Wetlands are diverse ecosystems that provide many benefits but are under threat. They include marshes, mangroves, and other areas that are periodically flooded. Mangroves in particular stabilize coastlines, provide habitat for fish and crustaceans, and sequester large amounts of carbon. However, mangroves have been cleared for development and degraded by pollution, with losses occurring three to four times faster than inland forests. To help protect these important ecosystems, further destruction of remaining wetlands must be prevented.

1. WHAT ARE WETLANDS?

2. DO remember that there are notes provided on the following
slides:
10,13,26,29,35,39,41,43,47,50,52
Also, the video account of our visits and animal encounters
and behaviour studies are on our youtube channel- The 3
Musketeers.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNf1jUNXhz2LydXYzgRUQJg
Thanking you,
Megha M and Surabhi T.

5. Ramsar Convention classification FW classification by
Cowardin et al (1979)
- Earliest attempt. -Divided into 5
wetland systems,
subsystems and
classes.
http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/wetland/define/define.htm
classification of wetlands-http://
www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/n_resource/wetlands/wetlands3_classification.htm

8. What is Ramsar hhttttpp::////wwwwww..rraammssaarr..oorrgg//ccddaa//eenn//rraammssaarr--hhoommee//mmaaiinn//rraammssaarr//11__44000000__00____
Convention: Follow
Link

10. WHAT are CORALS?
Reproductive strategies in individuals-
Sex: Individual may be Male, female, Both
Asexual mode- to increase size of colony
Sexual mode: Increase genetic diversity
Fig: A single polyp

11. ANTHOZOANS-most
common corals
Hexacorals
Octocorals

12. CCoorraall RReeeeffss-- GGlloobbaall DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonn
Credit: ©UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre/Global 1KM Version 7.0 Dataset
Shallow water coral reefs straddle the equator worldwide

13. Fringing Reef
Barrier Reef
Atoll
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs025-02/)
TYPES of Reefs
Charles Darwin first proposed this theory of
coral reef formation in 1842
Step 1: A fringing reef forms first, and starts growing in
the shallow waters close to a tropical island.
Step 2: Over time, the island subsides and the reef grows
outwards, and the distance between the land and the
reef increases. The fringing reef develops into a barrier
reef.
Step 3: If the island completely subsides, all that is left is
the reef. The reef retains the approximate shape of the
island it grew around, forming a ring enclosing a lagoon.
Darwin speculated that underneath each lagoon should
be a bed rock base – the remains of the original island.
Subsequent drilling into atolls proved this prediction true.

16. Figure 1. Mangrove Species Richness: Native distributions of mangrove species.
Polidoro BA, Carpenter KE, Collins L, Duke NC, et al. (2010) The Loss of Species: Mangrove Extinction Risk and Geographic Areas
of Global Concern. PLoS ONE 5(4): e10095. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095
http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0010095

17. What are Mangroves? ( The green borders of the coast)
A mangrove is a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally
exceeding one half metre in height, that normally grows above
mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal
environments and estuarine margins. A mangrove is also the tidal
habitat comprising such trees and shrubs.
The word ‘mangrove’ refers to the habitat. Sometimes the habitat
is called a ‘tidal forest’ or a ‘mangrove forest’ to distinguish it from
the trees that are also called mangroves.
Many mangrove forests can be recognized by their dense tangle
of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts
above the water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the
daily rise and fall of tides, which means that most mangroves get
flooded at least twice per day. The roots also slow the movement of
tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and build
up the muddy bottom.

18. Importance
Mangrove forests stabilize the
coastline, reducing erosion from
storm surges, currents, waves,
and tides.
The intricate root system of
mangroves also makes these
forests attractive to fishes and
other organisms seeking food
and shelter from predators and
nursery grounds for fish,
amphibians and crustaceans.

19. Furthermore, the roots of mangroves prevent silting from entering the
sea, which would otherwise damage corals. These forests are also known
to reduce pollution levels, as they absorb various elements, including
heavy metals.
It is actually more prudent to have mangroves as a square kilometre of
coastal ecosystem such as mangroves forests can store up to five times
more carbon than the equivalent area of mature tropical forests.

20. Distribution
Centers of Mangrove Diversity
 Eastern Group: Australia, SE Asia, India, E. Africa and W. Pacific.
 Western Group: W. Africa, Caribbean, Atlantic S. America, Pacific N & S America.

21.  Mangroves are distributed circumtropically, occurring in 112 countries and territories.
 Total global mangrove coverage is 18 million hectares and it is just about 0.45% of world
forests & woodland (Spalding, 1997).
 Of the total mangrove coverage, 41.4% exist in South and Southeast Asia. Mangroves are
largely restricted to latitudes between 30o Nand 30o S. Northern extensions of this limit
occur in Japan (31o22 N) and Bermuda (32o20 N); southern ʹ ʹ extensions are in New
Zealand (38o03ʹ S), Australia (38o 45ʹ S) and on the east coast of South Africa (32o59ʹ
S) (Spalding, 1997).
http://ocw.unu.edu/international-network-on-water-environment-and-health/unu-inweh-course-

22. On going Depletion…
The forests have been declining at an alarming rate perhaps even more rapidly than
inland tropical forests and much of what remains is in degraded condition.
But these areas are being destroyed three to four times faster than forests, releasing
substantial amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and the ocean, and
contributing to climate change.
The remaining mangrove forests are under immense pressure from clear cutting,
encroachment, hydrological alterations, chemical spills, storms, and climate change.

25. This means that the seed remains attached to the parent plant and germinates
into a protruding embryo before falling from the tree .

26. Not all mangroves have (true) vivipary.
Red mangroves
Black mangrove
(cryptovivipary)

29. ROCKY SHORES

33. DATES of Visit:
First visit: 8th February 2014
2nd visit: 10th February 2014
3rd visit: 19th February 2014
4th visit : 2nd March 2014
Studies attempted:
-COD, BOD, Heavy metal-Copper- all slightly elevated than surrounding areas but not
dangerous due to frequent cycling of water in this particular intertidal zone.
-Collection of algae, and hermit crabs using different types of Mollusca shells.
-Photographing the Mangrove trees and associates in the area along with any fauna.

34.  Mangroves and
associates
 The characteristics of mangroves have
already been pointed out in the
previous slides but there is something
awesome about these plants with
features such as salt-tolerance,
vivipary, hydric soil adaptations etc.
 Algae
 Algae are according to the 5 kingdom
classification (Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, Animalia)- the first group under
Plantae. Algae are autotrophic but have
different coloured pigments and storage
material. They also do not have typical
root, shoot, leaves, flowers, fruit system
although some do have similar looking
structures.

35. Mangroves of Carter Road, Bandra
 Avicennia marina –
• Gray mangroves is one of the dominant species found throughout
the coastline.
• The leaves are thick, five to eight centimeters long, a bright, glossy
green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very
small matted hairs on the surface below.

36. Avicennia officinalis -

37.  Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Broad leaf orange
mangrove):
• This evergreen tree grows upto 8-12 -mts in height that belongs to
the family Rhizophoracea.
• The tree develops short prop-roots rather than long stilt-roots.

38. http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Jamaica%20Cherry.html

39. Gracilaria sp. (Red Algae)
Polysiphonia sp. (Red Algae)
Ulva lactuca
(Green
Algae)

40. Probably Hypnea sp.- A Rhodophyceaa
(Red alga)

41. Microscopic Images of Polysiphonia
sp.
• A "branch" consists of an axis of elongated cells, the central axis.
• Every cell of this axis is surrounded by a number of cells (ranging from 4-24) with the
same length, the periaxial cells.
• The plants have a segmented appearance. The "branches" often have long hairs
(trichoblasts) at the top, which can later on disappear.

42. UNKNOWN FLORA found on the rocks- in intertidal ZONE
Unknown specimen under Microscope- Video on
Youtube

43. FFAAUUNNAA

47. The interaction between the arthropods and
molluscs is best studied using the Hermit
crab. Various types of Gastropod Shells are
used by this soft-bodied crustacean,

50. THE OBSERVATION OF
 We had collected quite a few specimen at Carter Road and transported
them in bottles by bus-a commute of around 40 minutes.
 They were arranged in different parts in the tub with fresh water and algae
provided and regular flushing with water done.
 The individuals were arranged such that there was a difference in their sizes.
 Extra shells were provided and numbered. Similar types of shells were
numbered so as to recognize if there was a change in shells.
 We observed that there was quite a lot of struggle over shells, which seemed
quite random. Shells were often tried on and abandoned by each individual.
 Unfortunately by the 3rd day-all the specimen were dead-probably due to
dehydration.
 We recovered and photographed all of the specimen and OBSERVED that
some had red egg masses on their bodies which were put into marine water.
 The videos of are observations are put on youtube channel- The 3 Musketeers.
 The eggs hatched in about 10 days and we observed the various larval stages
of crustacean.

52. Eggs attached to
abdomen

54. MAJOR THREATS TO MUMBAI’S
MANGROVES
Fragmentation of the habitat with ongoing thirst for land reclamation for
construction activity, agricultural purposes and aquaculture.
Industrial and domestic pollution.
Port development
Continuously insensible dumping of debris near and in mangrove forests.
Deforestation for fuel wood
Over harvesting of marine resources.
The top dying diseases which are believed to be caused by an array of factors –
increased soil salinity due to reduced water flow, reduction in periodic
inundation, excessive flooding, sedimentation, nutrient imbalance, pathogenic
gall cankers and cyclone induced stress.
eg: Damages done by diseases to Heritiera fomes (Endangered) in Bangladesh.

58. With reference to threats and developments of coasts and mangroves
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0025326X85902553
http://www.pkdas.com/mediacovers/TOIM_2012_3_15_8.pdf
http://drs.nio.org/drs/handle/2264/1635
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Watch-out-for-heavy-metal-in-your-fish/articleshow/4268880.http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/not-bad-science/2014/02/09/human-noise-disturbs-different-fish-http://decapoda.nhm.org/pdfs/31798/31798-001.pdf
OTHERS
http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html
www.cam.ac.uk
www.mbgnet.net
http://envirodiva.wordpress.com/
corals- importance- http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html
Mangroves:http://www.uprm.edu/biology/profs/chinea/ecolplt/datoslab/manglar.pdf

59. http://www.mangroves.godrej.com/MangroveVegetation.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundarbans
http://miami-dade.ifas.ufl.edu/documents/MangroveBiology_000.pdf
http://www.mangroves.godrej.com/MangroveVegetation.htm#MangroveVegetation
http://www.academia.edu/6749035/FLORAL_DIVERSITY_OF_MANGROVE_ECOSY
STEM_FROM_COASTAL_ENVIRONMENT_OF_URAN_RAIGAD_NAVI_MUMBAI_M
AHARASHTRA