particularly for
users with low vision, low hearing, or
cognitive needs

37. It’s all about design

38. It’s all about design
Design for
Learning
Design for
Interoperability
(metadata)
Design for the
Learner’s
experience
Design for
Accessibility
Design for
Reusability
Graphic
Design
Usability
Guidelines
Choosing a
Technology and
Development
Tools
Care and Feeding
of Your Learning
Objects

39. Economics of Learning Design

40. Cost of creating a course
• One example of a course that consumes:
– 30 days of a subject expert’s time,
– 7 days for an internet specialist
– Additional expenses for copyright review,
academic approval, and administration
*Bates, Anthony. Managing Technological Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2000.
pp.138, 144

41. Cost Analysis
Cost Category Cost per day Total
Subject Expert (30 days) $400 $12.000
Internet Specialist (7 days) $300 $2.100
Graphics and Interface Design (4 days) $300 $1.200
Copyright Clearance - $700
Total Direct Costs $16.000
Overheads/Indirect Costs (25%) $4.000
Faculty of Education Approval $4.000
TOTAL - $24.000

42. Assumptions
• Experienced course author
• HTML specialist
• No instructional design costs
• No development of any interactive media or
course specific Java programming

43. Delivery Costs?
Cost Category Cost per item Total
Subject Expert (30 days) $400 $12.000
Internet Specialist (7 days) $300 $2.100
Graphics and Interface Design (4 days) $300 $1.200
Copyright Clearance - $700
Total Direct Costs - $16.000
Overheads/Indirect Costs (25%) - $4.000
Faculty of Education Approval - $4.000
Library - $1.000
Server Costs - $300
Tutoring 40 students $220 $8.800
Registration $14 $640
Administration $28.86 $1.155
Printed material & postage - $1.500
TOTAL - $37.161

44. Economies of Scale
• The previous model is problematic cause:
– Courses are developed from scratch
– Delivered only to a minimum set of students

45. Discussion
• Develop a learning strategy which connects the
desired learner outcomes and content with
underlying theories
• In Learning Design, best practices that take into
learning theory and behavioral psychology,
including motivation, have a higher likelihood of
success
• It is important to assess and review best practices
on a regular basis, and make sure they align with
desired learning outcomes, and user needs

46. First Floor
Learning Design
Next stop: 2nd Floor – Learning
Technologies
1