Rats And Humans And The Carcinogenic Effects Of Brence

Rats And Humans And The Carcinogenic Effects Of Brence
6.4. Rats and mice Rats have been used extensively for decades as a model for human mycotoxicoses especially with regard to the carcinogenic
potential of AF. This model system, however, has been a subject for debate due to the differences in the detoxification mechanisms between rats and
humans as shown by cytosolic conjugation of AFB1 in vitro (Raney et al., 1992). In contrast to rats, mice are generally resistant to the
hepatocarcinogenic effects of AFB1. This may explain the high level of glutathione–S–transferase (GST) activity in mice challenged with AFB1
(Quinn et al., 1990). Contrary to the hepatocellular carcinomas commonly found in rat studies with AFB1, mice given AFB1 by intraperitoneal
injection at 0.02 mg/kg of body weight... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a 155–day feeding trial, AFB1 (600 lg/kg) was shown to depress feed efficiency and rate of gain in steers. Decreased feed efficiency in cattle has
been attributed to compromised ruminal function by reducing cellulose digestion, volatile fatty acid (i.e. acetate, propionate, and butyrate) production
and rumen motility (Diekman and Green, 1992). Several mechanisms of bovine immunosuppression by AFB1 have been illustrated in vitro; (Sharma,
1993) demonstrated that AFB1 suppressed mitogen–induced stimulation of peripheral lymphocytes. In another study (Bodine et al., 1984), AFB1 was
shown to inhibit bovine lymphocyte blastogenesis. Ochratoxins, on the other hand, do not cause significant toxicity to cattle when fed alone in
naturally occurring doses. Barley naturally–contaminated with OTA (390–540 lg/kg) and low levels of AFB1 (12–13 lg/kg) did not induce any
significant clinical symptoms in 12–week–old calves. T–2 toxin is also believed to induce immunosuppression in cattle by decreasing serum
concentrations of IgM, IgG, and IgA, neutrophil functions and lymphocyte blastogenesis, and the response of lymphocytes to phytohemagglutinin
(Cantiello et al., 2007). This toxin was also shown to induce necrosis of lymphoid tissues. Bovine infertility and abortion in the final trimester of
gestation also have resulted from consumption of feed contaminated with T–2 toxin (Placinta et al., 1999).
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Delivery of Low Molecular Drugs Using Chitosan and Its...
Delivery of low molecular drugs using chitosan and its derivatives
1.Introduction
The primary focus of this term paper consists of two parts. First, review chitosan–based drug delivery system for the delivery of traditional low
molecular weight drugs based on a review paper titled "targeted delivery of low molecular drugs using chitosan and its derivatives" (Advanced Drug
delivery reviews, 2010). Second, critique an original research paper about hydrotropic oligomer–conjugated glycol chitosan as a carrier for
tumor–targeted paclitaxel delivery, which was published in Journal of Controlled Release in 2013 (title: Enhanced drug–loading and therapeutic
efficacy of hydrotropic oligomer–conjugated glycol chitosan nanoparticles for tumor–targeted paclitaxel delivery).
Chitosan, a linear aminopolysaccharide composed of randomly distributed (1в†’4) linked D–glucosamine and N–acetyl–D–glucosamine units, is
obtained by the deacetylation of chitin, a structural element in the exoskeleton of crustaceans, which is the second most abundant natural biopolymer
after cellulose (Fig. 1). The most easily exploited sources of chitin are the protective shells of crabs and shrimp. The primary aliphatic amines of
chitosan can be protonated under acidic conditions (amine pKa is 6.3). Fig 1. Chemical structure of chitosan
Research showed that long circulating macromolecules (polymer–drug conjugates) and nano–sized particulates (such as micelles and liposomes)
accumulate passively at the

Symptoms And Treatment Of Pancreatic Cancer
Introduction:
Intraductal papillary mucinous duct neoplasms of the pancreas (IPMN–p) are one of the subtypes of cystic neoplasms of the pancreas. They are
neoplasms that arise in the pancreatic ducts and can be visualized as they are usually greater than 0.5 inch in length. They are comprised of tall
mucin–producing columnar cells, that have the capability of transforming into pancreatic cancer if left untreated. Their ability to develop into
pancreatic cancer is one of the main reasons behind their significance. IPMNs commonly exhibit cell atypia, papillary propagation, and cyst production.
Their main feature is the ability to produce copious amounts of fluid.
In general pancreatic cysts are not an uncommon finding on abdominal computerized tomography (CT) scans. A study done at University College
Dublin in 2008, in which, 2,832 abdominal CT scans were evaluated for presence of pancreatic cysts, showed that 2.6% of people have pancreatic
cysts. These patients had no history of pancreatic disease, and had no pancreatic symptoms at the time of the scan i.e the abdominal scan was done
for other reasons. Pancreatic cysts increased with age, with zero cysts found in patients below 40 and up to 8.7% of scans of those above 80 years of
age had cysts present. (12)
IPMNs of the pancreas can occur in either the main pancreatic duct or in one of its branches. The smaller the branch size in which the neoplasm arose,
the higher the likelihood of a less aggressive neoplasm. Tumors

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Liposomes
Liposomes
Liposomes are artificial vesicles with lipid bilayer which are made of phospholipids and cholesterol. Liposomes have certain limitations like tendency
to be taken up by the RES system, in the body. When given orally they increases the absorption, clinical potency, and decreases the toxicity of the drug.
As they also resembles nanoemulsions in transparency, fluid like consistency, they are also good for cosmetic preparations.
Every new approach in the targeted therapy of rheumatoid arthritis could contribute to the effectiveness in treating the chronic disease.
Advantages of Lipids Lipids are a class of materials which includes fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, waxes and sterols etc. They
may be poorly soluble in water, but have other characteristic properties like hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions which can be identified by their fatty
acid composition, melting point, HLB value, and their solubility in solvents like Glycerine and other organic solvents. Vegetable oils and primarily used
in the preparation of different types of formulations. A adult's... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They also provide a favourable hydrophobic environment to delay the drug release. This characteristic property has been extensively used in the
development of sustained release dosage forms like beads, tablets, suspensions, implants. Their hydrophobic properties can also be used for masking
the unpalatable taste of certain drugs by hot melt coating. Lipids also offer advantages for preparation of drugs with low melting point or poor
compression properties. Development of Lipid–based drug delivery system have been developed over the years, mostly for oral delivery. Formulations
can be classified as: Liquid lipid–based formulations eg. Emulsions or microemulsions (oil/water; water/oil, bicontinuous

Cholelithiasis Research Paper
Introduction
Cholelithiasis (also called gallstones) is a form of gallbladder disease in which gallstones form in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is an organ that
stores bile. Bile is made in the liver, and it helps digest fats. Gallstones begin as small crystals and slowly grow into stones. Gallstone pain occurs when
the gallbladder contracts and a gallstone is blocking the duct. Pain can also occur when a stone passes out of the duct.
What are the causes?
This condition [is / may be] caused by:
What increases the risk?
The following factors may make you more likely to develop this condition:
Being female.
Having multiple pregnancies. Health care providers sometimes advise removing diseased gallbladders before future pregnancies.
Eating a diet ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tenderness to the touch.
In some cases, when gallstones do not move into the bile duct, people have no pain or symptoms. These are called "silent" gallstones.
How is this diagnosed?
This condition [is / may be] diagnosed [by / based on / with / during] ____.
How is this treated?
Treatment for gallstones depends on the severity of the condition. Silent gallstones do not need treatment. In severe cases, emergency surgery may be
required. Options for treatment include:
Medicines. These do not always work and may take 6–12 months or more for them to work.
Shock wave treatment (extracorporeal biliary lithotripsy). In this treatment, an ultrasound machine sends shock waves to the gallbladder to break
gallstones into smaller pieces that can then be passed into the intestines, or be dissolved by medicine.
Surgery to remove the gallbladder. This is the most common treatment. Attacks almost always come back and surgery is usually required for permanent
treatment.
Follow these instructions at home:
Take over–the–counter and prescription medicines only as told by your health care provider.
Follow a low–fat diet until you are seen again by your health care provider. Fat causes the gallbladder to contract, which can result in

Evolution Of Bile Salts
What is bile?
Bile is a green–colored liquid used for digestion that is created by the liver and stored by the gallbladder. There are bile acids (bile salts). They are
used to absorb fats and for digestion. The absorption of fats happens in the small intestine.https://www.cancer.net/cancer–types/bile
–duct–cancer–cholangiocarcinoma/medical–illustrations
How and why is this important to evolution?
Bile has bile salts, or in other words, bile acids in it. Previous studies of fish, whose bile should remain the same no matter what they eat, have shown
that there were changes in the bile salt synthetic pathway. The original bile salt synthetic pathway was thin and very simple. Over many generations, it
has become longer

Cholelithiasis also knows as gallstones occurs in the gallbladder, the function of the gallbladder is to store and concentrate bile. Cholelithiasis occurs
when the balance that keeps cholesterol, calcium, bile salts solution is altered. The bile secreted by the liver is supersaturated with cholesterol
therefore it come out as a solid. Immobility, pregnancy and inflammation or obstructive lesions of the biliary system decreases bile flow. The stones
may stay in the gallbladder or move to the cystic duct or the common bile duct. The main clinical manifestations would be severe pain. The pain can be
so severe that is can cause diaphoresis and tachycardia, when the pain slows down the patients may notice a residual tenderness in the right upper

Peristalsis And Involuntary Muscle Contractions
The Alimentary Canal is a system which contains different sections and organs that work together to digest substances. Food substances pass through
the alimentary canal which starts at the mouth and eventually ends up at the anus. Ingestion is the consumption of a substance through the mouth e.g.
eating or drinking. The mouth increases surface area for chemical digestion as Salivary glands produce Saliva which contains amylase to breakdown
starch. Saliva also contains mineral salts to keep PH constant and Mucin to make food slimy and easier to pass down the oesophagus. Peristalsis is the
movement of food by coordinated involuntary muscle contractions. Peristalsis is used in the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines to transport food.
Digestion

Gall Bladder And Pancreas Research Paper
The pancreas and the gall bladder are two of the most important organs of the digestive system. Together they help with the digestion process. The
pancreas and the gall bladder work together with different functions, the gallbladder stores bile that comes from the liver so that it can be used for
meals later on and the pancreas produces pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes that help break down food. In order to maintain the body
stable and healthy, we need the help of the gallbladder and pancreas to function correctly. Which is why, we, as humans should take care of our
organs. ( Tim Taylor, Pancreas and Gall Bladder) The gallbladder, is located just behind theliver. The liver has bile ducts and that is how it is connected
to

An Investigation to Find the Effect of Bile Salts of on...
AN INVESTIGATION TO FIND THE EFFECT OF BILE SALTS OF ON THE DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
I have investigated that if there is an effect of bile salts on the digestion of lipids in the milk. When lipids are broken down in to fatty acids and
glycerol (see below), the acid lowers the pH of the mixture. To help me determine and measure the digestion of lipids, a pH indicator phenolphthalein
has been used to measure the pH of the mixtures. The pH indicator will change the colour from pink to either white (if bile is not contained) or brown
(if bile is contained), this will indicate that the solution is changing from alkaline to acidic. So if I want to use phenolphthalein, I will have to firstly
make the mixtures alkaline. This will be achieved by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
sx = в€‘x2– (в€‘x)2 n n– 1
I will draw a table in which I will work out 'в€‘x2' and '(в€‘x)2'. Treatment tube numberTime/seconds
(x)x2
810110201
9989604
1010310609
в€‘x = 302в€‘x2 = 30414
(в€‘x)2 = 91204
The standard deviation for the y:
Sx = в€‘x2– (в€‘x)2 nn n– 1 = (30414– (91204 Г· 3)) Г· 2 = (30414– 30401.3*) Г· 2 = 12.7 Г· 2 = 6.35 The standard deviation for the y:
Sy = в€‘y2– (в€‘y)2 n n n– 1
I will draw a table in which I will work out 'в€‘y2' and '(в€‘y)2'. Treatment tube numberTime/seconds
(y)y2
512144
614196
716256
в€‘x = 42в€‘x2 = 596
(в€‘x)2 = 1764

Sy = в€‘y2– (в€‘y)2 nn n– 1 = (596– (1764 Г· 3)) Г· 2 = (596– 588) Г· 2 = 8 Г· 2 = 4 My null hypothesis is that bile salts have no effect on the
digestion of lipid and lipase will still breakdown the fat, the reaction times will be the same.
The critical value of probability is 0.05. The critical value at '4' degrees of freedom with probability '0.05' is 2.776.
tcalc = x – y sx2 + sy2 n1

First Pass Metabolism
Liver is the main organ for the metabolism of exogenous material. As first pass metabolism is the major elimination route of many drugs the drug
exposure in the liver can be very high and hence there is a significant incidence of Drug Induced Liver Injury (DILI) associated with this.
The liver; as represented in figure 1 receives blood from two sources:
пЂArterial blood from the right and left hepatic arteries, which are branches of the coeliac axis2.
пЂVenous blood from the hepatic portal vein, which drains much of the alimentary tract, from the stomach to the rectum, and the spleen2.
Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic veins which drain in the inferior vena cava2.Bile is formed in the liver and drains from it into the right and left

Identification Of A Nuclear Receptor For Bile Acids
Introduction– background information(significance of addressing this problem towards biochem)/why are they doing the experiment/what question are
they trying to answer (broad/hypothesis)– at least one page
In biochemistry, we learn about ligands and receptors. A ligand is a molecule which binds to another molecule and a receptor is anything responding
to a particular signal; more specifically we look at proteins and their enzymes, proteins being the receptors of their signaling enzymes. Ligands can
have a high–affinity to binding or a low affinity to binding. Binding affinity refers to the strength of attraction between the ligand and receptor. A
receptor can bind to the same ligand, but can produce different signals. Signals in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is bound to bile acids it represses the transcriptional gene encoding cholesterol 7a–hydroxylase, as stated in the
"Identification of a Nuclear Receptor for Bile Acids". This enzyme is rate–limiting, helping to determine the rate of the bile acid synthesis, meaning it
slows down the synthesis from cholesterol to bile acid. Liver, intestine and kidney are tissues where farnesoid X receptor (FXR) are perfect bile
acid receptors. This is because bile acids are the primary pathway for cholesterol catabolism (Bile Acids and Metabolic Regulation), with synthesis
occurring in the liver, also learned in biochemistry. The experimenters test the hypothesis of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) being the bile acid receptor
using these bile acids: chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), deoxycholic acid (DCA), lithocholic acid (LCA), cholic acid (CA), dehydrocholic acid
(DHCA), ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), a– and b–muricholic acid, glycochenodeoxycholic acid (GCDCA), glycocholic acid (GCA),
taurochenodeoxycholic acid (TCDCA), taurocholic acid (TCA), taurodeoxycholic acid (TDCA) mentioned in the experiment,"Identification of a
Nuclear Receptor for Bile Acids". Studying bile acids is important for biochemistry because it gives insight into metabolism, which impacts all cellular
functions as well as help understand the regulation involved during

Pp Lab Report Digestion Essay
LABORATORY REPORT
Activity:
Effect of Dietary Fiber on Transit Time and Bile
Name:
Hope Schallert
Instructor:
Dr. Weithop
Date:
03.08.2015
Predictions
Dietary fiber will: increase transit time
Dietary fiber will increase the amount of bile acid in solution
Materials and Methods
Effect of Dietary Fiber on Transit Time
1. Dependent variable. number of radiopaque markers in GI tract
2. Independent variable. amount and type of fiber in meal
3. Controlled variables. calories in meal, nutrients in meal

Effect of Dietary Fiber on Bile Acid Adsorption
1. Dependent variable. amount of bile acids in solution
2. Independent variable. amount of fiber in meal
3. Controlled variables. moisture in meal, size of meal particles, calories and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
again I am going to assume this is soluble since I have not done it yet RC42 17 0 LC33 21 4 SC13 17 4Total 83 54 8
8. Which meal had the least percentage of markers in the total colon at 24 hours?
Insoluble fiber–rich diet
Table 5. Effect of Dietary Fiber on Bile Acid Adsorption
Experimental Optical density (OD) of colored filtrate (reflects amount of bile 1 – OD (reflects amount of bile acid adsorbed by food particles)
Trials
acid in filtrate)
Bile Acid
Standard
Standard Fiber–Rich Fiber–rich
Bile Acid
Standard
Standard Fiber–Rich Fiber–rich
With Buffer meal without meal with
Meal
meal with With Buffer meal without meal with
Meal
meal with
Solution (No bile bile acid Without Bile bile acid Solution (No bile bile acid Without Bile bile acid
Fibers)
Fibers)
1
1
0
0.47
0
0.32
0
1
0.53

1
0.68
2
1
0
0.45
0
0.3
0
1
0.55
1
0.70
3
1
0
0.51
0
0.41
0
1
0.49
1
0.59
Average
1
0
0.48
0
0.34
0
1
0.52
1
0.66

Effect of Dietary Fibers on Bile Acid Adsorption
9. Which had the greatest average OD (amount of bile acid in filtrate), the standard meal with bile acid or the fiber–rich meal with bile acid? Standard
meal
10. Which had the greatest average 1– OD (amount of bile acid adsorbed to meal particles), the standard meal with bile acid or the fiber–rich meal with
bile acid? fiber rich meal
Laboratory Report/ Hope Schallert/ Effect of Dietary Fiber on Transit Time and Bile/ Dr.

Jerome Groover: The Man Who Changed My Life
"At this moment there are 6,470,818,671 people in the world. Some are running scared. Some are coming home. Some tell lies to make it through the
day. Others are just now facing the truth. Some are evil men, at war with good. And some are good, struggling with evil. Six billion people in the
world. Six billion souls. And sometimes –– all you need is one."(One Tree Hill) Jerome Groover was my one soul that was needed every day. His last
couple months on this planet were my life altering experience. From August 2015– the rest of my life had a long–lasting impact amongst myself, from
sitting in hospital rooms, meeting new doctors every other day, and seeing new faces often was my life for those couple months. Going through all of
this made me realize some of the saddest truths to life, and that really opened up a new perspective, making my life altered.
Jerome Groover was the man whose hospital visits were attended, he was my grandpa. He had major health issues throughout his life, and at the age of
seventy he was diagnosed with Cholangiocarcinoma, also known as bile duct cancer. This type of cancer has less than 20,000 cases a year. We weren't
aware of the cancer until a month before ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Learning to cherish time more and to have such a deeper respect for the people whom you've never actually had a real conversation with were
absolutely the smallest lessons I learned in this experience, and those are the biggest things to life. The things I came across in those months will
forever surpass my knowledge, knowing that I will never be able to fully open this topic, even to myself. This event has forever impacted me in so
many ways, emotionally and physically, and they are unexplainable. Sometimes you realize that the things you need most will be taken away from you,
quicker than expected. Jerome Groover was my one needed

Essay On Biodegradable Stents
Since the late eighties, stenting has been the primary means of treating stenosed passageways within the body. This started with self–expanding bare
metal stents; however, these stents could eventually lead to restenosis of vessels. In the Gastrointestinal system in particular, these stents tend to
migrate and are difficult to remove at a later date. Though stenting in the GI system with these methods initially treated the pathologies, they could lead
to additional cost and stress to the patient later on. With the recent development of biodegradable stents, this problem could be eliminated. With the use
of biodegradable materials or biomaterials in stenting, the complications from metal of even plastic stenting could be eliminated due to... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This metabolism is facilitated by the body's natural pH of 7–7.4 which is conducive to this process (2).
Biodegradable stents have been used for treatment of refractory benign stenoses including those in the ureters, urethra, trachea, bile ducts, pancreas,
small intestine, colon and esophagus (3). The first biodegradable stents for the gastrointestinal tract were made from polylactic acid and were
developed by Goldin (4). He tested this stent on several patients to treat esophageal stenoses; however, his prototypes were unable to maintain
sufficient radial force for longer than three weeks and they also degraded too quickly. Later, advancements were made with a material called
polydioxanone, which is a crystalline, biodegradable polymer with many ester–linkages. This type of stent had greater integrity and retained its radial
force for 6 to 8 weeks after placement, and in 11 to 12 weeks, the stents began to degrade. The degradation speed was also linked to pH; the lower the
pH or the more acidic, the faster the stent fragmented (1).
Biodegradable stents have found great use in treating stenoses of the esophagus and achalasia. Esophageal stenoses are generally related to
gastroesophageal reflux developed after esophageal surgery or radiation therapy (5). Typically, this is treated with dilators and balloons and in 80% to
90% of cases it initially works, but 30% to 60% of patients see their stenoses recur (1). In order to keep their esophagi patent,

The Gallbladder Case Study
The gallbladder is located under the right lobe of the liver. It stores bile that produced by the liver until it releases into the duodenum to expedite
absorption of fats, fat–soluble vitamins, minerals which is part of the digestive system. According to Jorden's symptoms such as mild pain in
midepigastric region, radiating to the right upper quadrant of the abdomen and right subscapular are, as his nurse, I could acknowledge the reasons
cause all that symptoms are due to cholesterol problem. It's a major constituent of gallstone which is one of the gallbladder disorders. Patient who
experience it will be in a high risk of inflamed gallbladder due to a big heavy consumption of high–fat meal. And also because the gallbladder is located
under... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The pear–shaped organ's job is to collect and store bile to help the body digest fats. If it's not working, then it cannot digest fat. His body will store
that fats from days to days causing uncontrollable gain weight which at the end causing gallstones that lead to pain in the abdominal, bloating,
nausea, and vomiting (WebMD, 2016). Jordan is on 14 years old, and he weighs 275 pounds. That is one of the biggest risk of gallstones: obese. He
need to follow a low–fat diet and try to lose weight "slowly According to WebMD, here are the list of foods that good for Jordan's condition, include
fresh fruits and vegetables, lean meat, poultry, and fish, whole grains, and low–fat dairy products (2016). More importantly, what Jordan did to try to
lose weight is incorrect, he has to lose weight but gradually, not go for couple days without eating that is an incorrect way. He also has to try to avoid
food that contain high–fat foods such as fried foods, high processed foods, red meat. Also, exercising, participate in physical and social activities like
going to the gym on school days, communicate with his friends. Lastly, I will explain to his mom about the fat genes that she thinks it goes in the
family and there's nothing they can do about it. Jordan is very

What Are Branches And Thies Affect The Skins Of Human Skin
The cheeks are composed of subcutaneous fat, covered with outer skin. The fat is atop the facial muscles responsible for assisting a person for
speech, the chewing of food in the mouth and facilitating facial expressions. Moist stratified squamous epithelium line the inner layers of the cheeks.
The opening of the oral cavity is formed by the meeting of the anterior regions of the cheeks and the posterior region of the lips. The lips are
responsible for manipulating speech–related functions. One of the most easily movable organs of the human body, the lips are primarily made up of
flesh. The lips are also in charge of helping the teeth process the food, transport the food into the mouth, and making it possible for infants to suck milk
during infancy.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They consist of an interior lining of moist stratified squamous epithelium and an exterior covering of skin. The substance of the cheek includes the
buccinators muscle which flattens the cheek against the teeth, and the buccal fat pad, which rounds out the profile on the side of the face. The lips
and cheeks are important in mastication and speech. They help manipulate food within the oral cavity and hold it in place while the teeth crush or
tear it. They also help form words when we speak. A large number of the muscles of facial expression are involved in moving the cheeks and lips. The
lips are muscular structures formed mostly by the orbicularis oris muscle and connective tissue. The outer surfaces of the lips are covered by

Galltone Gallbladder Case Study
Diagnosis: creating pictures of the Gallbladder– recommend an abdominal ultrasound and/or a (CT) computerized tomography scan to produce pictures
of your gallbladder. These images are then analyzed for the signs of gallstones.
Blood test to look for complications: the blood test may reveal jaundice, an infection, pancreatitis or other complications caused by Gallstone.
The organ system affected: The organ system that the disease Gallstone affects is the digestive system. Gallstone affects the Gallbladder The test
performed to diagnose the disease: the tests that are preformed to diagnose Gallstone is a, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) or hepatobiliary iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scan.

Gallstones Research Paper
What is Gallstones in Cats?
The cat's gallbladder is a small, balloon–shaped organ that is located in the lobes of the liver. Its primary function is releasing bile into the digestive
tract to aid in the digestion of food. Cholelithiasis is a condition that causes small stones, or choleliths, to form in the gallbladder. These stones are
typically made of calcium carbonate mixed with other secreted substance and minerals.
Though gallstones are rare in cats, the presence of large stones is a medical emergency as the stones can block the bile from being released and cause
problems with the liver, digestive system and the kidneys.
Symptoms of Gallstones in Cats
Symptoms may be mild or not present at all until the gallstone blocks the flow of bile from the gallbladder. Typical symptoms include:
Lack of appetite
Weight loss
Vomiting
Abdominal pain
Jaundice, which will present with yellowing of the inner ears, whites ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ultrasound will look for the presence of gallstones, inflammation of the liver, blockage of the bile duct, thickened gallbladder walls or an oversized
bile duct tract. An ultrasound can detect gallstones that are two millimeters or larger in size.
Treatment of Gallstones in Cats
No Treatment
Small gallstones that aren't causing symptoms or digestive problems may not need any treatment. These stones are typically found during an ultrasound
for another condition, such as pregnancy.

Medication
Antibiotics will be prescribed to the cat to clear infections or bacterial complications that are causing the gallstones to form. Antibiotics may also be
prescribed before surgery in order to prevent infection from occurring after surgery. Ursodeoxycholic acid may be prescribed twice a day in order to
dissolve small gallstones that aren't blocking the bile duct. S–Adenosylmethionine, or SAMe, may also be given in order to improve bile production
and function of the liver.
Intravaneous

Cholelithiasis, are the reaming's of the digestive fluid bile, which form within the gallbladder. They vary in size and shape from as small as a grain of
sand to as large as a golf ball.[1] Cholelithiasis occur when there is an imbalance in the chemical constituents of bile that result in precipitation of one
or more of the components. Gallstone disease is often thought to be a major affliction in modern society.[2] However, cholelithiasis must have been
known to humans for many years, since they have been found in the gallbladders of Egyptian mummies dating back to 1000 BC.[3,4] This disease is
however, a worldwide medical problem, even though there are geographical variations in gallstone prevalence[5,6,7,8,9,10,11] Cholelithiasis are
becoming increasingly common. They are seen in all age groups, but the incidence increases with age.[12] About a quarter of women over 60 years
will develop them.[13] In mostbcases they do not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Pakistan and in Western societies more than seventy percent of cholelithiasis are made of cholesterol, either pure or mixed with pigment,
mucoglycoprotein, and calcium carbonate. Pure cholesterol crystals are soft, and protein gives strength of cholesterol stones. Cholesterol cholelithiasis
form when the cholesterol concentration in bile surpasses the capability of bile to hold it in

Differences Involved In The Digestive System
The digestive system is one of the main organ systems. The first process in the digestive system is to consume the food. This is called ingestion. The
digestive system is what absorbs and breaks down the food and drinks that were eaten. The digestive organs break down food in two ways, mechanical
digestion and chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion, the processes starts from the mouth to the stomach. During this process the food gets broken
into smaller sizes. Then from there chemical digestions begins to occur. Chemical digestion is when many different enzymes break down the molecules
so that they can be absorbed. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth and continues in the intestines. The mouth does two things, mechanical
breakdown of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The food is changed into chyme which is a slimy material. The chyme gets mixed with highly acidic gastric juice and strong digestive enzymes in the
stomach. This is to prepare the chyme for the small intestine. There are hormones like gastine and molin that help move the chyme and pump gastric
juice. The chyme then goes to the first part of the small intestine called the duodenum. The small intestines have three parts which are the duodenum,
jejunum, and the ileum. The small intestines break down the chyme by enzymes from the pancreas and bile. The pancreas produces insulin which
controls metabolism in the blood and enzymes that break down fats, carbohydrates, and protein. Then the gallbladder releases the bile it stores into the
duodenum to absorb fats. The duodenum is mostly the continuous breakdown of the chyme while the jejunum and ileum absorb the nutrients. All the
nutrients get absorbed from the foods (vitamins, proteins, minerals, fats, and carbohydrates) that travel into the bloodstream throughout the body. This
is the third main function called absorption. The liver absorbs all the nutrients from the small intestines. Another thing that the liver does is it makes
chemicals from the nutrients it absorbs that the body needs. It also breaks down poisons and drugs in the body. From the small intestines come the
large intestines (colon) that are attached to the small

Gallstones Research Paper
Gallstones are described as digestive fluid that has hardened which can be very painful. They form in the gallbladder which is a pear shaped organ
that is located on the right side of of the abdomen right underneath the liver. Gallstones can be many sizes which varies how much the pain is. They
can be as small as a crumb to a size of a golf ball! Ouch! Also, some people have more than one, while other people may just have one. More than
likely, you will have symptoms if you have gallstones and if you do have symptoms, most people have to get gallstone removal surgery. These
symptoms may include, sudden pain in your upper right side of the abdomen or under the breast, back pain between shoulder blades, right shoulder
pain, nausea, or vomiting.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
You need to seek immediate care when you are experiencing so much pain you can't sit comfortable, skin is turning yellow, whitening of eyes, high
fever, and chills. There are different types of gallstones and these types consist of cholesterol gallstones and pigment gallstones. Cholesterol gallstones
are the most common type of gallstones. These gallstones contain mostly undissolved cholesterol and are yellow in color. Pigment gallstones are when
your bile contain too much bilirubin and are either black or brown in color. The cause of gallstones are not yet completely found but doctors figure
they are caused by either your bile containing to much cholesterol, bile containing to much bilirubin, or by your gallbladder not emptying correctly.
Doctors can diagnose gallstones in many ways. Either through blood test, MRCP, HIDA scan, endoscopic ultrasound, and ERCP. Treatment for
gallstones vary. It depends on how bad they are, and size. Most people get surgery to remove their gallstones because of the pain. There are two
diffrent types of surgerys to remove gallstones and they are called Laparoscopic cholecystectomy and open

Bumble Bee Digestive System Research Paper
The purpose of the digestive system is to transport food to the ventricles of the bumble bee, further break down food to be absorbed into the via the
blood, and to excrete what can't be used as waste. Their digestive system can be divided into three various parts called the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut. A long piece of proboscis ends with a spoon–like appendage, fully equipped with longish thick hair, to function as a tongue for bumble bees.
Food rises to the throat by a thin capillary tube located in the middle of the piece of proboscis. By creating a sucking movement with the muscles of
the pharynx, the bee can accelerate feeding. The esophagus runs from the head and into the abdomen to form a honey goiter. The honey goiter can hold
up to

GST T1-1
Study Information (Type of study, Location, Purpose, Study Design, Subjects, Subject Selection)
This was a cross–sectional study done to determine the relationship of 1,2–Dichloropropane (1,2–DCP) and cholangiocarcinoma in Japanese men
working in a printing company. The researchers took men who had developed the disease already, compared theirliver and bile duct samples to those of
healthy individuals, and found some noticeable differences in those who were more exposed to 1,2–DCP. They had a test group of 8 men with
cholangiocarcinoma and a control group of 13 human livers from autopsy files in order to do an immunohistochemical analysis to determine the effects
of 1,2–DCP on the genes and proteins. They chose the sample that they did because ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The extent of the GST T1–1 expressions differ from person to person. Hardly any normal human samples had the expression for CYP2E1. Comparing
the diseased human livers to those of the control group, the test group had similar expressions of GST T1–1. None of the test group samples showed an
expression for the gene CYP2E1. For the test group, there was the dominant presence of a marker of DNA double–strand break, Оі–H2AX. For the
control group, less than half of the liver samples displayed this marker. It was clear that those who were exposed to 1,2–DCP had more of an
expression of this DNA marker in their non–neoplastic biliary epithelial cells of the large bile duct than those in the control group with no exposure to
1,2–DCP. Those livers which had been exposed to 1,2–DCP had signs of a tumor protein in their cells and bile ducts called p53. This study is
extremely difficult to read if it is something you are not used to. The researchers are assuming that you know all of the concepts which made this
especially difficult to comprehend. Also, there may not have been enough liver and bile duct samples to make a definitive claim of the relationship
between 1,2–DCP and cholangiocarcinoma. The researchers were extremely thorough and did not have to spend too much time searching for the
affected men or the healthy livers which saved time and money for this

The Effects Of My Life
"Cancer, a failing gallbladder, crohns disease," I stare at the wall rummaging through all the problems I could be facing in this moment. The surge of
pain in the upper right quadrant of my abdomen strikes me unexpectedly, throwing me into a spiraling episode of assumption and google searches. The
only results yielded by these searches were virtually every terminal disease that had this symptom. It was now that I realized this could be a potentially
life altering circumstance.
All my life I had never had a physical impairment; therefore, you can imagine when I began feeling even the slightest amount of pain I felt like I was
going mad. My trips to the gastroenterologist started in my sophomore year. I quickly grew tired of showing up ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
I lay on the stretcher in tears being rolled away from my family, silently screaming, and bursting with a terrible anxiety like never before. "We are
going to place this mask over your nose and mouth, just breathe in and out as normal," says the anesthesiologist. The air I was forced to breathe in
smelt explicitly like nail polish remover. I woke up with an atrocious headache and some immobility. Once again not a thing was wrong with me
according to the results which angered me to no end. How come my life is still being consumed by this pain and yet my results say I'm perfectly
healthy? My last major and only test left that my gastroenterologist had to offer me was a colonoscopy. Nobody wants to have to experience one of
these, especially at the prime age of 16. Anyhow if this meant yielding another possible reason for this ghastly pain then you bet I was going to be
right back on that stretcher within the next few months. I had my better days, even some no pain at all; but the days I did have it were some of the
worst days of my life. The colonoscopy brought nothing more than another disappointing sheet of doctor words, and a few pictures of my intestines
(which were kind of interesting so at least if I had any perk to this situation it was this). The doctors work was done and there was no more for him to
try so I guess it was back to google

Essay On L Fermentum
leucine. This display the possibility of L. fermentum to enhance the bioavailability of milk protein and consequently the infant growth and development
(Basavanna & Prapulla, 2013).
The gut microbiota and fat metabolism
Lactobacilli have the proficiency to hydrolyze bile salts via the secretion of bile salt hydrolase enzymes (Kumar et al., 2011). This hinders bile salt
reabsorption and in sequence increase bile salt loss in fecal. This result in a decrease of serum cholesterol because of the involvement of cholesterol in
bile acid synthesis (Favier et al., 1995). Also, dietary supplementation with propionic acid demonstrated hypocholesterolemic influences in rats and pigs
(Thacker et al., 1981; Chen et al., 1984). Propionate may inhibit ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
PYY favorably binds to the neuropeptide Y receptor type 2 (Y2), highly expressed in the hypothalamus, which is recognized to be an essential for
appetite control (Broberger et al., 2008). In rats, consumption of lactitol, a fermentable carbohydrate, dramatically augmented postprandial PYY plasma
level, and reduced weight gain compared with control. However, in human, acute supplementation of lactitol was linked with a signiп¬Ѓcant reduction
of postprandial PYY drop at 5 hours and a trend to decreased appetite (Gee & Johnson, 2005). Moreover, following fermentable carbohydrates
supplementation, increased plasma PYY and GLP–1 levels have been detected in rats (Zhou et al., 2008), and human individuals (Greenway et al.,
2007). GLP–1 is released after food consumption (Elliott et al., 1993), has been revealed to delay gastric emptying (Nauck et al., 1997), and gut
motility (Schirra et al., 2002) in humans, inhibit food intake (Turton et al., 1996). SCFA might control entire transit time of digesta throughout the
intestine (Dass et al., 2007). Entire gut transit time was statistically associated with fecal SCFA concentrations especially butyrate (Lewis & Heaton,
1997). Also, butyrate administration via dietary supplementation stimulated energy expenditure and promoted mitochondrial function in mice (Gao et
al., 2009). SCFA have been described to cause satiety and reduce food intake. In human, it was shown that the dietary

Cholelithiasis is the medical term for gallstones. The gallbladder is a small, pear–shaped organ situated in the upper part of the right abdomen below
the liver. Gallstones are solid particles that build up in the gallbladder. The size of gallstones can range in size from that of sand grain to that of a golf
ball. There may be a single large stone or several small and large stones of different sizes in the gallbladder. Approximately 10–15% of the adult
population in the west is known to develop gall stones annually. Stones in the gallbladder form due to an imbalance in the chemical constituents of
bile. Due to this, one or more components of bile get precipitated. The exact reason for this imbalance is not known. Patients suffering from this
disease may experience a sudden pain ( called gall bladder attack, also called biliary colic)in the upper right abdomen. This pain occurs when the
biliary ducts are blocked by the gallstones. Gallstones have been observed in people of all age groups. However, the risk increases with age. Obesity
increases the risk of formation of gallstones. In females, oestrogen leads to secretion of more cholesterol, excess of which leads to formation of stones.
Thus, the risk is higher in females. Genetic reasons also contribute to cholelithiasis. Other factors that increase risk of gallstones include ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
After the gallbladder is surgically removed, bile pours out of the liver directly into duodenum. Surgical removal is carried out in two different ways.
Accordingly these two methods are called laparoscopic cholecystectomy and open cholecystectomy. In the former, minor incisions are made in the
abdomen of the patient and a laparoscope is inserted. A laparoscope is a tube which has a video camera attached to it. The doctor can see a magnified
image of the internal organs on video monitor and accordingly use the tools to remove the gall

How Digestive System Work Together
The digestive system helps the humans break down food and turn it into nutrients. The digestive system is made up of a lot of different organs such as
salivary glands, pharynx, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine, and pancreas. Salivary glands produce saliva,
which keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system moist. The pharynx role in the digestive system is to connect the nose and mouth to the
esophagus. The mouth is used for putting in food and also eating the food. The esophagus has only one function and it is to carry food, saliva, and
liquid. The stomach receives the food from the esophagus and secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. The liver regulates the composition of blood,
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It has organs that have different roles to help the digestive system do its job. One of the organs, names is the esophagus. It is a muscular tube around
the throat area, it is connected to the stomach, its job is to carry food down it.The stomach is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity. Its job
is to break down the food it uses acid to help it when doing its job. Next to the stomach is the small intestine. The small intestine is a long, thin tube
that is located in just inferior in the stomach and takes up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. Its job is to absorb nutrients and materials next
is the gall bladder it is located under the liver and its job is to store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the
digestion of subsequent meals. After the gallbladder is the large intestine. It is a long thick tube that is located under the stomach and wraps around
the borders of the small intestine it job is to absorbed water. Finally, there is the pancreas it a large gland located just inferior and posterior to the
stomach. And its job is to further break down food after it has left the

Break Down Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the main types of macronutrients that move throughout the digestive system. Starting inside of the mouth, the carbohydrate
travels through the body until it gets broken down. The mouth has two forms of digestion, mechanical or chemical. Mechanical digestion includes
chewing food, while chemical digestion uses saliva. The salivary glands belong to the accessory organs of the digestive tract, but play a very important
role in digestion. They produce amylase, which breaks down the starch amylose and amylopectin into smaller portions. Breaking down starch, is an
example of where chemical digestion occurs in the mouth. When carbohydrates go through the esophagus, mechanical digestion takes place by the use
of peristalsis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fiber is the only remaining carbohydrate that travels inside of the large intestine. The body eliminates the leftover fiber in stool. Just like
carbohydrates, fats also travel through the digestive tract. The only organ not involved with fats is the large intestine. Beginning in the mouth,
chemical digestion occurs due to the lingual lipase melting some of the fat in the food. Once the food enters the esophagus, chemical and mechanical
digestion takes place. Like discussed earlier, peristalsis mixes the food, but in this case it involves mixing the fat with gastric juices. Chemically,
gastric lipase breaks down the fats. Before the fat can move to the small intestine, a few important accessory organs play a role with fat and bile. Bile
is produced in the liver, and then sent to the gallbladder. Once in the gallbladder, the bile gets released into the small intestine. The small intestine, helps
the bile emulsify the fat into small globules. Lastly, pancreatic lipase, from the pancreas breaks down the fats into monoglycerides, glycerol, and free
fatty

Case Study Of Choolelithiasis
Chapter–2 Review of literature Case study 1– Cholelithiasis Cholelithiasis includes the closeness of gallstones that are solidifications that structure
within the biliary tract, additional typically than not within the vesica. Choledocholithiasis alludes to the closeness of one or additional gallstones
within the basic gall channel (CBD). Treatment of gallstones depends on upon the part of malady. Background And high prevalence of vesica
diseases (GBD) in Northern Asian country guaranteed a population survey into environmental risk factors. Discussion The risk factors historically
connected with GBC embody lithiasis, obesity, generative factors, rubor and specific chemicals the constraints of medical specialty studies on GBC
ar little sample sizes and issues in quantifying exposure to purported risk factors different studies relate to prevalence of GST. Gallstones aren't the
sole issue. A 'syndrome approach' was adopted to research risk factors during a high–prevalence population. All vesica diseases like rubor, GST, vesica
polyp and GBC detectable with United States of America were enclosed along with diet, habits and environmental pollutants... Show more content on
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It was estimated at 51 per 100 000 population. Three patients were later confirmed histological. It is possible that US may underestimate the numbers.
Although the identification by US of GBC is lower in this survey, its percentage indicates a higher prevalence. The lower prevalence of GST with high
prevalence of GBC suggests different factors the numerous native factors for GBD were consumption of chickpeas and drinking unprotected water. A
cluster analysis furthermore points to role of impure water in Vaishali

Illegal Killing and Trafficking of Black Bears Essay
Illegal Killing and Trafficking of Black Bears
The illegal killing and trafficking of animal parts has long been a global concern. With trading at an estimated 6 billion dollars annually, poaching has
become the world's second most profitable crime activity behind illegal drug trade. In its prevalence, poaching has driven many species to the point of
extinction.
Animals around the world are killed each day for their body parts. In Africa, elephant tusks are a valuable source of ivory used in jewelry. Moreover,
the horns of rhinoceros could command up to $5,000 in the black market. The mothers of newborn mountain gorillas are often killed so that their young
ones could be shipped to foreign countries for research or display. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A known compound found in bile, ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), has been used in western medicine to treat liver disorders. A gall can command up
to $10,000 in east Asia. Its price is about 20 times the street price of cocaine per ounce. Globally, the market in bear parts is estimated at $2 billion.
For obvious reasons, bears have become increasingly rare. Five of the eight bear species in the world are endangered. In Korea, where they were
ounce abundant, black bears are virtually extinct now with a population between 20 to 300. The population of bears in Russia is dwindling rapidly as
a result of gall trafficking by the Russian Mafia. Bear populations have decreased to the point that China is now using bear farms to obtain gall.
Bears are kept cruelly in small cages that are often fitted to their body so that they cannot move. A steel catheter surgically implanted to their gall
bladder removes bile from their bodies daily. However, instead of saving bears as claimed, bear farms have only instigated poaching by increasing
demands for gall.
As bear populations decreased in Asia, more traffickers turned to North America where there are a considerable number of bears. Although poaching
also occurs in the United States, the problem appears to be worse in Canada. This may be attributed to less

Daily Administration Of T. Vulgaris By The Oral Route At A...
3.Results
The study has established that daily administration of T. vulgaris by the oral route at a dose of 500 mg/kg for 10 days did not cause any mortality or
any observable toxic effects in mice of GII. Mice were alert with no alternation of their behavioral pattern, any gastrointestinal tract disorder or
respiratory distress. From the histopathological observations, there were not any observable changes in the livers at the giving dose compared to the
normal controls (Figure 1).
3.1.Histopathological results
Macroscopically, the liver of T. gondii infected group showed a mild degree of enlargement and focally extensive necrosis, however in T. vulgaris
treated mice; the livers appeared more or less healthy. Microscopically, the livers of T. gondii
–infected mice (GIII) showed focal areas of necrosis with
a mild degree of inflammatory cellular infiltrate; mainly lymphocytes that were very obvious in the portal area and Toxoplasma cysts were observed
between the hepatocytes (Figure 2). However, in the infected immunosuppressed group (GIV), the histopathological features of liver progressed from
moderate to severe, in which there was a dissociation of hepatic cords pattern with generalized necrosis of the hepatocytes. Also, there was marked
dilatation and congestion of the hepatoportal blood vessels. It was observed that some of Toxoplasma cysts ruptured, releasing tachyzoites to the
sinusoids and invading the other hepatocytes and kupffer cells. Also, there was kupffer

Bear, Lion's Digestive System
A similarity that is present between the bear, lion, and koalas digestive system is that they all have small intestines. In all of the animals' digestive
system they have small intestine which absorbs all the nutrients and minerals from the food that they have eaten. Small intestine, or small bowel, is a
hollow tube about 20 feet long that runs from the stomach to the beginning of the large intestine. The small intestine breaks down food from the stomach
and absorbs much of the nutrients from the food.
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. The main role of the duodenum is to complete the first phase of digestion. In this section of the
intestine, food from the stomach is mixed with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The enzymes and bile help break down food.
The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine. After food is broken down in the duodenum, it moves to the jejunum, where the inside walls
absorb the food's nutrients. The inside walls of the jejunum have many circular folds, which make its surface area large enough to absorb all of the
nutrients that the body needs.
The ileum is the third part of the small intestine. It absorbs bile acids, which are returned to the liver to be made into more bile, then stored in the ...
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The oesophagus is a muscular tube, about 25cm long, with a sphincter (valve) at each end. Its function is to transport food and fluid, after being
swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach. No absorption of nutrients takes place in the oesophagus. A mouthful of food which has been chewed and
swallowed is called a bolus. This is propelled from the pharynx (throat) into the oesophagus, and is swept towards the stomach in peristaltic waves.
These muscular contractions are involuntary, and cannot normally be felt. When food is not passing through, the oesophagus is folded in, or

Obstetric Cholestasis
Obstetric Cholestasis (OC) or Intraheptic Cholestasis of pregnancy is a disorder that is unique to pregnancy (Kelly and Nelson–Piercy, 2000).OC
classically presents in the third trimester (Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists [RCOG], 2006), With maternal pruritus and raised bile
acids (Geenes and Williamson, 2009).It is one of the few disorders of pregnancy that can affect both maternal well being and fetal outcome. OC usually
resolves forty eight hours after delivery (Mays, 2010).
This essay will examine the functions of the liver and discuss the role of bile acids in OC. The pathophysiology of OC will be explored. The role of
the midwife within a multidisciplinary team, alongside the physical care that is offered to women ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Bruce and Watson's (2007) list of risk factors, Jacinta was increasingly at risk of OC as she had a family history and a previous OC
pregnancy, as well as advanced maternal are >35years.
Diagnosis of Obstetric Cholestasis is made by excluding all other liver diseases. Blood test to assess OC should generally include Liver Function
tests as well as screening for Hepatitis B and C and Serum bile acids. (Bryne, 2000). Kenyon et al 2001 suggest that bile acid levels will often rise
before liver function tests become abnormal so continual investigation is vital. Jacinta presented with intense pruritus however her liver function tests
and serum bile levels were initially normal. Many women will have pruritus for days or weeks before the development of any abnormal liver function
(Kenyon et al 2001). Midwives need to be extremely vigilant and not ignore persistent pruritus even in the presence of normal blood results. Diagnosis
is suggested if a woman in the third trimester of pregnancy develops pruritus without a rash and at least one biochemical liver abnormality (See
appendix) (Walker, Nelson–Piercy and Williamson, 2002). However OC has been diagnosed in women at only eight weeks gestation, (Mays 2010)
and Jacinta presented to her General Practitioner with pruritus at twenty four weeks. Diagnosis can be extremely

Gallbladder Attacks Essay
The Causes of Gallbladder Attacks
Outline
I. Introduction: It is estimated that approxiamately 10 to 20 percent of the population in the United States and Western Europe are currently being
affected by Gallbladder attacks.
Thesis statement: These attacks are mainly caused by the development of gallstones in the gallbladder. II. Definition.
A. Gallbladder
B. Gallstones
III. Causes.
A. Obesity
B. Estrogen
C. Ethnicity
D. Age and gender
IV. Symptoms.
A. Chronic indigestion
B. Sudden, steady and moderate–to– intense pain in your upper abdomen
C. Nausea and vomiting
V. Diagnosis.
A. Ultrasound
B. Cholecystogram
Conclusion
It might sound interesting to explore the reason why ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Obesity is one of the major risk factors for gallstones, especially in women. A large clinical study showed that being even moderately overweight
increases one's risk for developing gallstones.
Secondly, excess estrogen from pregnancy, hormone replacement therapy or birth control pills appears to increase cholesterol levels in bile and
decrease gallbladder movement, both of which can lead to gallstones.

Ethnicity is another important factor. According to scientists, Native Americans have a genetic predisposition to secrete high levels of cholesterol in
bile. In fact, they have the highest rates of gallstones in the United States. A majority of Native American men have gallstones by age 60. Among the
Pima Indians of Arizona, 70 percent of women have gallstones by age 30. Mexican–Americans men and women of all ages also have high rates of
gallstones.
The fourth factor is Cholesterol–lowering drugs. Drugs that lower cholesterol levels in blood actually increase the amount of cholesterol secreted in
bile. This in turn can increase the risk of gallstones.
Another factor is rapid weight loss. As the body metabolizes fat during rapid weight loss, it causes the liver to secrete extra cholesterol into bile, which
can cause gallstones.
Gallstones may sometimes cause certain symptoms. These symptoms include Chronic Indigestion, which have symptoms such as nausea, heartburn
and bloating.
Sudden, steady and

Hepatic Functions
1) What are the Hepatic Ducts and what do they do? The Hepaticduct that carries bile from the liver into the common bile ductwhich conveys it to the
duodenum (the upper part of the small intestine).(Webmd)
2) What do Kupffer Cells do and where are they found?kupffer cells are located in the liver. and they remove bacteria from the inner lining of the
hepatic sinusoid. (Webmd)
3) What is "Bile" and why is it important? Bile is a digestive juice secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; aids in the digestion of fats.
(Webmd)
4) Where is the Gall Bladder located? What is its function?The gallbladder is a pear–shaped, hollow structure located under the liver and on the right
side of the adobmen.The gallbladder is a reservoir for storing bile, which is produced by the liver. Bile is released into the duodenum and aids in
digestion, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most of it is the "exocrine pancreas" which produces digestive enzymes, helping you to break down and absorb food in the small intestine. (Webmd)
6) What Endocrine function does it have? Where is Insulin produced and why is it important?endocrine pancreas" which produce various hormones.
The classic example is insulin seeing as it is deficient in diabetes, which acts to decrease blood sugar levels. The endocrine pancreas also releases
glucagon which has the opposite effect to insulin in that it raises blood sugar levels, ghrelin which is in the control of appetite and somatostatin which
regulates other hormones. (webmd)
7) Differentiate between the Cephalic , Gastric and Intestinal Phases of Digestion.Cephalic– occurs before food enters the digestive system. thought
/sight of food triggers Vagus nerve to increase production of saliva by salivary glands.
Intestinal– occurs when food leaves the stomach thru pyloric valve and enters the duodenum. the presence of chyme stimulates the production of
intestinal gastrin to digest the food.

Epipharyngeal Memory Study Guide
Epipharyngeal groove – *On the dorsal surface of roof of pharynx, another groove is present called epipharyngeal groove. *Its lateral wall is made up
of ciliated cells. d) Peripharyngeal bands –*These are a pair of narrow ciliated tracts originating from the anterior end of endostyle. *They run upward
along the lateral sides of the pharynx and become united dorsally with the epipharyngeal groove.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
*Epipharyngeal groove opens posteriorly into oesophagus. Oesophagus – *It is a short narrow and ciliated structure

The Digestive System And The Circulatory System
The Digestive System 1.1
The digestive system is comprised of a group of organs known as the alimentary canal, which is one continues tube that runs from the oral cavity to the
anus. The second set of organs that make up the digestive system are the Accessory organs.
The digestive system has six main functions: ingestion, secretion, mixing and movement, digestion, absorption, and excretion of food (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2009).
Alimentary canal
OrganStructureFunctionDiagram
MouthThe mouth is made up of the checks hard and soft palates, internally and externally covered with skin.The mouth is where food enters the body
and the process of digestion starts via mechanical and chemical digestion.oesophagus The oesophagus is a long tube ... Show more content on
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Salivary GlandsThe salivary glands surround the mouth. There are 3 sets of salivary glands.The saliva moistens the food to lubricate it as it passes
through the mouth; it also begins the process of chemical digestion.
LiverThe liver is accessory organ of the digestive system which is triangle in shape. The liver is located to the right of the stomach and above the small
intestine.The main functions of the liver in digestion are production and secretion of bile into the small intestine.
GallbladderThe gallbladder is a pear shaped organ located just behind the liver.The gallbladder stores the bile and recycles any excess bile from the
small intestine.
PancreasThe pancreas is a fairly large gland which is about 15cm in length. The head is connected to the duodenum.The pancreas secretes many
different digestive enzymes into the small intestine via the duodenum to aid in the completion of chemical digestion.
(Tortora & Derrickson, 2009)
Diagrams from: http://www.innerbody.com/image/digeov.html
Enzyme Function of the liver and pancreas 1.2
The chyme arrives in the duodenum and the pancreas releases pancreatic juices packed with enzymes that break down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
these are: Pancreatic lipase, amylase, and protease. Bile is then realised by the gall bladder – this bile is produced by the liver, with the gall bladder
being the bile duct – this helps to breakdown

Gastrointestinal Illness Caused By The Species
Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most known gastrointestinal illness caused by the genus of Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidiosis, according to the CDC,
has become one of the most common causes of waterborne diseases in the United States, with outbreaks increasing annually. An outbreak of
Cryptosporidiosis, in Milwaukee in 1993 affected around 400,000 people and was traced to the city 's water supply (NFID, 2008). The most common
symptom associated with this disease is Diarrhea.
Pathophysiology
Cryptosporidiosis is an infection caused by the spore–forming protozoan known as Cryptosporidia (Jacqueline, 2015). Protozoa are a group of parasites
that infect the human intestine. Parasites are organisms that live within another organism and obtain ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most known cause or reason that you can get Cryptosporidiosis is by digesting contaminated water, but also it can be spread by humans through
sexual behavior (Jacqueline, 2015). A person can get infected with Cryptosporidiosis by digesting contaminated water, this can occur through drinking
or swimming in infected water, swallowing or putting something infected in the mouth (such as fingers), being exposed to human feces through sexual
contact , or by eating uncooked food (such as salad greens) that has been contaminated (John et al. 2012). Most people who experience significant
symptoms from Cryptosporidiosis have an altered immune system, and suffer from diseases such as AIDS and cancer (Jaqueline, 2015). Due to a
protective outer shell, Cryptosporidium can live outside of the body for several months and are very resistant to the chlorine–based disinfectants that
are often used to treat water sources (GEEH, 2013).
Clinical Manifestation Cysts of Cryptosporidia mature in the intestine and bile ducts within three to five days of ingestion. Many individuals are
infected without any illness, but the major symptom of Cryptosporidiosis is diarrhea, which is often watery. Also some other symptoms you may have
with this disease are Dehydration, low–grade fever, nausea, and abdominal cramps (Jaqueline, 2015). The people who contract Cryptosporidiosis and
have a normal immune

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