Sumeria

The Ancient Near East:
Sumeria – An Introduction

The Ancient Near East refers to the region of the world we now call the
Middle East, encompassing the modern nations of Syria, Iraq and Iran

During the Neolithic period we saw the development of settlements at
places like Jericho, Ain Ghazal, and Çatal Höyük

The next phase of development takes place in the Fertile Crescent, commonly referred
to as the Cradle of Civilization, since the first complex urban civilizations emerged here

The earliest civilizations emerged in Mesopotamia, which literally means “Land between
two rivers” – referring to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

We will study the rise and fall of several Mesopotamian civilizations before investigating
the same period in Egypt, which was developing simultaneously

The earliest civilization was Sumeria, located in southern region of Mesopotamia

Reconstruction of the ancient city of Ur
Image source: https://imgur.com/zxNUGIl
During the Neolithic period settlements began developing along the banks of the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, and over time these settlements evolved into complex cities,
which led to significant cultural advancements

Image source: http://sumer2sargon.blogspot.com/p/history.html
The Sumerians were the “first” in a
number of cultural advancements,
including the first use of wheel and
plow and the construction of irrigation
canals to water the crops
Plow
Wheeled
cart
Irrigation

Image source: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-
east1/sumerian/v/cuneiform
The Sumerians also invented writing

Image source: http://www.augustana.ualberta.ca/files/group/3028/101mesopotamia2009.pdf
Their written language began as simple pictographs, and eventually evolved into a
wedge-shaped system of writing called “cuneiform.”
Image source: http://www.goldenageproject.org.uk/obrienvsitchin.php

Cuneiform tablet featuring a tally of sheep and goats, from Tello, southern Iraq.
Image source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/146558/97513/Cuneiform-tablet-featuring-a-tally-
of-sheep-and-goats-from
The origins of writing were practical rather than literary: complex forms
of social organization made it necessary to keep track of inventory

Administrative tablet, 3100–2900 CE (Uruk III script). Metropolitan Museum
This tablet, for example, is an inventory of grain that was collected and
stored in an early Sumerian temple

The first form of kingship also emerged in ancient Sumeria, as evidenced by the
Sumerian King List – a clay tablet recording all the kings of Sumer (some real, some
mythical) and the length of their reigns
Weld_Blundell Prism: Sumerian King List, c. 1800 BCE
Ashmolean museum

Sumeria was not a single “nation”;
instead, it was composed of
several independent city-states;
each city was kind of like its own
country – though they shared a
common language, and religious
beliefs

These cities often competed with
one another for land and
resources

Each city was under the protection of a local deity, and was governed by an Ensi – a
high priest who acted as an intermediary between his people and the gods (later
referred to as Lugal, which means “big man”)

Society was organized hierarchically, as depicted in this detail from the Royal
Standard of Ur

The Ensi, who also served as high priest, is located on top, while the farmers and
laborers who serve him are represented below
Ensi

The Ensi is depicted larger than the other figures in the scene – a convention known
as hieratic, or hierarchic scale, where size is used to indicate importance
Ensi

The Sumerians were “polytheistic” – which means they worshipped many gods
Image source: http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/home_set.html

They believed that the gods controlled everything, including the weather and the
crops, so religion became a way of gaining control over their environment
Image source: http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/home_set.html

The Sumerians imagined their gods to be very much like themselves, but they
differed from humans in significant ways

One major difference was that the gods were immortal; they also possessed
something the Sumerians called “melammu” – which means a kind of divine aura or
radiance

Much of our information about the gods and goddesses comes from cuneiform
tablets, and cylinder seals, which were made by rolling a carved cylinder onto soft
clay, leaving an impression

The Seal of Adda. Akkadian Period, 2350 BC - 2100 BCE
British Museum
This cylinder seal depicts several Mesopotamian gods, who can be identified by their
attributes

An “attribute” refers to any symbol that can be used to identify who a figure is – a
pitchfork and horns, for example, is a common attribute of the Devil)

British Museum
The figure with water and fish springing from his shoulders is Enki, the god of water
Enki

British Museum
He is accompanied by Usimu, his two-faced attendant god
Usimu

British Museum
Shamash, the sun god, can be seen rising like the sun between two mounds
symbolizing mountains; he uses a serrated knife to cut his way through, while flames
emanate from his shoulders like rays of light
Shamash

British Museum
The goddess Inanna (later known as Ishtar) stands atop the mound with wings
spread full and facing frontally. Weapons sprout from her shoulders, while she
clutches a cluster of dates, allusions to her role as the goddess of war and fertility
Inanna

British Museum
To the left is a hunting god, possibly Nusku; he wears a beard (like the other male
gods) and carries a bow and quiver,
Hunting god

British Museum
All of the gods are depicted wearing headgear with multiple rows of horns

Statuette of Sumerian minor goddess Lamma. Copper. H. cm,
W. cm. Old Babylonian Period, BCE. Tell el-Muqayyar (ancient
Ur), Iraq. British Museum
A Sumerian bronze figure of a deity. Circa early 2nd
Millennium B.C.

Similar to the horned helmets worn by Vikings (which by the way is a myth), the
horned headgear was one of the most definitive attributes of the gods, and probably
symbolized their supernatural (or bull-like) powers

Sumerian Wall Plaque Showing a Libation Scene, c. 2500 BCE
British Museum
Image source: http://www.ancient.eu/image/2870/
The Sumerians believed the gods were capricious (i.e. they were “random” in their
actions). Praying to the gods was therefore the only way to control their environment

British Museum
This wall plaque depicts worshippers offering a “libation” (some sort of liquid offering)
to a seated god who wears the distinctive horned cap of divinity
Worshippers
Seated God

British Museum
Down below we see worshippers bringing offerings to a temple
Worshippers
Temple

Sumerian Wall Plaque Showing a Libation Scene
British Museum
As the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History explains, the gods were “feared and admired
rather than loved,” and humans were expected to serve them as masters:

British Museum
“Generally speaking, gods lived a life of ease and slumber. While humans were
destined to lives of toil, often for a marginal existence, the gods of heaven did no
work. Humankind was created to ease their burdens and provide them with daily
care and food. Humans, but not animals, thus served the gods. Often aloof, the gods
might respond well to offerings, but at a moment’s notice might also rage and strike
out at humans with a vengeance that could result in illness, loss of livelihood, or
death.”
Mesopotamian Deities, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

Sumerian stone plaque showing ritual offerings to a King
Istanbul Archaeological Museum
Image source: http://www.gettyimages.ae/detail/news-photo/sumerian-stone-plaque-showing-ritual-offerings-to-a-king-news-photo/501582077#sumerian-stone-pla
As we will see, most of the art and architecture produced in Sumeria was created for
the purpose of appeasing the gods

Thanks for listening
Next up: The Ziggurat

Reconstruction of the Ziggurat of Eanna
Image source: https://vimeo.com/58910002
The importance of religion in Mesopotamian society can be seen in the Ziggurat, a
distinctive form of religious architecture that emerged in ancient Sumeria

Technical reconstruction of the Eanna ziggurat of the 21st century BCE in the central district of Uruk (Warka, Iraq), source: © artefacts-berlin.de, material:
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
The Ziggurat is a massive structure that rises in a succession of tiers towards the
heavens, and is made of mud brick

Image source: https://stratmastorisphotography.com/industrial/
Mud brick is made by forming clay in rectangular frames, and then baking them in the
sun to form bricks

The base of the Ziggurat is solid, and the small structure on the top is called the “cella,”
which the Sumerians referred to as the “waiting room of the gods”
Cella

Ramps leading up to the temple suggest ceremonial or ritual use – but it also reflects the
hierarchical organization of Sumerian society, as only the elites would have had access
to the small temple on top

The Ziggurat formed part of a larger temple precinct, where food surpluses would be
collected, stored, and re-distributed to the community
Artist’s reconstruction of the ancient city of Ur
Image source: http://spiritualpilgrim.net/05_World-Cultures/02_Ancient-Civilization/02a_Mesopotamia-2.htm

Visible from great distances, the Ziggurat served as the focal point of the city, and
reflected the central role of religion in every aspect of daily life
Artist’s reconstruction of the ancient city of Ur
Image source: http://spiritualpilgrim.net/05_World-Cultures/02_Ancient-Civilization/02a_Mesopotamia-2.htm

Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 BCE
Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jmcfall/46769922/in/photostream/
The best preserved Ziggurat is the Ziggurat of Ur, which was built in 2100 BCE by King
Ur-Nammu during the Neo-Sumerian period (which we will study later)

Stele of Ur-Nammu, c. 2100 BCE
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology
It was dedicated to the Moon god Nanna, pictured here on a fragment of the Stele of Ur-
Nammu, seated on a throne and wearing the distinctive horned headdress that identifies
him as a god

In this aerial photograph you can see that the base is solid, but the small temple at the
top no longer survives

Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jmcfall/46769922/in/photostream/
The Ziggurat of Ur has been restored twice – once, in the 6th century BCE by a
Babylonian king, and then again in the 1980s by Saddam Hussein, who recognized its
cultural historical importance

U.S. Soldiers from the 17th Fires Brigade make their way up the reconstructed stairs of the Ziggurat of Ur, Iraq, near Contingency Operating Base Adder,
May 18, 2010. Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Soldiers_climbing_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur.jpg
But the building suffered minor damage during the Gulf war in the 1990s – a reminder
that many of the ancient artifacts we are studying are located in a politically unstable
part of the world, and are in constant danger of destruction

Next up: Sumerian Votive Statues

Norton Western Civ
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/western-
civilization17/ch/01/images.aspx
8 Features of civilization
http://www.p12.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/ghgonline/projects/8Features
Civilization.pdf

British Museum
As we have seen, humans were expected to provide constant care for the gods
through offerings of food and drink

British Museum
We know that cult statues were created to represent the gods, and the gods were
believed to literally inhabit the statues after being animated by special rituals

Standing Male Worshipper, 2900-2350 BCE
Metropolitan Museum
Statues representing worshippers making offerings to the gods were also created

Metropolitan Museum
This statue of a male worshipper was found in the “Square Temple” at Tell Asmar, and
represents a bearded man wearing a long tufted skirt, with his hands clasped in prayer,
and a wide-eyed attentive expression on his face

Metropolitan Museum
The purpose of these “votive statues” was to offer constant prayer to the god on behalf
of the owner

Metropolitan Museum
Just as the god was believed to literally inhabit the cult statue, humans were equally
blieved to be “present” in their statues

Image source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/04/041129.diyala.shtml
Large hoards of these votive statues have been found buried in temples, as
seen in this phtograph of an excavation site

Votive Statues from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (Tell Asmar), c. 2900 - 2350 BCE
Image source: http://i.imgur.com/LHOQW.jpg
Made of gypsum, a type of soft stone, they vary in size and costume, but share several
common characteristics

Their hands are clasped in prayer, or they carry offerings
Their heads are tilted to the sky
They have large staring eyes – usually inlaid with shell, or colored stone

Metropolitan Museum
Men wear tufted or fringed skirts, and women wear tufted or fringed dresses draped over
the shoulder
Standing Female Worshipper, 2600-2550 BCE
Metropolitan Museum

Some of the men wear long beards, which was probably a sign of status, while others
are bald and shaved

The difference in size and costume probably reflected social status or occupation

The man in the center, for example, can be identified as a scribe because of his bald
head and tufted skirt

Ebih-Il, the Superintendent of Mari
c.2400 BC E Louvre
This statue depicts Ebih-Il, the Superintendant of Mari. Like the standing votive statues,
his hands are clasped in prayer, and his eyes are unnaturally enlarged as he gazes
upon the gods

Ebih-Il, the Superintendent of Mari
c.2400 BC E Louvre
His head is shaved, and he wears a sheepskin skirt called a kanauke. This was the
traditional costume of the Sumerian priesthood, scribes, and high officials

Metropolitan Museum
Although the statues are meant to represent individual donors, they are not “portraits” in
a true sense (i.e. they don’t actually “look like” them).
Metropolitan Museum

Metropolitan Museum
Instead, they are “abstract” representations of the “idea” of a person, rather than a
faithful likeness
Metropolitan Museum

Metropolitan Museum
The process of abstraction involves simplifying perceived reality into simple shapes,
eliminating unnecessary detail, as in this artits’s mannikin

Metropolitan Museum
In this statue, the body has been reduced to simple cylinders and spheres; there is little
attention to realistic anatomy, or the sense of an actual body beneath the drapery

His hair is simplified to a zig-zag pattern, and his nose is a simplified wedge-shaped
form; it is more like a cartoon image than a recognizable portrait

Votive Statues, Square Temple at Eshnunna
(Tell Asmar) c. 2700 BCE
Iraq Museum, Baghdad
But the abstract quality of these Sumerian votive statues would seem to suit their
purpose

Votive Statues, Square Temple at Eshnunna
(Tell Asmar) c. 2700 BCE
Iraq Museum, Baghdad
The purpose of the statues, after all, was to worship the gods, rather than commemorate
the individual

Frozen in an attitude of pious prayer for all time, the statues embody the idea of eternal
service to the gods!
At your
service
I’ll be here
forever!
I only have
eyes for you,
Lord

John M. Lundquist, "What Is a Temple? A Preliminary Typology” in Temples of the Ancient World (1994)

Next up: The Warka Vase

Votive Plaque with libation to a vegetation goddess, c. 2500 BCE
Louvre
http://www.louvre.fr/en/routes/great-goddess

Votive Plaque with libation to a vegetation goddess, c. 2500 BCE
Louvre
“This plaque, sculpted in low relief and featuring a hole in its center, is characteristic of
the period of the archaic Sumerian dynasties, from the 3rd millennium BC. The hole was
probably used to attach the plaque to a wall by means of a pin, in the votive part of a
temple. The decoration depicts a libation carried out by a man in ritual nudity, no doubt
the king or an important priest.
The officiant pours a liquid into a tall vessel, out of the top of which protrudes a branch
bearing two date clusters. The religious ceremony takes place in the presence of a
fertility goddess, wearing a plumed tiara, the mark of her divinity. The goddess's function
is symbolized by the palms that spring from her shoulders. She stands atop a sacred
mountain, traditionally represented by a scale motif. This allows us to identify the
goddess as Ninhursag, whose name in Sumerian means "the Woman (nin) of the
Mountain (hursag)". She is the incarnation of the primordial figure of the Earth-Mother.
This entire scene, clearly mythological in nature, illustrates the power of religious ritual,
which ensures harmonious growth for the date palm, seen as a symbol of natural fertility
and prosperity. This power is seen in the goddess's intervention, whose life-generating
action responds to her worshipers' religious fervor.”
“The Great Goddess, Myths of Fertility,” Louvre Museum Visitor Trail

The Warka Vase is a carved stone vessel dating to c. 3200-3000 BCE
Warka Vase, Uruk, c. 3200-2000 BCE,
alabaster, 3’ 14”h

It was found in a temple complex dedicated to the Goddess Inanna in the ancient
city of Uruk

The Warka Vase is reputed to be the first known work of narrative art in history
“Narrative art” - art that tells a story

The imagery is organized into horizontal bands called registers to create a story that
unfolds in time — much like a comic strip cartoon

The general theme of the vase is the annual harvest festival honoring the fertility
goddess Inanna

During this festival, the ritual marriage between the priest-king (Ensi) and Inanna’s
priestess guaranteed the fertility of the crops

Food was brought to the goddess to thank her for her bounty (remember, the gods
required constant supplication), and it was then stored in the temple and redistributed to
the community

Subject Matter Description

The bottom register depicts stylized plant
forms (symbolizing the crops) above
wavy lines symbolizing water

On the next register, animals proceed in
an orderly row, symbolizing the
domesticated animals that were crucial to
the Sumerian agricultural economy

On the third register, nude servants
march in a procession carrying baskets
overflowing with food (the harvest).

Although nudity usually carries negative
connotations in ancient art (defeated
enemies are typically shown nude to
communicate their lower status), in this
context the figures are nude and clean
shaven to symbolize their ritual purity in
the presence of the goddess

On the top register, Inanna (or her priestess) receives these
offerings

She wears a long robe, and although damaged, she wears
the horned crown that identifies her as a divinity

The goddess stands before two bundled reeds (cuneiform symbol for “temple”), and
behind her we can see vases and baskets of food already being inventoried and stored
by temple attendants

BOTTOM REGISTER
Wavy lines = “water”
Plants = the crops
Animals = the herds
Repetition = infinite
supply
Naked servants carry
gifts to the goddess to
thank her for her
bounty
Nudity = “purity”
Priest-King
approaches the
goddess – ritual
marriage ensures
abundance of crops
Goddess Inanna
receives gifts
Wears horned
head gear
Gifts are stored in
temple, and will be
redistributed to the
community

Analysis of Style

Register format: horizontal registers are used to organize the imagery into a coherent
sequence

This was a significant break with the haphazard placement of imagery that was common
in the past

We also see the use of a ground line, which establishes a sense of place

Paleolithic art did not have a ground line, so it was difficult to determine where the
ground was

A ground line is
simply a line that
establishes a sense
of “place” or
“ground”

The animals are depicted in twisted perspective, much like we saw in Paleolithic art

The human figures are also depicted in a kind of “twisted perspective” since their heads
are shown from the side, but their eyes are depicted straight on, as if seen from the front

This convention is called the “composite pose” (since it is a composite of frontal and
profile views), and will be seen again in Egyptian art

The size and placement of the imagery is also an important factor in the communication
of meaning

The goddess and the priest-king are on top, closest to the realm of the gods

They are also larger in scale – a convention known as “hieratic scale,” where size is
used to indicate importance

And finally, we see humans “serving the gods,” reflecting the relationship between
humans and gods that you read about in this week’s homework assignment

VOCABULARY
Inanna Fertility Goddess
Ensi Priest King
Register Format Horizontal bands used
to organize imagery

VOCABULARY
Ground line A line that establishes a sense of place
or “ground”
Composite Pose When the human figure is depicted
from several different perspectives
(similar to twisted perspective)
Hieratic Scale The use of size to indicate importance

Kingship also emerged in ancient Sumeria
Ashmolean museum

According to the Sumerian King List (a tablet listing all of the Sumerian kings, and the
length of their reigns), kingship descended from the heavens
Ashmolean museum

Cylinder Seal with King, c. 3200 BCE
Louvre Museum
In the earliest phases of development, the En (which means lord) served as high priest,
and was characterized as a shepherd of his people

Cylinder Seal with King, c. 3200 BCE
Louvre Museum
As Jennie Meyers explains:
“The position of en appears to have combined religious and political
responsibilities; the en of Uruk was both a priest of the goddess Inana, acting as
her spouse and taking part in the various rituals and festivals in her temple, and
the caretaker of his people, ensuring that they were safe and well supplied with
goods”
Jennie Meyers, “Mesopotamia: Earliest Rulers,” Rulership and Justice, Teaching
the Middle East: A Resource of Educators, University of Chicago

Perforated Relief of Ur-Nanshe, First King of Lagash, c. 2550-2500 BCE
Louvre Museum
As cities grew, the position of kingship evolved, and the En was replaced by an Ensi,
whose responsibilities included the construction of temples and statues, as well as
military protection of the city

Louvre Museum
This relief depicts the first known king of Lagash, and according to the Sumerian King
List, the first ruler to adopt the title of “lugal,” meaning literally “big man”

Louvre Museum
On the top register we see Ur-Nanshe, clean shaven and wearing the kanauke skirt –
the traditional costume of a high priest and scribe
Ur-Nanshe

Louvre Museum
He carries a basket of bricks on his head to symbolize his participation in the
construction of a temple, probably that of Ningirsu, the divine protector of the state of
Lagash

Louvre Museum
The image was probably not meant to be taken literally (i.e. it is not likely that the king
actually engaged in manual labor!), but instead was intended to symbolize his role as
the builder and protector of the foundations of the city

Louvre Museum
The king is accompanied by his wife and family, their identities indicated by inscriptions,
and his importance is indicated through the use of hierarchic scale – he is, literally, the
“big man” in this image
King’s wife King’s sons and high
functionaries

Louvre Museum
On the lower register, Ur-Nanshe
appears again, presiding over a
ceremony inaugurating the temple Ur-Nanshe

Louvre Museum
He is again accompanied by his sons and
high functionaries (in descending order of
importance, as well as a servant who carries
a vessel, ready to replenish the king’s cup

Victory Stele of Eannatum (Stele of the Vultures), c. 2600-2500 BCE
Louvre Museum
Sumerian kings were also responsible for protecting their people from foreign invaders

Louvre Museum
As city states competed with one another for land, resources, and power, military
conquest became an increasingly important ingredient of an emerging “iconography of
power”

Louvre Museum
This stele (a carved stone slab) depicts the Sumerian King Eannatum leading armored
soldiers into battle on the top register, and presiding over a victory parade in the
fragmentary section of the register below

Louvre Museum
The king is (of course) larger than everyone else, as he
marches fearlessly into battle, protected by the gods
Eannatum leads
army into battle
Eannatum leads victory
parade

Louvre Museum
The image of the king as “conquering hero,” and in close proximity to the gods, will
become a standard feature of the ancient “iconography of power”

Royal Standard of Ur, Royal Cemetery at Ur, c. 2600 BCE
British Museum
One of the most famous examples of Sumerian art is the so-called Royal Standard of Ur,
which was found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, along with many objects and adornments
that testify to the great wealth of the kings of Ur

British Museum
It is a rectangular box with sloping sides and is decorated with inlaid shell, red limestone,
and lapis lazuli — materials that testify to a thriving trade economy, since all of these
materials would have come from far away – the lapiz lazuli from Afghanistan, the white
shells from the Persian gulf, and the red stones from India

British Museum
The function of the object remains uncertain, but one theory is that it was carried in
processions on a pole, like a flag or a “standard” (hence the title); others think it could
have been a musical instrument

British Museum
The war side of the panel depicts a battle, and registers are used once again to organize
the imagery into a story that unfolds through time

British Museum
On the bottom register, chariots advance on the enemy
Bottom register: chariots advance on the enemy

British Museum
Their victory is indicated by trampled bodies beneath the horse’s legs, and a progression
in time is indicated from left to right as the number of trampled figures multiply
1 2 3

The artist indicates multiple horses by using a technique called “overlapping” — the
multiple legs on the horses indicates more than one horse, even though there is no
convincing illusion of deep space

British Museum
On the middle register, soldiers lead a procession of captured enemies
Soldiers lead a procession of captured enemies

The soldiers march in disciplined order, wearing military cloaks and ehlmets, and
carrying weapons at the ready

The prisoners, in contrast, appear disorderly to signify their defeat; they are also naked,
signifying their low status. In the ancient Near East, clothing was an important signifier
of social standing, so to be stripped of clothing is to be stripped of rank

British Museum
On the top register, the prisoners are presented to the king
Prisoners presented to the king

The king is identifiable through the use of hierarchic scale – in fact, he is so large that he
breaks the uppermost line of the register
King

His attendants appear behind him in gradually descending size, indicating their
correspondingly descending rank. In Sumerian art, size really does matter!
Attendants

On the peace side we see the king and his officials enjoying a banquet in the upper
register
The king and his officials enjoy a banquet

Seated on stools they hold cups in their hands, and are accompanied by servants and
musicians

This man plays a harp, similar to one that was excavated at the Royal Cemetary at Ur

The king can be identified by his larger size, and the tufted kanauke skirt

On the second register, we see the workers leading donkeys and bulls, presumably to
serve the elite members depicted on the upper register, and at the bottom we see
workers carrying heavy loads on their backs. Clearly, the “good life” was available to
only a privileged few in this society!

Sumeria

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