The document discusses evolution and the process by which organisms evolve over time through random genetic mutations and natural selection. Organisms develop beneficial mutations that allow them to better survive and reproduce, passing these mutations on to offspring. This gradual process leads to increasing complexity in biological structures as organisms adapt to their environments. The document also examines human evolution and population genetics, including genetic drift and factors that can cause populations to diverge and potentially speciate.

1. Evolution

7. Fig. 22-7

9. Descent with modifications

19. Fig. 22-18 Human embryo Chick embryo (LM) Pharyngeal pouches Post-anal tail

21. Fig. 22-19 Hawks and other birds Ostriches Crocodiles Lizards and snakes Amphibians Mammals Lungfishes Tetrapod limbs Amnion Feathers Homologous characteristic Branch point (common ancestor) Tetrapods Amniotes Birds 6 5 4 3 2 1

22. Convergent Evolution

24. Human Evolution

28. Synthetic Theory

30. Molecular Clocks

31. Endosymbiotic Theory

33. http://www.geneticorigins.org

34. Molecular Clock

38. Dr. Svante Pääbo, Director of the Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute.

46. Genetic Drift

49. Ms. Famili Mr. Edgar

50. Famili Edgar

51. My mtDNA Haplotype

52. Haplogroup HV*

53. Ms. Famili’s mtDNA Haplotype

54. Haplogroup U U5 U6

55. Mt. Toba

65. Evolution of Populations

66. Fig. 23-5 Porcupine herd Porcupine herd range Beaufort Sea NORTHWEST TERRITORIES MAP AREA ALASKA CANADA Fortymile herd range Fortymile herd ALASKA YUKON

67. Fig. 23-6 Frequencies of alleles Alleles in the population Gametes produced Each egg: Each sperm: 80% chance 80% chance 20% chance 20% chance q = frequency of p = frequency of C R allele = 0.8 C W allele = 0.2

68. No mutations

69. Random mating

70. No natural selection

71. Extremely Large Populations

72. No gene flow

77. Fig. 23-9 Original population Bottlenecking event Surviving population

78. Fig. 23-10a Range of greater prairie chicken Pre-bottleneck (Illinois, 1820) Post-bottleneck (Illinois, 1993) (a)

79. Fig. 23-10b Number of alleles per locus Minnesota, 1998 (no bottleneck) Nebraska, 1998 (no bottleneck) Kansas, 1998 (no bottleneck) Illinois 1930–1960s 1993 Location Population size Percentage of eggs hatched 1,000–25,000 <50 750,000 75,000– 200,000 4,000 5.2 3.7 93 <50 5.8 5.8 5.3 85 96 99 (b)

80. Genetic Drift

82. Fig. 24-2 (a) Similarity between different species (b) Diversity within a species

83. Genographic Project

86. SNP For each individual they analysed half a million SNPs, and then amalgamated the results mathematically to produce two numbers representing that person. This allowed each individual's genome to be shown as a point on a two-dimensional plot: the bigger the differences in the genomes, the greater the distance between them on the plot.

88. Reproductive Isolation

89. Habitat Isolation

90. Temporal Isolation

91. Behavioral Isolation

92. Mechanical Isolation

93. Gametic Isolation

94. Reduced Hybrid Viability

95. Reduced Hybrid Fertility + =

96. Hybrid Breakdown

97. Fig. 24-4 Prezygotic barriers Habitat Isolation Individuals of different species Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mating attempt Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Postzygotic barriers Hybrid Breakdown Viable, fertile offspring (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (l) (k)

98. Fig. 24-5 (a) Allopatric speciation (b) Sympatric speciation

99. Fig. 24-14-1 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow

100. Fig. 24-14-2 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges

101. Fig. 24-14-3 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges Hybrid zone Hybrid

102. Fig. 24-14-4 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges Hybrid zone Hybrid Possible outcomes: Reinforcement OR OR Fusion Stability

103. Breakdown of Reproductive Barriers