Improvement in food resources

 Food is required for growth , repairing damaged tissues
and cells.
 It helps to fight pathogens that enter our body.
 India is very populous country and for our growing
population , we will soon need more than quarter of a billion
tones of grains every year .
 This can be done by farming on more land but India is
already intensively cultivated as a result , we do not have
any major scope for increasing the area of land under
cultivation , therefore, it is necessary to increase our
production efficiency for both crop and livestock.

Improvement of crop yield
 Cereals: rice, wheat, maize , millets ,sorghum etc. provide
carbohydrate.
 Pulses : lentils, gram, peas, beans etc. provide us proteins.
 Oilseeds : Sesame, mustard, linseed, groundnut, sunflower etc.
provideus fats.
 Vegetables & fruits and provide us vitamins and minerals. Spices :
Black pepper, cardamom, fennel, cinnamon, clovesetc. Foddercrop :
Food for livestock- , oats, sudan grass, sorghum

• CROP SEASON
1)Kharif crops 2)Rabi crops

a)Kharif crops:
These drops grow during rainy seasons (June - October). They are
also called summer crops. The chief Kharif crops include paddy,
maize, millet, groundnut, garlic, okra, watermelon, mango etc.

b)Rabi crops:
These drops grow from November to April. Rabi crops are also called winter
crops. The chief Rabi crops include wheat, barley, gram, mustard, pea, apple,
pomegranate, cauliflower, carrot, radish etc.

Kharif crops Rabi crops
1. They are monsoon or rainy season
crops.
1. They are non-monsoon season
crops.
2. These crops are grown in hot and
wet conditions.
2. These crops are grown in cold and
nearly dry conditions.
3. These crops are sown in the
beginning of rainy season in June –
July.
3. These crops are sown in October –
November when monsoon is
retreated.
4. These crops are harvested during
September - October at the end of
Monsoon.
4. These crops are harvested in March
- April before the advent of hot
season.
5. Examples: ice, Maize, Groundnut,
Soybean, Green gram, Cotton, Black
gram.
5. Examples: Wheat, Barley, Gram,
Mustard, Linseed, Pea.

Improvement in Crop Yields
The Majorgroups of activities for improving
crop yields can be classified as :-
A) Crop Variety Improvement
B) Crop Production Improvement
C) Crop Production Management

A) Cropvarietyimprovement :
 The art of recognizing valuable traits and incorporating them into future generations is
very important in plant breeding.
 Breeders search for individual plants that exhibit desirable traits.
 The two main qualities of food plants are high yield and natural resistance to disease.
 Such traits occasionally arise spontaneously through a process called mutation, but the
natural rate of mutation too slow and unreliable to produce all the plants that breeders
would like to see.
 Plant breeders select plant varieties with desired characters and cross them. The
developed offspring combine the attributes of both parents. These varieties are
multiplied and supplied to farmers.

Need of higher crop yield
1) Higher yield. The main aim of crop improvement is the productivity of economic
produce, e.g. grains, vegetables and fodder. Quality seeds of improved varieties are
used for their commercial production.
2) Improved quality. Quality consideration varies from crop to crop, e.g. baking quality of
wheat, preserving quality of fruits and vegetables, oil quality of oil seed etc.
3) Biotic and abiotic resistance. Crop production can go down due to biotic (diseases,
insects and nematodes) and abiotic (drought, heat, cold and frost) stresses under
different situations. varieties resistant to these stresses can improve crop production.
4) Changes in maturity duration. In some of the short duration crops, early maturing
varieties can make the crop fit into double and multiple cropping system. This will also
reduce the crop’s cost of production.
5) Wider adaptability. Developing varieties for wider adaptability will help in establishing
the crop production under different environmental conditions. One variety can then be
grown under different conditions in different areas.

5) Desirable agronomic characters:
Tallness and profuse branching are desirable characters for fodder crops.
Dwarfness is desired in cereals, so that less nutrients are consumed by these
crops. Thus developing varieties of desired agronomic help give higher
productivity.
The bumper increase in the yield of food grain (especially the wheat crop) as during
1970s, is often termed as green revolution. The 1970 Noble laureate, American scientist
Dr. N.E. Borlaug was the person behind triple dwarf Mexican wheat varieties. Their color
was changed to Indian liking through gamma irradiations (by M.S. Swaminathan, Father
of Green Revolution in India).
Green revolution has made our country self-sufficient in food, increased the buffer stock
of food grains and improved the economic conditions of Indian farmers as well as
provided employment avenues to large number of peoples.

 Crop variety improvement is manipulation of crop plants for
increasing their yield, improving quality, suitability to varied
conditions and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
 Genetic manipulation is incorporating of new genes for various
traits from other genotypes into the crop varieties so to bring out
desired changes.
 It is carried out through hybridization, mutation, breeding,
polyploidy and DNA recombination technology.

 India is an agriculture based country. In
this country, agriculture sector engages
about 70% of its population and accounts
for 40% of the Gross National Products
(GNP).
 Crop production management refers to
controlling the various aspects of
production to obtain the maximum and
best yield.

IT HAS FOLLOWING THREE ASPECTS:
i) Nutrient management
 Nutrient management means controlling the selection, timing and amount of nutrient
supply to the crops.
 Like other living organism, plants also require inorganic elements for building their
structure and maintaining their metabolic processes.
 These inorganic elements are called nutrients which are supplied to plants by air, water
and soil.
 There are about 40 elements found in plant ash, but only 16 of those elements are
essential for plant growth and development.
 Out of these elements, two elements, carbon and oxygen are supplied by air and
hydrogen is supplied by water. The remaining 13 are supplied by soil.
 The nutrients taken from air and water are very important because they constitute 94
to99.5% of the total plant tissue.

Types of Essential Nutrients
i) Macronutrients (Macro elements).
They are essential elements which are present in plants in easily
detectable quantities. Macronutrients take part in synthesis of organic
molecules and development of osmotic potential. Carbon and oxygen
(from air) and hydrogen (from water), are non-mineral micronutrients.
Out of 13 essential mineral elements, 6 are macronutrients, i.e.,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
i) Micronutrients (Microelements).
They are those essential elements which are present in plants in
small quantities. All of them are mineral element. Micronutrients are
mostly involved in the functioning of enzymes. Out of 13 essential
mineral elements, 7 are micronutrients, i.e., iron, manganese, boron,
zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine.

Soil is the most important reservoir of the plant nutrients. Crop plants
regularly withdraw minerals from the soil. Unless and until minerals are
replenished at regular intervals, the crop plants develop disorders in
structure, growth, functioning and susceptibility to diseases. Mineral
replenishment is done through the addition of manure and fertilizers to the
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS OF PLANTS, THEIR SOURCE, TYPES.
Source Nutrients Type
1. Air Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) Macronutrient (= 2)
2. Water Hydrogen (H) Macronutrient (= 1)
3. Soil •Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium
(K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg),
Sulphur (S)
•Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Boron (B),
Zinc (Z), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo),
Chlorine (Cl)
Macronutrient (= 6)
Macronutrient (= 7)

Manures and Fertilizers
• They replenish the general deficiency in the soil. ADVANTAGES OF
MANURE :-
• The manure add organic matter to the soil which restores the soil texture
for better reaction of water and for aeration of soil.
The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is made up by adding manures
and fertilizers to the soil of crop-fields. Both manures and fertilizers are major source of
nutrients of plants, so they are used in crop production.
MANURE
Manures are natural fertilizers. They are bulky source of organic
matter which supply nutrient in small quantities and organic matter
in large quantities. Manures prepared by the decomposition of animal
excreta and plant waste. Manures include farmyard manures (FMY),
compost, green manures, vermicompost etc.

Manures and Fertilizers
ADVANTAGES OF MANURE :-
• They replenish the general deficiency in the soil
• The manure add organic matter to the soil which restores the soil texture
for better reaction of water and for aeration of soil.
• Thus, organic manures help to improve the physical prosperities of soil, reduce soil erosion,
increase the moisture holding capacity of soil and above all these advantages, they are low
cost nutrient carriers. Using biological waste material is a way of recycling the farm waste.
Manures also protect our environment from synthetic chemicals.

VERMICOMPOSTING
The degradation of organic waste through the consumption by the earthworms is called
vermicomposting. An earthworm is physically an aerator, crusher, and mixer, chemically it
is a degrader and biologically a stimulator of decomposition. In India, following species
of earthworms are used in vermicomposting: Dichogaster bolani, Drawida willsi,
Perionxy excavatus (Indian species) and Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae (Exotic
species).

FERTILIZ
ERS
Fertilizer are source of plant nutrients, manufactured commercially from chemicals. Fertilizers
supply Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK). They are used for good vegetative growth.
They are one of the major component for obtaining higher yields especially in expensive farming.
On the availability of nutrient from them, fertilizers are divided into following four groups:
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers, e.g. Urea, CO(NH2)2; Ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4; Sodium nitrate NH4NO3 etc.
ii. Phosphoric fertilizers, e.g. Dicalcium phosphate;
iii. Triple super phosphate; single super phosphate etc.
iv. Potassic fertilizers, e.g. Potassium nitrate, KNO3; Potassium sulphate, NAO3; Muriatic
potassium chloride, KCl etc.
iv. Complex fertilizer, e.g. Nitro phosphate; Ammonium phosphate; Urea ammonium phosphate etc.

TABLE: Differences between manure and fertilizers.
Manure Fertilizers
1. Manure is a natural substance. It is obtained by
the decomposition of animal waste and plant
residue.
1. Fertilizer is a human-made substance. It is
inorganic salt or an organic composition.
2. A manure contains small amount of essential
plant nutrient.
2. Fertilizers are very rich in plant nutrients.
3. A manure adds a great amount of organic
matter in the form of humus in the soil.
3. A fertilizer does not add any humus to the soil.
4. Manure is insoluble in water and thus the
nutrients present in manure is absorbed slowly by
plant.
4. Being soluble in water, a fertilizer is readily
absorbed by the crop plants.
5. A manure is not nutrient specific and tends to
remove the general deficiency from the soil.
5. A fertilizer is nutrient specific. It can specifically
provide nutrient to the soil according to the crop
need.
6. A manure is voluminous and bulky so it is
inconvenient to store, transport, handle and apply to
the crops.
6. A fertilizer is compact and concentrated so it is
easy to store, transport and apply to the crop.
7. A manure is cheap and is prepared in rural
homes or field.
7. A fertilizer is costly and is prepared in factories.

The process of supplying the water to the crop plants in regular intervals of
time is called irrigation. Water is key input for crop production. The
process of supplying water to crop plants by means of canals, reservoirs,
etc. is known as irrigation. Irrigation is necessary for the survival and
proper development of the crop plant. Thus, in agriculture, irrigation
fulfills the following goals:
 Crop plants are irrigated with freshwater to supply two essential elements
to them- hydrogen and oxygen.
 Irrigation provide sufficient moisture for the germination of the seed. This
is because seeds do not germinate in dry soils.
 Irrigation is necessary to increase the number of aerial branches (called
tillers) in crop plants so as to get good crop yield.

• Different kinds if irrigation systems are used to supply
water to
• agricultural land. They are wells, canals, rivers, tanks,
check dams etc.
I) Wells :- There are two types of wells called dug wells and
tube wells. In dug wells water is collected from water
bearing strata. In tube wells water is collected from deeper
strata.

• ii) Canals :- In this system, canals receive water from reservoirs or rivers and distributes it to
fields.
iii) River lift systems :- In this system water is lifted from rivers to irrigate fields close to rivers.
iv)Tanks :- These are small storage reservoirs which supply water to fields.
v) Check dams :- These are used to stop rain water from flowing away and helps to increase
groundwater levels and reduce soil erosion.
vi) Sprinkler system :- It is mostly used in canal irrigated areas of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan. In this system water is sprinkled throughout the radius of the sprinkler. Sprinkler is a
horizontal pipe raising form its pipeline with a nozzle fitted at the top of it which rotates
sprinkling the water in the area evenly.

iii) Cropping Pattern
These are the models of raising crops which help in obtaining maximum benefit from the same
piece of land, reduce risk of crop failure, disease and infestation. Three common types of
cropping patters are mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation.
i) Mixed cropping:
Farming is an agricultural process of harvesting solar energy in the form of economic produce
to plants and animals. The Indian farmers depend a great deal on the monsoon for water and
monsoon sometimes brings flood and sometimes cause drought. Therefore, the small and
marginal farmers, particularly in rain fed regions can’t take risk of growing specialized crops.
They prepared a farming system called mixed farming which is practice of growing two or
more plants simultaneously on the same piece of land.
Advantages of mixed cropping
 The risk of total crop failure due to uncertain monsoon is reduced.
 Fertility of the soil is improved by growing two crops simultaneously.

 Farmers tend to harvest a variety.ofcrops such as cereal, pulses or
vegetables.
 Chances of pest infestation are greatly reduced.
Objective of mixed cropping
 The basic objective of mixed farming is to minimize the risk and insure
against the crop failure due to abnormal weather conditions.
Crop combination used in mixed cropping
In India following combinations of the crops are used by farmers in
mixed cropping:
 Maize + Urad bean
 Wheat + Mustard
 Barley + Chick pea
 Cotton + Moong (Green gram)
 Wheat + Chick pea etc.

iv) Intercropping :
 Intercropping is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in a same piece of
land in a definite row patterns. The practice of intercropping is adopted by small farmers
and where farmers have less access to irrigation. Intercropping is an improved version of
mixed cropping.
 All the crop combinations in mixed cropping can also be practiced in the intercropping. But
row patterns are definite, i.e., 1:1, 1:2 or 1:3. it means after one row main crop, one, two or
three rows of intercrops can be grown.
 Objective of intercropping : The objective of this farming is to increase
productivity per unit area.

Advantages of mixed cropping
 It makes better use of the natural resources of sunlight, air and water.
 Soil erosion is effectively arrested.
 The produce of each crop can be marketed and produced separately.
 Since the seeds of two crops are not mixed before sowing, fertilizers can be placed as per the
need of the crop.
Crop combination used in mixed cropping
 The crop combinations used in the inter cropping are same as the mixed cropping.

TABLE: A comparison between mixed cropping and intercropping.
Mixed cropping Intercropping
1. It aims to minimize risk of crop failure. 1. It aims to increase productivity per unit area.
2. Seeds of tow crops are mixed before
sowing.
2. Seeds of two crops are not mixed.
3. It involves no set pattern of rows of crops. 3. It involves set patterns of rows of crops.
4. In this method there is difficulty of
fertilizer application to individual crop.
4. In intercropping fertilizers can be placed
as per need of the crops.
5. Spraying for pest control to individual crop is
difficult.
5. Pesticides can easily be applied to
individual crop.
6. Harvesting and threshing of crop
separately not possible.
6. Both crops can be easily harvested and
threshed separately.
7. Marketing and consumption of only mixed
produce is possible.
7. Product of each crop can be marketed and
consumed separately.

v) Crop rotation :
Crop rotation can be defined as the practice of growing of different crops on a piece of land in a
pre planned succession. Growing leguminous crops after growing cereal crops helps to increase soil
fertility. If crop rotation is done properly, two or three crops can be grown in a year profitably.

Depending upon the duration of the time, crop rotation can be of following
Three types (listed in table):
Selection of cropsfor rotation
Most commonly the legumes are included in crop rotation program as they increase the soil
fertility. While making the for the other crops. Following points should be considered:
 Availability of moisture through rain or irrigation.
 Status of nutrient in soil.
 Duration of crop- long or short
 Marketing and processing facilities.
 Availability of inputs such as labor, fertilizers, pesticides, machine power etc.
Type of crop rotation Component crops involved in rotation
1. One year rotation 1. Maize - Mustard
2. Rice - Wheat
2. Two year rotation 1. Maize - Mustard - Sugarcane - Fenugreek
2. Maize - Potato - Sugarcane - Peas
3. Three year rotation 1. Rice - Wheat - Moong - Mustard - Sugarcane - Berseem
2. Cotton - Oat - Sugarcane - Peas - Maize - Wheat

Advantages of crop rotation
 By alteration between deep and shallow rooted crops, the soil may be utilized
more completely.
 Several crop can be grown in a succession with only one soil preparation.
 Crop rotation reduces the need of the fertilizers.
 It also controls pests and weeds.
The Norfolk Rotation
This is one of the best known crop rotation. It involves the
growing of four crops in a given over a period of four years.
These crops are Wheat (cereal), clover or bean (legume),
barley (another cereal) and turnip or sugarcane (a root crop).
The Norfolk Crop Rotation

C) Cropprotectionmanagement
Crops in the field are damaged by weeds, insect pests , pathogens and diseases. If pests are not
controlled at appropriate time they cam damage 50 to 70% of the crops.
i) Weed Control
Weeds are unwanted plants which grow in the field. E.g. :- Xanthium, Parthenium, Cyperinus
rotundus etc. They compete with the crop for food, space and sunlight and use nutrients and
reduce crop yield.
Therefore removal of weed plants from cultivated field in early stage of
crop is essential to harvest high input returns in term of high yields.
Types of weeds
Infestation of weeds is more during ‘Kharif’ season than in ‘Rabi’ season.
Based on the morphology of plants, weeds are classified into
a. narrow-leaf weeds and
b. broad-leaf weeds.

Classification of weeds
Weeds
Narrow leaf weed
(monocot weeds)
Kharif season
weeds
Examples:
- Cyperis
rotundus
- Wild sorghum
Rabi season weeds
Examples:
- Phalaris
- Wild oat
Broad leaf weed
(dicot weeds)
Kharif season
weeds
Example:
- Trianth
-Xanthium
strumarium
Rabi season weeds
Examples:
-Chaenopodium
album
-Parthenium
hysterophorus

Methods of weed control
1. Mechanical Method. These includes uprooting, weeding with trowel or harrow, hand hoeing
(scraping), burning, ploughing and flooding.
2. Chemical methods. Chemical weed killers, called herbicides, or
weedicides, are sprayed on weeds to destroy them.
3. Biological control. Biological control of weeds involves the use of organism which consume
and specifically destroy the weed plants. For example, aquatic weeds are controlled by the
fish grass crap.
ii) Insect Pest Control
Insect pests cause damage to the root, stem and leaves, suck
cell sap and bore into stems and fruits. They can reduce crop
yield. Diseases in plants are caused by pathogens like virus,
bacteria and fungi and reduces crop yield. Painted bug,
common Indian pest
of crop plants

TABLE: Diseases of crop plants and their symptoms.
Name of crop Disease Symptoms
1. Rice (paddy) Blast Brown boat-shaped lesions appear on the margins
of leaves.
2. Wheat Rust Yellow, brown or black elongated spots appear on leaves and
straws.
3. Chick pea Wilt The leaves become yellow and dry up. Roots turn
black and decompose.
4. Pigeon pea Stem rot Development of brown to dark brown lesions on the stem near
soil surface. These lesions girdle the stem and plant dies.
5. Mustard White rust White or cream yellow scatter pustules appear on
the lower surface of leaves.
Red Rot Of Sugarcane Tikka disease of groundnut Leaf rust in wheat

iii) Storage of Grains
 Storage losses in agricultural produce can be very high. Factors responsible for such losses are
biotic- insects, rodents, fungi, mites and bacteria, and abiotic- inappropriate moisture and
temperature in the place in storage.
 These factors cause degradation in quality, loss in weight and lead to poor marketability.
Preventative and control measures are used before grains are stored for future use.
 They include strict cleaning of the produce before storage, proper drying and then using
chemicals that can kill pests.
Red rust flour beetle Rice weevil

Animalhusbandry
 The branch of agriculture that deals with the feeding, caring and breeding of domestic
animals is called animal husbandry.
 Husbandry means to use a resource carefully and without waste. Thus, animal farming or
husbandry requires planning for domestic animal’s shelter, breeding, health, diseases
control and proper economic utilization.
• CATTLE FARMING
 In India, cattle are next to use for farmers after land.
Human being domesticated them for milk, meat,
leather and transportation.
 Generic name of cow is Bos indicus and buffaloes' is
Bubalus bubalis. Cows are Mainly classified as
draught, dairy and Dual purpose breeds.
Cows in a animal husbandry

Cattle (Indian) breeds and their distribution
Cattle breed Distribution
Milch breed
1. Gir Gujarat, Rajasthan
2. Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana, Utter Pradesh
3. Red sindhi Andhra Pradesh
4. Deoni Andhra Pradesh
Draught breed
5. Malvi Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
6. Nageri Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh
7. Hallikar Karnataka
8. Kangayam Tamil Nadu and other parts of South India
General utility breeds
9. Ongole Andhra Pradesh
10. Kankrej Gujarat
11. Tharparker Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

Nutritional values of animal products
Animal
product
Per cent (%) nutrients
Fat Proteins Sugar Minerals Water Vitamins
1. Milk
(cow)
3.60 4.00 4.50 0.70 87.20 B1, B2,
B12, D, E
2. Eggs 12.00 13.00 * 1.00 74.00 B2, D
3. Meat 3.60 21.00 * 1.10 74.20 B2, B12
4. Fish 2.50 19.00 * 1.30 77.20 Niacin, D,
A
* Present in very little amount

Diseases of cattle
Cows and buffaloes suffer from various diseases. These diseases adversely
affect the production of milk and cause mortality of sick animals. We should
maintain a safe Distance from animals as many of the animal diseases like
rabies, anthrax, ringworm, aspergillosis etc. gets Transmitted to human beings.

Common diseases of cattle and their symptoms.
Viral disease Symptoms
1. Cow pox Fever accompanied by appearance of small nodules.
2. Rinder pest Constipation followed by severe diarrhea, discharges eyes and nostrils,
loss of appetite.
3. Foot-and-mouth Blisters appear in mouth and foot resulting in extreme soreness of the
parts. Loss of appetite, excessive salivation, high fever accompanied by
shivering. Inability to work.
4. Rabies Marked changes in behavior, restless, paralysis (symptoms appear in
14-90 days).
5. Dermatitis Irritation, blisters and eruption on the skin surface.
Bacterial diseases Symptoms
6. Anthrax Fever with swelling of body, milk secretion reduced.
7. Black quarter A fatal toxemia especially of young cattle.
8. Tuberculosis Fever, infection of udders, lungs, intestine and other parts.
9. Mastitis Fever, udder become swollen, milk is watery.
10. Salmonellosis Fever, diarrhea with blood clots.
Fungal disease Symptoms
11. Ringworm Small, circular, discolored raised patches.

POULTRYFARMING
• The poultry industry with it’s production in the form of meat and eggs is of particular importance
in providing a balanced diet for human population.
• They are not only the effective converters of agriculture byproducts, particularly
• of waste into high quality meat but also
• Providing eggs, feathers and rich manures.
• All egg laying poultry is called egger or layer and the
poultry reared for obtaining meat is called chicken or
boiler.
• Poultry farming is undertaken basically to raise domestic
fowl or egg production and chicken meat.
• Therefore, improved breeds are developed and formed
to produce layers for eggs and boilers foe meat.

A comparison between layers and boilers.
Layers Boilers
1. Layers are egg laying birds,
managed for the purpose of
getting eggs.
1. Boilers are maintained for getting
meat.
2. Layers start producing eggs at
the age of 20 weeks. So they are
kept for layer period depending
upon laying period (about 500
days).
2. They are raised up to 6-7 weeks
in poultry farms and then sent to
market for meat production.
3. They require enough space
and adequate lightning.
3. They require conditions to grow
fast and low mortality.
4. They require restricted and
calculated feed with vitamins,
minerals and micronutrients.
4. Their daily food requirement
(ration for boilers) is rich in proteins
and vitamin A and K. the fat content
also should be adequate.

Breeds of poultry
Some exotic breeds of fowl are as follows:-
 Light Sussex
 White leghorn
 Barred Plymouth
 Black Minorca
 Rhode island red

Fishculture(Pisciculture)
Fish is a source of animal protein in our food. There are two ways of
obtaining fish. They are from natural sources called capture fishing and
from fish farming called culture fishery. The water source of fishes can be
sea water (marine) or fresh water like rivers, ponds, lakes etc.
i) Marine fisheries :-
The popular marine fish varieties are pomphret, mackerel, tuna, sardines
etc. They are caught by fishing nets from boats. Some marine fishes are
farmed in sea water. These include prawns, mullets , pearl spots, mussels,
oysters etc. We get pearls from oysters.

ii) Inland fisheries :-
Culture fishery is done in freshwater and brackish water where sea water
and fresh water mix together. Sometimes fish culture is done in
combination with paddy crop in the field. This is called composite fish
culture.
The common fishes in inland fish farms are rohu, catla, mrigal, grass carp,
silver carp, common carp etc.
Inland fishes

Differences between capture and culture fishery.
Capture fishery Culture fishery
1. It is a method of
obtaining fish from natural
resources.
1. It is a method of
obtaining fish from fish
farming (water agriculture).
2. There is no seeding and
raising of fish
2. The fish is seeded and
reared.
3. Capture fishery is
undertaken in both inland
and marine waters.
3. Culture fishery is
undertaken mostly inland
and near sea shore.

Paddy-cum-fish-culture
 The fish species that can be stocked in paddy fields
include catla, rohu, mrigal etc.
 these species are able live in shallow water of
Paddy fields and are able toTolerate high
temperature or turbidity.
 This process Increases the fish yield from the
pond. The problem with such a composite fish
culture (paddy-cum) is that many fish only breed
during monsoon.
 Even if fish seed is collected from the wind, it gets
mixed with that of other species as well. So, the
major farming problem is the lack of availability of
good quality seed.
Paddy-cum-fish-culture

Bee-keeping:-(Apiculture)
 Bee-keeping is done to obtain honey and wax. Honey is used
as a source of energy and also has medicinal uses. Wax is
used in medicinal preparations and for making polishes. Bee
keeping also helps in cross-pollination in flowers.
Honey bee varieties used for bee keeping
 Indigenous varieties
1. Apis cerana indicia [Indian bee]
2. Apis dorsata [rock bee]
3. Apis florae [little bee]
 Exotic varieties
1. Apis mellifera [European or Italian bee]
2. Apis adamsoni [South African bee]

The bees collect nectar from flowers and is convert it into
honey in the bee hives. Bees are artificially grown in apiaries
and the honey is extracted by machine called honey
extractors.
Honey extractor
Apiary
Bee hive
Bees in apiary
Honey bee

How is nectar changed into honey ?
 Nectar is sweet viscous secretion by flowers of
pants, for attracting the insect for pollination.
 When the bee sucks the nectar from the flower,
it passes nectar to it’s honey sac where it gets
mixed with some acidic secretion.
 In honey sacs, sucrose (sugar) of the nectar is
converted into dextrose and laevulose by the
action of invertase enzymes.
 After regurgitation the treated nectar finally
changes into honey which is stored in special
cells of bee hive.
Honey

How is nectar changed into honey ?
Honey
 Workerbeestendtomaintainaconstant temperature
the bee hivebytheirbehavior,i.e., byflappingtheir
wingsforcooling and by huddling together for
warming.
 Forager bees communicate about the location of the
foraging grounds with their colonymatesintheform
of round-dance and waggle-dance.

 For decoding the meaningof these dances, aAustralian zoologistKarl von Frisch
(1886 - 1982) took 20 yearsof research and got Nobleof research and got Noble
prize in 1973 for his discovery.
Helping behavior existing between members of asocial group(workers)is called
altruism(which meansself sacrifice).

Improvement in food resources

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