2. MEANING OF MOTIVATION
• The main concern for managers is to get things done using other
people. They are persistently in search of ways to improve the
performance of their employees, and to raise efficiency and
productivity.
• Motivation can be traced to the Latin root word movere, which
means “to move”. It energizes and gives direction to behaviour.
• As a general rule, motivation can be expressed as the direction,
intensity and continuation of behaviour. It is related to the “why” of
actions. Motivation is concerned with a selection from different
possible purposes or goals and includes possible variation in terms
of the level of effort set forth to accomplish the objective.
3. NEEDS AND MOTIVATION
• In essence, the cornerstone of motivation as a process is motive. Motive is
an internal drive that arouses, directs and integrates a person’s behaviour.
The basic motives of human behaviour are needs. Needs are also called
motives because they move or motivate human beings to act.
• Needs are deficiencies that people experience at some point in time. These
deficiencies (physiological, psychological and sociological) arouse and
motivate behaviour to satisfy them.
• When an individual’s energy is triggered to satisfy a need, it becomes a
drive, thus, needs are considered energizers of behavioural reactions and
are followed by drives. Drives initiate behaviour to satisfy the need.
• A need can be defined as an internal state of disequilibrium, which causes
individuals to pursue certain courses of action in an effort to regain
internal equilibrium.
4. WORK-MOTIVATION APPROACHES
• Obviously, different theories have attempted to define and explain
the construct of motivation from different points of view.
• Some attempted to explain it based on human needs and their
relative strengths, whereas others tried to focus on the ‘how’ of
motivation. Therefore, one must be aware of the major approaches to
work motivation when deciding to apply the most effective one in a
work situation.
5. CONTENT THEORIES
• The main focus of the content theories is factors that are internal to
an individual. By this, these theories explain why people are
motivated in different ways and by different work settings.
• According to Martin “content theories emphasize particular aspects
of an individual’s needs or the goals that they seek to achieve as the
basis for motivated behaviour.”
• The most common example in this group of theories is the needs-
based theories.
• Some of the major needs-based theories include:
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s (ERG) modified need
hierarchy model, Herzberg’s two factor theory and McCelland’s
achievement theory.
6. 1. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
American psychologist, Maslow, was one of the best-known
contributors to the field of motivational research.
He proposed the idea that a hierarchy of needs could explain
purposeful behaviour.
The core of Maslow’s theory is that needs are positioned in a
hierarchy. Although some research has challenged the assumptions,
essentially, he assumed that after a given level of need is satisfied, it
no longer serves to motivate.
The next higher level of need has to be triggered in order to motivate
the individual.
7. 1. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow identified five levels of needs in a hierarchy, which may be shown as
a series of steps but is usually displayed in the form of a pyramid.
1. Physiological needs are at the first level in the hierarchy (such as thirst and
hunger).
2. Security needs are at the next level (such as shelter and protection).
3. Social needs are at the third level (such as satisfactory and supportive
relationships).
4. Self-esteem needs, which sometimes are referred to as ego needs, are at the
next level (recognition and belief in oneself).
5. Self-actualization is the last step as the sequence progresses to the need of
fulfilling oneself to realize one’s full potential. Only a small group of people
achieves this level.
However, Maslow did not suggest that his needs hierarchy be directly applied to
work motivation.
9. 2. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
• An extension of Maslow’s need hierarchy is the work of Clayton
Alderfer. He modified the need hierarchy model, but like Maslow,
realized that there is a hierarchy of needs, which differentiates
lower-order needs from higher-order needs.
• Alderfer integrated Maslow’s five levels of needs into three
levels based on the crux needs of existence, relatedness and
growth.
10. 2. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
• The existence needs are concerned with the survival and existence of
human beings and cover physiological well-being.
• The relatedness needs include the social environment of human beings
and are concerned with interpersonal and social relationships.
• The growth needs are related to the individual’s potential for personal
development. Like Maslow, Alderfer implies that individuals progress
through the hierarchy from existence needs to relatedness needs to
growth needs as the lower-level needs are gratified.
Alderfer’s three needs (ERG) are consistent with Maslow’s in that the existence
needs are comparable to Maslow’s physiological and safety group, the
relatedness needs are similar to the belongingness, social and love category, and
the growth needs correspond to the esteem and self-actualization categories.
11. 3. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
• Frederic Herzberg is a well-known management theorist, who came
up with a model of motivation.
• Believing that an individual’s relationship to work is basic and that
his or her attitude towards work can very well determine his or her
success or failure, Herzberg investigated the question “What do
people want from their jobs”.
• This model is best known as two-factor theory or the “motivation
maintenance model”.
12. 3. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Herzberg’s original study involved interviewing 203 accountants and
engineers in firms around Pittsburgh in the United States of America. He
used the critical incidents approach to obtain data for analysis.
The subjects were asked two questions:
a) What made them feel exceptionally good about their jobs and
b) What had made them feel particularly bad about their jobs.
This research led to a content theory or a model of motivation that is
known as the two-factor theory or the “motivation maintenance model”.
13. 3. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
• Based on these reported good and bad feelings, Herzberg suggested
that job satisfiers are related to job content and job dissatisfiers are
associated with job context.
• He considered the satisfiers motivators and dissatisfiers hygiene
factors.
• In fact, he believed in the dual nature of human beings about the
work environment.
• Therefore, the motivation factors related to job satisfaction were
associated with the desire for psychological growth and the hygiene
factors related to job dissatisfaction were associated with the
avoidance of pain.
14. 3. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
• Herzberg believed that when job satisfiers are present in the job,
they provide a strong level of motivation, which may culminate in
good job performance.
• These satisfiers or motivators include recognition, advancement,
achievement, responsibility, the possibility of growth and the work
itself.
• However, dissatisfaction or hygiene factors are needed to maintain at
least a level of “no dissatisfaction.” They include salary, working
conditions, status, company procedures, quality of technical
supervision, job security, and quality of interpersonal relations
among peers, superiors, and subordinates.
15. 4. MCCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
• McClelland developed a different set of needs as the basis of motivation.
• Based on this, he identified three particularly important learned or acquired needs,
called manifest needs.
• These were the needs for achievement, for power and for affiliation.
Need for Achievement
• It is interesting to note that McClelland, over years of empirical research, identified a
descriptive set of factors, which are associated with the strong need for achievement.
These are:
1. The person prefers moderate task difficulty.
2. The person prefers to take personal responsibility for solving problems.
3. The person desires clear and unambiguous feedback on how well he or she
performs.
• The need for achievement is defined as the behaviour towards competition with a
standard of excellence.
16. 4. MCCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
Need for Affiliation
• The need for affiliation is associated with creating and sustaining
warm, close and intimate relationships with others.
• Those who have a high need for affiliation have a tendency to express
their emotions and feelings to others, and in return, expect others to
do the same.
• The need for affiliation is defined as the longing to be liked and to
stay on good terms with other people.
17. 4. MCCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
Need for Power
• The need for power is associated with concentration on obtaining and exercising
power and authority. It “is concerned with the desire to make an impact on
others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life”.
• Thus, it is defined as a desire to influence people and events.
• McClelland suggested that there are two different kinds of power:
a) Power that is directed towards the organization (institutional power) and
b) Power that is directed toward the self (personal power).
• Of course, there are some criticisms of McClelland’s theory as well. One of the
major problems is that McClelland, in his research, used Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT).
• This method allows researchers to interpret the subject’s story. However,
interpreting a story is more of an art than a science.
18. PROCESS THEORIES
• The process theories of motivation emphasize the differences in
people’s needs and focus on the cognitive processes that generate
these differences.
• Their attempts are focused on determining the relationship between
the dynamic variables that provide the motivation to influence
behaviour.
• The major process theories are expectancy-based model, equity
theory, goal theory and attribution theory.
19. 1. Expectancy-Based Model
After criticizing Herzberg’s theory as merely a theory of job satisfaction,
Vroom was the first person to develop an expectancy theory that
focussed on work motivation. Numerous studies have supported this
theory in predicting work force behaviour.
The cornerstone of the expectancy theory is that people are rational
beings and influenced by the expected results of their actions. They are
motivated to work when they believe that they can achieve things they
want from their jobs.
The expectancy model that was first developed by Vroom identified
three key variables that play an interactive role in motivation.
These variables are valence, instrumentality and expectancy.
20. 1. Expectancy-Based Model
• Valence can be either negative or positive. Negative valence refers to
something that is undesirable and the person would wish to avoid,
whereas, positive valence is something that is desired and the individual
wants to achieve. A valence of zero refers to an outcome towards which an
individual is indifferent.
• Instrumentality refers to a person’s expectations that the rewards that he
or she will receive are closely related to his or her level of performance. It
is the belief that performance is related to rewards, therefore, an
individual with a high level of performance expects to get a high level of
reward.
• Expectancy concerns an individual’s perception that effort is positively
correlated with the level of performance. It can take values ranging from
zero, indicating that the outcome will not occur after the action or
behaviour, to plus one (+1), indicating that a specific outcome will follow a
particular action or behaviour.
21. 1. Expectancy-Based Model
• Sometimes, people do not expect their effort as having much effect
on the outcomes that they attain. However, in other cases, individuals
believe that their effort is related to what they will acquire.
• At first glance, the expectancy concept may appear the same as an
instrumentality, but it is different.
• Expectancy is the probability (ranging from 0 to 1) that a specific
behaviour will lead to a particular first-level outcome. Whereas,
instrumentality refers to the degree to which a first-level outcome
will lead to a desired second-level outcome.
22. 2. Equity Theory
• The equity theory suggests that people evaluate their
input-outcome equity by comparing it with their
perception of what others receive at a similar level.
• This theory is associated with the work of Adams and
focuses on individuals’ feelings related to the fairness of
their treatment in comparison with others.
23. 2. Equity Theory
• Based on this, the presence of inequity will motivate a person to
achieve equity or to reduce inequity, and the strength of the
motivation to do so will vary directly with the magnitude of the
inequity experienced.
• These methods, depending on whether the inequity is advantageous
or disadvantageous, vary as follows:
• The individual may decide to alter his or her input, either
increasing or decreasing them.
• The individual may decide to alter his or her outcomes, either
increasing or decreasing them.
24. 2. Equity Theory
• The individual may decide to distort his or her inputs and outcomes
cognitively.
• The individual may decide to leave the field. This may take a variety
of approaches such as transferring to a different job, quitting the
existing job or absenteeism.
• The individual may act on the other person. The individual may try to
modify or cognitively distort the other’s inputs and outcomes, or try
to make the other leave the organization.
• The individual may decide to change the object of his or her
comparison. To confront the inequity by changing the comparison
object is certainly difficult to accomplish, especially if individual has
been comparing himself or herself to the other person for some time.
25. 3. Goal-Setting Theory
• Locke (1968) proposes the theory of goal-setting as a means of
motivation. He proposes that the intention towards a hard goal is a
major source of work motivation.
• He recognizes the importance of perceived value, as pointed out in
the expectancy theories of motivation, and recommends that these
values give rise to the experience of emotions and desires.
26. 3. Goal-Setting Theory
Subsequently, three functions are assumed for goal-
setting.
• First, it helps to boost work motivation and job
performance.
• Second, it decreases the ambiguity that sometimes
accompanies the role and creates confusion and
conflicting expectations, thus, it reduces job stress.
• Third, it assists in the improvement of the accuracy
and validity of the performance appraisal.
27. 4. Attribution Theory
• One of the more recent approaches to the study of
motivation is the attribution theory.
• According to this theory, individuals tend to perceive
others and attribute some characteristics to them. Thus,
one is trying to make sense of the other’s behaviour.
• Individuals are curious and want to know why people
behave as they do. Individuals want to know the cause of
their own and others’ behaviour.
• This judgment, which is made based on individuals’
observations, is known as ‘correspondent inferences’.
