111Chapter 5 Motivation in Organizations1115MOTIVATION.docx

111
Chapter 5: Motivation in Organizations
1115
MOTIVATION AT WORK
Chapter Scan
This is the first of two chapters on motivation, behavior, and
performance. This chapter addresses the early content theories
of motivation that are related to the internal factors that explain
behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McGregor's
assumptions are discussed and compared. McClelland's need
theory is presented, followed by a discussion of Herzberg's two-
factor theory of hygiene factors and motivators. Process
theories contained in this chapter include equity theory, social
exchange theory, and expectancy theory.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the
following:
1.
Define motivation.
2.
Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's
hierarchy of needs.
3.
Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4.
Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.

5.
Describe how inequity influences individual motivation and
behavior.
6.
Explain seven different strategies for resolving inequity.
7.
Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8.
Describe the cultural differences in motivation.
KEY TERMS
Chapter 5 introduces the following key terms:
motivation
psychoanalysis
self-interest
need hierarchy
Theory X
Theory Y
need for achievement
need for power
need for affiliation
motivation factor

hygiene factor
inequity
equity sensitive
benevolent
entitled
valence
expectancy
instrumentality
moral maturityTHE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I. THINKING AHEAD: Noncompliance as a Hidden Health
Threat
II.
MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-
directed behavior. Motivation theories attempt to explain and
predict observable behavior. Motivation theories may be
classified as internal, process, or external theories. This is one
of the most complex topics in organizational behavior because
of the large number of variables that affect motivation.
A.
Internal Needs

Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines
smaller portions of the larger theories. Writers have looked for
internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation that would relate
to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant ethic was
related to the concept of working hard in order to secure a place
in heaven. In contrast, Freud developed psychoanalysis as a
method of probing the subconscious mind to understand a
person’s motives and needs.
B.
External Incentives
Early scholars assumed that self-interest and economic gain
motivated people. The Hawthorne studies revealed the
importance of social and interpersonal motivation. Early
theories of motivation typically took one of two perspectives.
The first perspective was that people acted out of self-interest
for material gain. The second perspective suggested that people
act in ways that satisfy their emotional needs. Adam Smith's
basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest
for economic gain. Therefore, employees will be most
productive when motivated by self-interest. Self-interest refers
to seek one’s own best interest and benefit. Frederick Taylor
believed that the conflict between management and employees
was over how to divide profits. These early ideas stand in
contrast to newer theories of motivation.
III.
MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
A.
The Hierarchy of Needs
The needs hierarchy divided motivation into five levels of needs
to be satisfied. Maslow compared the lower level of this

hierarchy to unsatisfied employees, and suggested that as people
satisfy needs on one level, they progress to the next level of
need as motivation for behavior.
B.
Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor utilized the needs hierarchy to develop polarized
assumptions about workers based on whether they are motivated
by lower order needs or by higher order needs. Furthermore, he
suggested that individuals in organizations should be treated
differently depending on which level of needs motivated them.
Theory X represents the assumptions associated with managing
individuals motivated by lower order needs. Theory Y
represents the assumptions associated with managing
individuals motivated by higher order needs.
C. ERG Theory
ERG theory represents a reclassification of Maslow's need
hierarchy into three levels of needs. Alderfer also developed a
regression hypothesis that suggests that individuals will focus
on lower level needs when higher level needs are unattainable.
IV.
MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY
McClelland's need theory focuses on personality and learned
needs. He categorized motives into three manifest needs: need
for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.
A.
Need for Achievement

The need for achievement refers to seeking excellence in
performance and difficult, challenging goals. Research
indicates that people with a high need for achievement
outperform those with a moderate or low need for achievement.
B.
Need for Power
The need for power is concerned with making an impact on
others, influencing others, changing people or events, and
making a difference in life. McClelland further distinguished
between socialized power (used for the benefit of many) and
personalized power (used for personal gain).
C.
Need for Affiliation
The need for affiliation emphasizes the establishment and
nurturing of intimate relationships with other people. In
contrast, individuals with a high need for autonomy, as outlined
in Murray’s manifest needs theory, value independence and
freedom from constraints. Students will be able to identify the
differences between individuals by using an example of
telecommuting and by discussing which individual would be
more comfortable with this change in organizational interaction.
V.
HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
The two-factor theory examines the degree to which individuals
are satisfied or dissatisfied at work. Herzberg's theory provided
two lists of needs. For example, work conditions related to
satisfying psychological needs were determined to be
motivation factors. On the other hand, hygiene factors were

related to dissatisfaction and were caused by discomfort or pain.
A.
Motivation Factors
Motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge
people to grow; yet the absence of these factors does not lead to
dissatisfaction.
B.
Hygiene Factors
Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either
not present or not sufficient. However, because they cannot
stimulate psychological growth, they do not lead to satisfaction.
C.
Critique of the Two-Factor Theory
Although the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg were more
flexible than previous theories, critics identify the lack of clear
distinction between hygiene and motivation factors, the absence
of individual differences, and the absence of intrinsic
motivators as deficiencies. History is full of examples of
people who are motivated by causes, personal missions,
discovery, service, beliefs, creativity, and other factors not
considered by Herzberg.
VI.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND EQUITY THEORY
Social exchange and equity theory revolve around the balance
between efforts and rewards in organizations. The individual-
organization exchange relationshipaddresses the contributions
and demands that each party makes in the relationship.

A.
Demands and Contributions
1.
Demands
Needs form the basis for the expectations or demands placed on
organizations by individuals. Organizations express demands
on individuals through job expectations, mission statements,
and performance feedback.
2.
Contributions
Contributions are the basis for satisfying the demands expressed
by the other party in the relationship. Individual contributions
include knowledge, skills, abilities, and professional contacts.
Organizational contributions include status, benefits, income,
and affiliation.
B.
Adams’s Theory of Inequity
Adams's developed a theory of social exchange that analyzes
inequity in the workplace. Specifically, inequity is the situation
in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he
or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving.
Individuals calculate an input(outcome ratio for themselves and
compare it with an input(outcome ratio for another person. If
the ratios are not equivalent, perceived inequity results.

C.
The Resolution of Inequity
Individuals seek to resolve inequity because it produces tension.
The seven strategies for restoring equity are (1) to alter the
person's outcomes, (2) to alter the person's inputs, (3) to alter
the comparison other's outcomes, (4) to alter the comparison
other's inputs, (5) to change who is used as a comparison other,
(6) to rationalize the inequity, and (7) to leave the
organizational situation.
D.
New Perspectives on Equity Theory
New examinations of inequity have further refined the theory,
including three different perspectives regarding equity:
benevolent, entitled, and equity sensitive. An equity sensitive
individual prefers a ratio that is equal to that of his or her
comparison other. The benevolent individual is comfortable
with an equity ratio less than that of his or her comparison
other. The entitled individual is comfortable with an equity
ratio greater than that of his or her comparison other.
VII.
EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Expectancy theory is based on personal perceptions of the
performance process and the idea that people desire certain
outcomes for behavior, and they believe there are connections
between effort, performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory
is a cognitive, process theory of motivation that includes three
key constructs: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality.
Valence is the value or importance an individual places on a
particular reward. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead

to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance
is related to rewards.
A.
Motivational Problems
Motivation problems stem from three basic causes within the
expectancy theory framework. These causes are a disbelief in a
relationship between effort and performance, a disbelief in a
relationship between performance and rewards, and lack of
desire for the rewards offered.
B.
Motivation and Moral Maturity
Expectancy theory is grounded in the concept of self-interest,
and does not explain motivations that may be altruistic. Moral
maturity is a measure of a person's cognitive moral development
that aids in explaining motivation for altruistic pursuits.
C.
Cultural Differences in Motivation
In regard to Maslow’s, McClelland’s, Herzberg’s, and Vroom’s
theories, differences have been found in different cultures’
reactions to motivational techniques.
VIII.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: MANY WAYS TO
MOTIVATE PEOPLE
IX.
LOOKING BACK: Hygienic Factors, Motivation, and
Compliance

CHAPTER SUMMARY
SYMBOL 183 f "Symbol" s 10 h
Early economic theories of motivation emphasized extrinsic
incentives as the basis for motivation and technology as a force
multiplier.
Early psychological theories of motivation emphasized internal
needs but did not take into account individual diversity in these
needs.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation was the basis
for McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about
people at work.
According to McClelland, the needs for achievement, power,
and affiliation are learned needs that differ among cultures.
The two-factor theory found that the presence of motivation
factors led to job satisfaction, and the presence of hygiene
factors prevented job dissatisfaction.
Social exchange theory holds that people form calculated
working relationships and expect fair, equitable, ethical
treatment.
Expectancy theory says that effort is the basis for motivation
and that people want their effort to lead to performance and
rewards.

Theories of motivation are culturally bound and differences
occur between nations.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: suggested answers
1. Define the terms motivation, needs, and equity.
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-
directed behavior. Needs are the internal causes of motivation.
Equity can be viewed in terms of the individual-organization
exchange. When individuals receive what they believe they
deserve based on their effort, they perceive equity.
2. How can knowledge of motivation theories help managers?
The workforce is increasingly diverse. Knowledge of
motivation theories can help managers use a variety of
techniques for motivating employees with a wide range of
needs, interests, and abilities.
3. What are the five categories of motivational needs described
by Maslow? Give an example of how each can be satisfied.
The needs hierarchy begins with fulfilling physiological needs,
such as food and shelter. The second level involves safety and
security needs that are satisfied by a feeling of safe
surroundings, such as a well-lit environment in which to work.
Family and friends can meet third level needs for love and
social relationships. Fourth is the esteem need, which can be
satisfied by titles and actions that earn respect from others. The
final level is the self-actualizing need, which is the need to
achieve one's full potential.
4. What are the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about
people at work? How do they relate to the hierarchy of needs?
Theory X is a skeptical, negative view of individuals and their
relationship to tasks and work. Theory Y views individuals as

highly motivated and responsible for their actions. Theory X
individuals would be concerned with the lower three levels of
Maslow's needs, and Theory Y individuals are concerned with
the higher-order needs.
5. What three manifest needs does McClelland identify?
McClelland identifies needs for achievement, power, and
affiliation. These needs are learned. Individuals and cultures
differ in their levels of these needs.
6. How do hygiene and motivational factors differ? What are
the implications of the two-factor theory for managers?
Hygiene factors are factors such as supervision, work policies,
and working conditions. Hygiene factors can prevent
dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. Motivational
factors include a sense of achievement, recognition, and
responsibility. Motivational factors may lead to satisfaction.
Managers need to realize that both contribute to workers'
attitudes toward the job.
7. How is inequity determined by a person in an organization?
How can inequity be resolved if it exists?
Individuals in organizations calculate equity through a concept
of social exchange. This intuitive exchange compares the
demands versus the contributions of individuals in an
environment. A person compares his/her input/outcome ratio to
the same ratio for another person. The strategies for remedying
an inequitable situation include (1) altering one's outcomes, (2)
altering one's inputs, (3) alter the comparison other's outputs,
(4) alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) change who is used
for comparison, (6) rationalize the inequity, and (7) leave the
organizational situation.
8. What are the key concepts in the expectancy theory of
motivation?
This theory focuses on personal perceptions of desired outcomes

of behavior, in conjunction with effort and performance.
Valence is the value placed on the anticipated reward.
Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance.
Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to the
rewards.
DISCUSSION and communication QUESTIONS: suggested
answers
1. What do you think are the most important motivational needs
for the majority of people? Do you think your needs differ from
those of most people?
This is similar to the research question that asks what motivates
supervisors versus what motivates employees. Most of us think
our motives are superior and deeper than the rest of the
organizational members. No one wants to be merely normal or
average. Most of us may share lower level needs, but there may
be differences in the higher level needs.
2. At what level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs are you living?
Are you basically satisfied at this level?
One of the difficulties with this question is that we typically
move up and down the scale in different phases of our lives, or
different surroundings. Students may not grasp this readily.
3. Assume you are leaving your current job to look for
employment elsewhere. What will you look for that you do not
have now? If you do not have a job, assume you will be looking
for one soon. What will be the most important factors that you
will seek?
This should relate to where students are on their needs
hierarchy. Encourage students to use the terminology of
motivational factors that they learned in this chapter. Students
may also use equity theory and expectancy theory concepts to
explain what they seek in a job.

4. If you were being inequitably paid in your job, which
strategy do you think would be the most helpful to you in
resolving the inequity? What tactics would you consider using?
Adams's Theory of Inequity is a logical approach to this
problem. The resolution of inequity strategy could be to alter
the input, to leave the organization, to alter the comparison
other's input, or any of the ways of restoring equity. Students
can also compare themselves in terms of their preferences for
equity, benevolence, or entitlement.
5. Do you believe you can do a better job of working or do a
better job of studying than you are currently doing? Do you
think you would get more pay and benefits or better grades if
you did a better job? Do you care about the rewards (or grades)
in your organization (or university)?
The first portion of the question relates to tangible, self-
motivated goals. Most students will answer yes to being able to
do a better job. Occasionally students are so overloaded that
they have assessed the obligations in their lives (work, school,
and family) and determined that they will have to balance their
efforts. The underlying theme is whether all of their current
motivation rests in predicable, tangible, outcomes.
6. What important experiences have contributed to your moral
and ethical development? Are you working to further your own
moral maturity at this time?
This is a difficult, but thought-provoking question, to answer in
class. This question is better for a homework review question,
and is an excellent question for an essay exam. Students can
assess their own level of moral maturity.
7. Prepare a memo describing the two employees you work with
who most closely operate according to Theory X and Theory Y
assumptions about human nature. Be as specific and detailed in
your description as you can, using quotes and/or observational
examples.

Students who are not in a work setting could describe other
students with whom they have worked closely (e.g., in group
projects). During discussion of these memos, it would be
interesting to also discuss how managers in each of the work
settings dealt with each of these employees.
8. Develop an oral presentation about the most current
management practices in employee motivation. Find out what at
least four different companies are doing in this area. Be
prepared to compare these practices with the theory and
research in the chapter.
This is an excellent opportunity for students to learn about
motivational programs that are actually being used by
companies. During class discussion encourage students to
evaluate the effectiveness of these programs based on the
theories and research from the chapter.
9. Interview a manager and prepare a memo summarizing the
relative importance that manager places on the needs for
achievement, power, and affiliation. Include (1) whether these
needs have changed over time and (2) what job aspects satisfy
these needs.
In class, students can compare the perspectives of the different
managers they interviewed. Encourage the students to see if a
pattern emerges among the managers regarding the importance
of these needs. Discuss why students think there is or is not a
pattern.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Is it ethical for you to pursue your own needs first at work?
Are your needs in conflict with what is fair and equitable for
others at work? Do you consider the thoughts and feelings of
other people at work?
Students will have examples of inequitable situations. Work-

study students typically have comparison stories of jobs where
the student is allowed to study on the job. Although some
students might state they would like to find these positions, by
querying further, they typically relate that they resent this
environment.
2. Suppose your company knew what employees wanted at work
and was unwilling to spend the money to meet their needs. Do
you think this would be unethical?
Organizational supervisors are not obligated to fulfill all of our
needs at work, but should try to fulfill those that are reasonable,
equitable, and necessary. Students can discuss what types of
needs organizations can reasonably be expected to meet.
3. Assume you know an employee who is being underpaid
because the company believes it can save money and the
employee will not complain. Is this unethical? Should you tell
the employee about the underpayment condition?
Most positions have a salary range connected with the job. The
impression that the company is not paying the salary in order to
save money may not be the case. There are equity issues related
to experience and education that should be questioned. If the
focal employee is aware of the situation, and comfortable with
the situation (i.e., a benevolent) that is the individual’s
decision. Students should be cautioned not to act without full
information.
4. Suppose your company has an employee who has been with
the company for a long time and now has health problems that
will prevent him or her from being fully productive for at least
a year. Should the company attempt to carry this person for that
period of time, even though the person will not be able to
perform? Should the person's pay and benefits be reduced
according to performance?
It is rare when an organization has not anticipated these events.
Most benefits packages clearly spell out the requirements of
both employer and employee. Most students will not see this as

an entitlement issue, but rather a long-term relationship that can
and should be continued. The implications for age and ability
discrimination can be discussed.
CHALLENGES
5.1 PROTESTANT ETHIC
This challenge provides an opportunity to discuss the
implications for work behavior in organizations due to different
orientations toward the Protestant ethic. Also, discuss the
different approaches to managing and motivating that might be
needed for an employee with a pro-Protestant ethic score and an
employee with a non-Protestant ethic score.
5.2 WHAT’S IMPORTANT TO EMPLOYEES?
The perceptions of employees and their supervisors differ
considerably in regard to employee motivation. One thousand
employees were asked to rank what was important to them.
Their rankings of “job reward” factors follows. The rewards are
listed from most to least popular.
-interesting work
-full appreciation of work done
-a feeling of being in on things
-job security
-good wages

-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-sympathetic help with personal problems
Supervisors’ rankings of the same factors follow, from most
valuable to least valuable.
-good wages
-job security
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-interesting work
-personal loyalty to employees

-tactful discipline
-full appreciation of work done
-sympathetic help with personal problems
-a feeling of being in on things
Comparing these results to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and
Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation suggests that
organizations in the United States more effectively satisfy
workers’ basic needs than they satisfy ego needs or self-
fulfillment needs. Discuss with students why they think this is
the case.
* SOURCE: “Crossed Wires on Employee Motivation.”
Training and Development, 49 (1995): 59-60.EXPERIENTIAL
EXERCISES
5.1 WHAT DO YOU NEED FROM WORK?
This exercise encourages students to think broadly about what
they desire from a work experience. During Step 2 of this
exercise (sharing of group results with the class) encourage
discussion across groups regarding similarities and differences
in ratings that might have occurred. In particular, have students
consider why differences in ratings exist (i.e., because of
differences in length of work experience, type of work
experience, etc.). Discussion could also center on
organizations’ effectiveness at meeting these needs (and why
they are or are not effective).
5.2 WHAT TO DO?

This exercise presents students with a true-to-life illustration of
equity theory. Discussion may focus on attributions for the
inequity stemming from factors such as gender or parental
status. Factors such as external labor market conditions, which
also may contribute to pay inequity, may be discussed.
Alternative Experiential Exercise
Motivation: Three Incidents
Instructor's Notes:
Students are provided three incidents with 5 choices of actions.
For each of the following incidents, students are asked to
determine whether the individuals will be motivated to behave
as desired. This exercise takes approximately thirty minutes of
class time, with groups of 4-6 in each group. The first example
is very quick, and students believe they have motivation theory
"wrapped up.” The second example gets more complicated, and
by the third example, most of them miss the issues. Expectancy
theory, job characteristics model, and effort-performance
relationship are all relevant for these examples.
I. The key sentences in this example are, (1) He also knows
that Walter needs a scholarship to be able to go to college, and
(2) However, an article in the Sunday Sports section reports that
two of the major state university coaches are recruiting him.
A. Has nothing additional for motivation. Walter already knows
this.
B. This isn't Walter's valence; probably knows this as well.
C. This answer does not increase valence for THIS school.
D. Best answer; this approach would be unique to this school

and deals with Walter's needs.
E. Doesn't deal with the problem.
II. Joyce's sales are instrumental to incentive bonus; therefore,
there is high valence for Joyce.
A. This approach is useful only if you need to build effort to
performance expectancy.
B. She knows this already.
C. Goal is high valence, not necessarily the answer.
D. Best answer. Use if problem-solving or ability is the issue.
Looks like a "know-how" problem.
E. Apparently, she doesn't know how to improve.
III.E. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.
Very few students select E because they believe we are always
to DO SOMETHING. Many students pick up on the issues of
the U.S. in another country. The key to this answer is that none
of the previous choices, A-D provide anything in motivation
theory that has not already been provided. This is wasted effort
to duplicate the same approaches.
Motivation: Three Incidents

Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville
For each of the following incidents, determine whether the
individuals will be motivated to behave as desired. Then select
the appropriate managerial action from those listed.
I.
Frank Edwards is head basketball coach at a small regional state
university, a campus of the state's main university system. He
has just had a visit with Walter Johnson, a local high school
athlete who is clearly one of the state's blue chip basketball
prospects. Frank desperately needs a player of Walter's
potential to turn his mediocre team around, but he realizes that
it won't be easy to sign him. He is confident that he made it
clear to Walter that there is a scholarship available for Walter if
he wants it. He also knows that Walter needs a scholarship to
be able to go to college. However, an article in the Sunday
Sports section reports that two of the major state university
coaches (larger schools upstate, with nationally known
basketball programs) intend to actively recruit Walter, also.
Coach Edwards should take which of the following actions?
A: Send Walter a written and notarized offer of the scholarship.
B: Write Walter's parents, stressing that the scholarship will
cover all of his tuition, room and board, and book expenses.
C: Write a letter to Walter stressing to him the value of a
college education.
D: Talk to Walter again, stressing the likelihood that he would
make the starting five in his Freshman year.
E: Do nothing. Walter will probably sign with him anyway.

II.
Joyce, a recent College of Business graduate, has been working
several months as a sales person for a small manufacturer of
computers and word processors. She is one of two sales people
working a large metropolitan area. Her sales manager, Eric
Kurtz, is concerned about her performance, however. He is
aware that Joyce wants very much to have high sales in order to
participate in the company's generous incentive bonus plan.
She has expressed her satisfaction with the way the plan
operates, and was clearly in agreement that there is a booming
demand for computers and word processors in the market area.
He is puzzled, therefore, by her poor performance. He should
take which of the following actions?
A.
Post sales performance figures in the office so that everyone
can see how the sales persons are doing.
B.
Have a talk with Joyce, stressing the details of how she can
benefit financially from increased sales.
C.
Tell Joyce that unless she begins to reach her quota within the
next three months, she will be terminated from employment.
D.
Ask Joyce to accompany him on sales calls to several new
customers.
E.
Do nothing. Her performance should soon be improving.
III.Motumba is a small African nation with rich deposits of
several rare metals. Tall, forbidding mountains to the North

and West make it impossible to ship out ore in these directions.
Kobutsu, the country bordering on their East has a modern
deep-water port city, and an extensive rail network, which make
it a logical alternative route for shipping out the ore. However,
due to a long-running conflict between the heads of state of the
two countries, Kobutsu has not allowed Motumban ore to be
transported to and through its port, and Motumba has been
forced to settle for sending out small quantities through the
neighboring country to the south via a long route of antiquated
rail facilities. Recently, however, the government of Kobutsu
changed, with a new head of state coming to power who had a
reputation of being friendly toward the Motumbans and
cognizant of the potential benefits to Kobutsu of serving as a
transportation route for their ore. As U.S. Department of State
envoy to that area, your action should be:
A.
Meet with the Kobutsun head of State, stressing the potential
benefits of being a transportation link for Motumban ore.
B.
Meet with the Kobutsun head of State and point out the
opportunity present for a new constructive relationship with
Kobutsu.
C.
Send a letter to the Kobutsun Minister of Commerce stressing
the likelihood of being able to work out a trade agreement with
Motumba.
D.
Invite both heads of State to the U.S., and tell both of them that
the U.S. will cut off all economic aid to them if they do not
begin to cooperate.
E.

Do nothing. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.
MBTI exercise
Exercise Learning Objectives:
Highlight the different things that create a motivational
environment for people.
Show that people want to be recognized for different things.
Exercise Overview:
1. Students should know their temperament types (SJ, SP, NF,
or NT).
2. Students will be formed into like-temperament groups.
3. Students will develop a list of recent scientific
breakthroughs.
4. After development, groups will be reformed into dissimilar
types (dyads or triads) and compare ideas.
5. The instructor should know what each temperament would
find useful and fascinating about a scientific breakthrough.
Exercise Description:
Form like-temperament groups. The instructor should have
each group prepare a list of recent scientific breakthroughs that
have happened within the next 10 years. Have the students use
a blackboard or a large piece of flip chart paper to capture the
list. Have each group pick the top 3 to 5 of these
breakthroughs. Now have each group develop and be prepared
to present the rationale for their choices. After an appropriate

time, have each group explain to the class why they chose these
breakthroughs and why they important. If time is short, have
each group pick the most important breakthrough. The
instructor should ask each group, "If you were making any of
the breakthroughs, tell us how you would like to be recognized
for your work--what would really turn you on."
What should the instructor expect?
Each temperament group will develop lists that have some
overlap. The key is that each group will view them differently.
We would expect to see two of the temperaments to use
"present" orientation (SJ and SP) and two groups to be more
"future" oriented (NF and NT).
In the second phase, each temperament would like to be
rewarded differently. For example, SPs like to be rewarded for
their cunning and skill, SJs for doing the arduous and tedious
work of keeping things together and on track, NFs like to be
rewarded for bring harmony and a sense of self-worth to
everyone, and NTs like to be rewarded for their intellectual
prowess and systematic, analytical thinking.
Instructor's Summary:
The SJ temperament reflects a strong desire for orderliness,
dependability, and realistic assessments. Additionally they
admire service, belonging to and supporting organizations, and
organizational stability. Some of the pitfalls for one with an SJ
preference are: unwillingness to change, deciding too quickly,
making the rule all important, and becoming too impatient when
schedules are not rigidly adhere to. Ways to motivate these
people include: recognizing their steadfastness and loyalty,
giving them more responsibility, and appreciating (in front of
their peers) their tireless "small" contributions (doing the little
things that keep the organization functioning well).

The SP temperament reflects a strong desire for freedom,
action, and risk-taking. Additionally they admire quick-
thinking, negotiating skills, and open-mindedness. Some of the
pitfalls for someone who possesses an SP temperament include:
becoming too restless with rules and procedures, becoming
bored with status quo, not listening to or trying to understand
theory or a philosophy, and doing any long range planning.
Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing them for
their cleverness, appreciating their ability to recognize trouble
and find a quick way out, appreciating their willingness to take
a risk and their ability to usually succeed.
The NF temperament reflects a strong desire to search for
meaning and authenticity, to be empathetic, and to establish and
maintain close personal contact with others. Additionally, they
admire the search for possibilities (especially for people),
appreciating people, and organizational investment in people.
Some of the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NF
temperament include: spending too much time on the needs of
others, putting off task accomplishment out of a concern for
people, giving objective feedback, and avoiding any situation
which may jeopardize harmony. Ways to motivate these people
include: recognizing them for their people orientation, thanking
them for leading a harmonious team, and appreciating their
ability to help others manage their careers.
The NT temperament reflects a strong desire to search for
change in organizational principles, and to attain competency.
Additionally, they admire competence, logic, critical analysis,
systems thinking, and those that "take on the system." Some of
the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NT temperament
include: becoming too critical of self and others, becoming too
impersonal, unwillingness to follow through once a project is
designed, and becoming very terse in conversation. Ways to
motivate these people include: giving them the project design

phase without much guidance, appreciating their critical,
systems thinking, and appreciating their competency in
whatever they tackle.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material
in the textbook can be obtained from:
Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational
Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 6th Ed. South Western
College Publishing Company, 2001.
Work vs. Play. p. 49-51. Time: Part A, 40-55 minutes; Part B,
30-55 minutes.
Purpose: To examine the concept of motivation.
Motivating the Simpsons. p. 45-47. Time: 20 minutes.
Purpose: To apply expectancy theory.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and
Experience. West Publishing Company, 1994.
In-Basket Exercise: Initiating and Maintaining Action. p. 61-
62.
In-Basket Exercise: Holding Others Accountable. p. 69-72.
CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
Motivating Partners at Starbucks
1. Given Starbucks’ training approach, benefits package,
work/life program, and partner relations mechanisms, what

insights have you gained about their approach to employee
motivation? Explain your answer.
The Starbucks’ approach to employee motivation is based upon
the fundamental tenets of providing a great work environment,
treating everyone with respect and dignity, treating everyone
equitably, and challenging people to be their best. These
fundamental tenets are translated into specific actions in
Starbucks’ training approach, benefits package, work/life
program, and partner relations mechanisms. Specifically, the
training programs are designed to equip partners, whether
baristas or managers, with the knowledge and skills necessary
to provide excellent customer service. The excellent benefits
package, made available to everyone who works a minimum of
20 hours per week, is designed to attract, motivate, and retain
competent, loyal employees. Moreover, the use of stock options
ties the fortunes of the employees to the success of the
company. The work/life program provides assistance to
employees in dealing with and balancing their work activities
and their personal life.
Additionally, the work/life program is intended to deal with the
“whole person” by developing meaningful corporate programs
to address the partners’ physical, mental, emotional, and
creative needs. The company takes employee input seriously
through the use of different partner relations mechanisms.
Starbucks listens to what employees have to say, and then takes
meaningful action based on what it hears. All of these actions
have strong positive effect on employee motivation.
2. What needs does Starbucks appeal to through its training
approach, benefits package, work/life program, and partner
relations mechanisms?
A good way to approach this question is from the perspective of
Maslow’s need hierarchy, Herzberg’s two factor theory, or

McClelland’s needs theory.
Many of the elements of Starbucks’ motivational programs and
employee relations practices can be conceptualized in the
context of the need hierarchy. Parts of the benefits package—
especially the comprehensive insurance coverage, vacations,
and the retirement savings plan––address physiological and
safety/security needs. These needs are also addressed through
the on-site fitness services, flexible work schedules, referral
and educational support for child care and elder care issues that
are part of the work/life program. Social needs at work can be
fulfilled with the work/life program that links employees with
shared interests and hobbies. Esteem needs can be satisfied
through the company’s treatment of all employees with dignity
and respect, and the employee involvement and recognition
aspects of the different partner relations mechanisms. While
self-actualization may not be truly addressed, one might argue
that using stock options to link individual and corporate success
and providing support mechanisms for personal interests and
hobbies might begin to chip away at this need.
With respect to two factor theory, it may be argued that
Starbucks addresses both the hygiene factors and motivation
factors. The comprehensive benefits package and the work/life
program clearly link to the hygiene factors. The partner
relations program promotes employee involvement and
recognizes employee achievements—elements that can be
construed as motivation factors. By addressing both hygiene
factors and motivation factors, Starbucks both prevents
dissatisfaction and promotes satisfaction.
McClelland’s needs theory is also a viable explanation. The
evidence indicates the need for achievement is addressed
through intense training and the use of stock options to link
individual and organizational success; the need for affiliation
through aspects of the work/life program that focus on
connecting with other Starbucks’ employees who have similar
interests and hobbies; and the need for power through the

various partner relations programs.
3. Using the model of the individual-organizational exchange
relationship shown in Figure 5.4, explain the relationship that
Starbucks seeks to develop with its partners. How might this
exchange relationship influence the partners’ perceptions of
equity?
The social exchange relationship depicted in Figure 5.4 is based
on the demands and contributions of the partners (i.e.,
individuals) and Starbucks (i.e., the organization). Starbucks
demands excellent performance from employees and expects
them to respond positively to humanistic corporate values and a
clear corporate vision of excellence. In turn, this facilitates the
company’s pursuit of continued profitability and growth. The
company contributes an excellent work environment, a generous
benefits package, and dignity and respect for all employees. The
partners demand (or expect) that their needs—physical,
security, and psychological—will be satisfied through the
company’s different motivational programs. The partners
contribute their skills, knowledge, customer service, and
loyalty.
Most likely, the partners will perceive that a great deal of
equity exists at Starbucks. An argument for the perception of
equity can be based on either the generous benefits package
provided to everyone working a minimum of 20 hours per week,
the corporate philosophy of treating everyone with dignity and
respect, or both.
4. What is important to you in terms of your personal work
motivation? How do the things that motivate you fit with
Starbucks’ approach to motivating partners?
In responding to this question, students should first examine
their own motivation in terms of Maslow’s need hierarchy,
Herzberg’s two factor theory, and/or McClelland’s needs
theory. Students should then compare their personal assessment

to the answer for question (1). Class discussion should also
consider the implications of a match or a mismatch between
people’s needs and what the company offers in terms of
motivational programs.
83
This discussion will help you build your perspective of human
motivation and equity theory (Chapter 5), and link this new
understanding to performance considerations that are introduced
in Chapter 4.
1. In your current (or previous) organizational role, are you
motivated by lower or higher-order needs and motivators or
hygiene factors? Discuss and explain which specific needs and
Herzberg factors seem to be most important to you? Also use
the theories presented in Figure 5.2 and Table 5.2 to explain
your primary needs and motivators.
2. Reflect on the complex factors that go into job satisfaction
and performance (pages 126-130) and integrate the following
considerations into your answer
a. Has job satisfaction generally led to higher performance? Or,
has higher performance led to job satisfaction? Has this varied
by situation?
b. To the extent that job satisfaction has led to the greater
performance, what has been the most important source(s) of that
satisfaction? Have the most important areas been the Social
environment, money, health benefits, physical environment,
facilities, job location, or perks? Explain your reasoning.
3. In your organization, what inequity affects people the most?
Which textbook method seems to be used to resolve that
inequity? What ways are people finding to change inputs and
outputs or do they leave the organization? Alternatively, are the
people just living with the inequity and still meeting
organizational goals? Explain.
NOTE: Remember that equity compares an individual's specific
effort-reward ratio against other organizational members or

people with comparable skills, location, job conditions, etc.
Even when there is wage (or other) dissatisfaction, the
perception of inequity is less well-founded when the groups are
not comparable in the most important ways. If you stretch the
limits of comparability far enough, you can easily find
examples that will make you feel both lucky and cheated, and
many people make that choice based on personality factors like
positive vs. negative affect.

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